desenvolvimento.pptx1473759579628240-250213143302-58ad72a9.pptx

1473759579628240-250213143302-58ad72a9.pptx

1. Chapter 1 The study of human development © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.

2. 1.1 Thinking about development: Learning objectives Understand the fundamental issues of development that scholars have addressed throughout history. Identify the basic forces in the biopsychosocial framework, and explain how the timing of these forces affects their impact. Explain how neuroscience enhances our understanding of human development.

3. Defining human development Examines how and why people change and how they remain the same over time Examines how and why people are both unique and similar to each other A multidisciplinary science based on theories and research studies

4. Recurring issues in human development Nature and nurture Influence of heredity vs. environment Continuity and discontinuity Does development smoothly progress or shift abruptly? Universal and context-specific development Is there just one or multiple ways in which development occurs?

5. Basic forces in human development: The biopsychosocial framework Biological forces Genetic, health related Psychological forces Cognitive/perceptual, emotional, and personality Sociocultural forces Societal, cultural, ethnic, and interpersonal Lifecycle forces Identical events and different age groups

6. Neuroscience: A window into human development Study of brain activity-behaviour relationships Helps in understanding interactions among the four forces

7. HIV and AIDS as a biological force HIV and AIDS is a biological force that affects an individual’s immune system It also affects social relationships Interventions need to target all the developmental forces

8. 1.2 Developmental theories: Learning objectives (1 of 2) Define a developmental theory. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development. Explain the focus of learning theories of development. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in thinking.

9. 1.2 Developmental theories: Learning objectives (2 of 2) Identify the main points in the ecological and systems approach. Identify the major tenets of life-span and life-course theories.

10. What is a theory? ’An organised set of ideas that is designed to explain development’ Essential for developing predictions about behaviour Predictions result in research that helps to support or clarify the theory There are no truly comprehensive theories of human development

11. Psychodynamic theory This perspective can be traced to Sigmund Freud’s theory that personality emerges from conflicts Erik Erikson proposed the first comprehensive life-span view of psychosocial development The psychodynamic perspective emphasises that the trek to adulthood is difficult because the path is strewn with challenges

12. Psychodynamic theory: Erikson ’ s psychosocial theory Table 1.1 The eight stages of psychosocial development in Erikson’s theory Psychosocial stage Age Challenge Basic trust vs mistrust Birth to one year To develop a sense that the world is safe, a ‘good place’ Autonomy vs shame One to three years To realise that one is an independent person who can make decisions and doubt Initiative vs guilt Three to six years To develop the ability to try new things and to handle failure Industry vs inferiority Six years to adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with others Identity vs identity confusion Adolescence To develop a lasting, integrated sense of self Intimacy vs isolation Young adulthood To commit to another in a loving relationship Generativity vs stagnation Middle adulthood To contribute to younger people through child rearing, child care, or other productive work Integrity vs despair Late life To view one’s life as satisfactory and worth living

13. Behaviourism Operant conditioning The consequences of a behaviour determine whether it will be repeated A positive or negative reinforcement increases the chance that a behaviour will be repeated A punishment decreases the chance that a behaviour will be repeated

14. Social learning theory Observational learning, or imitation People learn by watching others Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular, or talented Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behaviour Self-efficacy It refers to people’s beliefs about their own abilities and talents

15. Cognitive-developmental theory Stresses development of thought processes Three approaches Piaget: We develop in four discrete stages Information-processing theory: Like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature Vygotsky: Sociocultural expectations we should know at different ages, and our ‘ apprenticeship’ experiences shape development

16. Piaget ’ s stages Table 1.2 Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development Stage Approximate age Characteristics Sensorimotor Birth to two years Infant’s knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills; by the end of the period, uses mental representation Preoperational thought Two to six years Child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers to represent aspects of the world but relates to the world only through his or her perspective Concrete- operational thought Seven years to early adolescence Child understands and applies logical operations to experiences provided they are focused on the here and now Formal-operational thought Adolescence and beyond Adolescent or adult thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations, and speculates about what may be possible

17. Information-processing theory Uses the computer as a model of how thinking develops Mental hardware: psychological structures, such as memory capacity Mental software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world Both improve with development

18. Vygotsky ’ s theory Emphasises sociocultural expectations on child development Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children Views development as an ‘ apprenticeship’ with children working with skilled adults to learn what is valued in their culture

19. The ecological and systems approach Human development is inseparable from the environmental context No single aspect can adequately explain development Consider all factors – environmental, family, political, social, etc. – and how they interact

20. Urie Bronfenbrenner ’ s theory: An ecological approach Microsystem People and objects in the immediate environment Mesosystem Influences of microsystems on each other Exosystem Social, environmental, governmental forces Macrosystem Subcultures and cultures in which the other three systems are embedded

21. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach

22. Lawton & Nahemow ’ s competence-environmental press theory Adaptation or development depends upon The person ’ s abilities or ‘competencies’ The demands the environment (‘ presses’) places on the person Emphasises how these factors interact to achieve a ‘best fit’

23. Life-span perspective Ageing is a lifelong process from conception to death Many factors influence development; no one factor adequately explains it Key features: Multidirectionality Plasticity Historical context Multiple causation

24. Selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) Choices determine and regulate development Selection Elective selection Reducing one goal to focus on another Loss-based selection Reducing involvement because of lack of resources or abilities Compensation Find alternate ways of meeting goals Optimisation Minimising losses and maximising gains

25. The life-course perspective Different generations experience/adjust to biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces within the historical contexts Individual timing of life events in relation to external historical events Synchronisation of individual transitions with collective familial ones The impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on subsequent ones

26. The big picture (1 of 4) Table 1.3. Theoretical perspectives on human development. Perspective Examples Main idea Emphases in biopsychosocial framework Positions on developmental issues Psychodynamic Erikson’s psychosocial theory Personality develops through sequence of stages Psychological, social, and lifecycle forces crucial; less emphasis on biological Nature-nurture interaction, discontinuity, universal sequence but Individual differences in rate Learning behaviourism (Watson, Skinner) Environment controls behaviour In all theories, some emphasis on biological and psychological, major focus on social, little recognition of life cycle In all theories, strongly nurture, continuity, and universal principles of learning   Social learning theory (Bandura) People learn through modeling and observing    

27. The big picture (2 of 4) Perspective Examples Main idea Emphases in biopsychosocial framework Positions on developmental issues Cognitive Piaget’s theory (and extensions) For Piaget, thinking develops in a sequence of stages For Piaget, main emphasis on biological and social forces, less on psychological, little on life cycle Strongly nature, discontinuity, and universal sequence of stages   Information-processing theory Thought develops by increases in efficiency at handling information Emphasis on biological and psychological, less on social and life cycle Nature-nurture interaction, continuity, individual differences in universal structures   Vygotsky’s theory Development influenced by culture Emphasis on psychological and social forces Nature-nurture interaction, continuity, individual differences

28. The big picture (3 of 4) Perspective Examples Main idea Emphases in biopsychosocial framework Positions on developmental issues Ecological and systems Bronfenbrenner’s theory Developing person embedded in a series of interacting systems Low emphasis on biological, moderate on psychological and life cycle, heavy on social Nature-nurture interaction, continuity, context-specific   Competence- environmental press (Lawton and Nahemow) Adaptation is optimal when ability and demands are in balance Strong emphasis on biological, psychological, and social, moderate on life cycle Nature-nurture interaction, continuity, context-specific

29. The big picture (4 of 4) Perspective Examples Main idea Emphases in biopsychosocial framework Positions on developmental issues Life-span perspective/ SOC Baltes’s life-span perspective and selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) Development is multiply determined; optimisation of goals Strong emphasis on the interactions of all four forces; cannot consider any in isolation Nature-nurture interaction, continuity and discontinuity, context-specific Life-course perspective Life-course theory Life course transitions decreasingly tied to age; increased continuity over lime; specific life paths across domains are interdependent Strong emphasis on psychological, sociocultural, life cycle; less on biological Nature-nurture interaction, continuity and discontinuity, context-specific

30. 1.3 Doing developmental research: Learning objectives (1 of 2) Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in studying human development. State what research designs are used to study human development. Explain how researchers integrate results from multiple studies. Identify the ethical procedures that researchers must follow.

31. 1.3 Doing developmental research: Learning objectives (2 of 2) Explain how investigators communicate results from research studies. Describe how research affects public policy.

32. Measurement in human development research Systematic observation consists of two types Naturalistic observation ‘Real-life’ observations Structured observation Researchers create a situation likely to result in the type of behaviour in which they are interested

33. Other behavioural measures Sampling behaviour with tasks Example: showing photos to measure emotion recognition accuracy Self-reports Example: measuring self-esteem using a questionnaire Physiological measures Examples: measuring interest level using heart rate, and measuring stress using cortisol levels

34. Reliability and validity Reliability: Does this method consistently measure what is being studied? Example: IQ test yielding ‘ identical’ scores when given twice over a two-week interval Validity: Does this accurately measure the variable of interest? Example: Personality test truly assessing level of aggressiveness

35. Representative sampling The sample must reflect the characteristics of the population of interest Populations: Broad groups of people in which researchers may be interested Example: All IsiZulu-speaking grandparents living in the province of KwaZulu-Natal Sample: A subset of people chosen to well represent the population Example: Randomly selecting 100 older people from a variety of backgrounds to study their friendships

36. General research designs Correlational studies: Measure how people score on two variables Calculate a correlation coefficient ( r ) between the two variables ’ scores r can range between -1.00 and +1.00 r ’ s magnitude, regardless of sign shows how much the scores on one variable can predict the other variable ’ s scores Correlation does not prove causation

37. Possible interpretations of a correlational study

38. Experimental studies Study the possible ‘ cause and effect’ relationship between two variables First manipulate exposure to different levels of a factor (independent variable/IV) After exposure to the IV, measure how people score on the behaviour of interest (dependent variable/DV) Main question is whether the DV ’ s scores differ depending upon the level of the IV

39. Qualitative studies Involve gaining in-depth understanding of behaviour and what governs it by uncovering reasons underlying it Smaller but focused samples Observation over extended periods of time Categorise the data into patterns Can be conducted for its own sake, as a preliminary step, or as a complement to quantitative research

40. Longitudinal studies Observe or test one group of individuals at each of several time periods Expensive and a large time commitment Allows examination of (dis)continuity, because the same people were tested across time

41. Cross-sectional studies Observe or test groups of different ages at the same period in time More time-effective, less expensive Cannot address (dis)continuity because each age group involves different people Cohort effects Differences may result from each groups unique environmental events

42. Sequential studies Sequential studies A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Allow for flexibility to collect information in several ways Avoid cohort effects of cross-sectional designs

43. Integrating findings from different studies Meta-analysis Analysis of multiple studies that all examined the same research questions and variables Allows scientists to verify whether the same relationships among variables are replicated across multiple studies

44. Conducting research ethically Minimise and warn of any risks to participants Informed consent Avoid deception Individual results or data must be kept anonymous or confidential

45. Communicating research results Research results are published in peer-reviewed scientific journals To be published in journals, research results must be useful, well done, and original Much of the satisfaction of developmental research is planning a study that no one has done before

46. Applying research results: Social policy Developmental research has a strong influence on policy makers and politicians Educational reforms Laws against child abuse Including highly debated issues like stem-cell research

47. Think about this Does being a participant in a scientific study distort real-life behaviour? What if the only way to collect valid information requires putting participants at risk? deception, such as not informing participants of possible risks?