Development of Science (Anjali Reghu).pdf

Assignment on "Development of science in ancient, medieval and morden period " and "Evolution of science education "

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'Development of Science in Ancient, Medieval and
Modern Periods' & 'Evolution of Science
Education'


ANJALI REGHU
PHYSICAL SCIENCE OPTIONAL

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INTRODUCTION
Science is the systematic study of nature and its phenomena, aiming to understand, explain,
and predict events through observation, experimentation, and reasoning. Its development
reflects the curiosity and intellect of human civilization across different periods. From the
ancient era, where early humans relied on observation and practical knowledge, to the
medieval period, which focused on preserving and refining ancient wisdom, and finally to the
modern age, characterized by experimentation, innovation, and technological breakthroughs,
science has continually transformed society.

Equally important is the evolution of science education, which has ensured the transmission
of knowledge across generations. Science education has developed over centuries, evolving
from early emphasis on observation and experimentation by thinkers like Roger and Francis
Bacon to modern approaches focused on scientific literacy, critical thinking, and problem-
solving. Globally, institutions such as the Royal Society and major universities played a key
role in spreading knowledge, while in India, post-independence policies, commissions, and
organizations like NCERT, UGC, and IITs strengthened science education at all levels.
Today, science education aims not just to impart factual knowledge, but to cultivate rational,
informed, and socially responsible individuals capable of applying scientific understanding in
everyday life and addressing contemporary challenges.

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1. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL
AND MORDERN PERIODS
Science as a body of knowledge developed along with man‘s understanding of nature. All
things that man did for survival are a part of the story of growth of science.
Development of science can be studied in the following stages
1.1 SCIENCE IN ANCIENT PERIOD

History indicates that Neolithic men of the New Stone Age were more advanced than
Paleolithic men. They practiced agriculture, reared domestic animals, built houses, and
lived in groups. Early Homo sapiens probably discovered fire accidentally or by trial and
error, and with it came cooking and flint sharpening. They also discovered processes such
as making earthen pots, weaving baskets, building boats and houses, and painting curves
on flat surfaces. The use of metals for making arms and ornaments suggests that these
early societies were already employing scientific principles in their daily lives.

Human civilization is known to have begun in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other regions.
Along with practical skills, these societies acquired the art of writing, which stands out as
the greatest attribute of science. Written records of astronomical observations,
architectural designs, metallurgical processes, medical practices, methods of timekeeping,
and the making of calendars provide evidence of early scientific thinking. In these
civilizations, the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians made remarkable
contributions. The Sumerians invented symbols and scripts for writing, while the
Assyrians, known for their keen observation, applied arithmetic and algebra in their
records. By naming constellations and studying celestial movements, they helped
Egyptian priests develop annual calendars. Both Assyrians and Egyptians understood
weighing, used balances, and were familiar with fundamental ideas of mass, length, and
time. Their skill as engineers was reflected in their ability to make glass, produce glazes
for pottery, and develop techniques in medicine and other useful arts.

S. F. Mason, in his book ‗History of Science‘, points out that civilized society arose in
India around 3000 BCE with the Bronze Age culture in the river valleys. The Indus

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Valley Civilization, which flourished at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, revealed advanced
systems of town planning, drainage, and the use of kiln-fired bricks—clear indicators of
high workmanship. These excavations demonstrate that India and China had civilizations
as old as those of Mesopotamia and Egypt, each attaining considerable scientific
advancement.

Indian contributions to science were especially profound. The discovery of zero and the
decimal system revolutionized mathematics. Ancient Indian scholars such as Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta, Bhaskara, and Varahamihira made significant contributions to astronomy
and mathematics, while Athreya, Sushruta, and Charaka advanced medicine and surgery.
Texts such as the Sushruta Samhita described cataract surgery, while Ayurveda
documented over a thousand diseases and hundreds of medicinal plants. In addition,
Panini‘s work in phonetics and grammar, Kautilya‘s Arthashastra with its references to
dams and bridges, and Kanad‘s atomic theory through the Vaisheshika school reflected
systematic inquiry.

In Greece, the origins of natural philosophy also laid a foundation for science.
Empedocles (494–434 BCE) proposed the theory of four elements—fire, water, air, and
earth—as the basic components of the universe. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle
further systematized the study of nature and knowledge, shaping intellectual traditions
that influenced later generations. Meanwhile, Chinese civilization contributed in the areas
of astronomy, medicine, and technology, and their records of comets, eclipses, and
medicinal practices show a highly developed sense of observation and documentation.


1.2 SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The Medieval Period was marked by significant scientific progress across the world.
Science expanded under the influence of cultural, religious, and political contexts, and
knowledge was preserved, developed, and transmitted.
In Europe, industries such as mining, coinage, and metallurgy grew rapidly, while natural
philosophy and astronomy continued to flourish. These developments paved the way for
the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

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In India, civil engineering reached new heights with the Iron Pillar of Delhi and advanced
water management systems like Sudarshan Lake. Metallurgy was highly developed,
producing world-class swords, steel, and zinc. Agricultural practices were eco-friendly,
using natural pesticides, while navigation and textiles showcased Indian skill.
In Islamic regions, the establishment of institutions such as the House of Wisdom in
Baghdad supported translation and advancement of Greek, Persian, and Indian
knowledge.
China contributed practical innovations such as papermaking, gunpowder, compass, and
printing, which had a global impact.
In Africa, centers of learning like Timbuktu produced manuscripts on astronomy,
medicine, and mathematics.
In the Americas, civilizations such as the Maya and Inca made strides in astronomy,
agriculture, and record-keeping.

1.2.1Major Contributions to Science in the Medieval Period
Sl. No.
Year/
period
Name /
Civilization
Field / Contribution
1 780–850CE Al-Khwarizmi
Introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and
algebra to European mathematics.
2 865–925CE
Abu Bakar al-
Razi
Physician & chemist; works on smallpox
& measles
3
965–
1040CE
Ibn al-Haytham
Optics; explained vision, reflection,
refraction
4
980–
1037CE
Ibn Sina
Medicine; canon of Medicine
encyclopedia; described 700+ drugs
5
1114–
1185CE
Bhaskara II
Mathematics & Astronomy; calculus-like
ideas, gravity, planetary motion
6
1200–
1280CE
Albertus
Magnus
Natural science; works on botany,
zoology, astronomy, alchemy

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7
1219–
1292CE
Roger Bacon
Optics; stressed experiments,
groundwork for telescope/microscope

8
1225–
1274CE
Thomas
Aquinas
Philosophy; promoted reason &
observation in understanding nature
9
1350–
1425CE
Madhava of
Sangamagram
Infinite series; early calculus; sine &
cosine expansions
10
1031–
1095CE
Shen Kuo
Astronomy & Magnetism; compass,
true north, fossils, climate change

11 13
th
c Hamsadeva
Biology; Mriga-Paksi-Shastra on animals
& birds
12 16th–17th c Jahangir
Biology; breeding & hybridization
experiments
13 16th–17
th
c Mughal
Chemistry; gunpowder use, perfumes,
paper-making
14 17th–18th c Jai Singh II
Astronomy; built Jantar Mantar
observatories
15
Pre-
Columbian
Maya
Civilization
Astronomy; calendar, planetary motion,
concept of zero
16
Pre-
Columbian
Inca
Civilization
Agriculture & Engineering; terrace
farming, irrigation, Quipu records


1.3 SCIENCE IN MORDERN PERIOD
The Modern Period of science, beginning around the 16th century, marks a shift from
traditional beliefs to systematic observation, reasoning, and experimentation. Visionary
scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton laid the foundation for modern
physics, astronomy, and mathematics, while later developments in chemistry, medicine,
quantum theory, relativity, and genetics transformed human understanding of life and the

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universe. This era highlights humanity‘s relentless pursuit of knowledge and its
application to improve living conditions, drive technological progress, and address
societal challenges, emphasizing both discovery and responsible use of science.

1.3.1 Here gives the contributions of science from 16
th
to 21
st
centuries
1.3.1.1 Contributions of science in 16
th
century
Sl. No. Year Name of scientist Discovery
1 1510 Da vinci designed the horizontal water wheel
2 1513 Peter Henlein first portable pocket watch
3 1543 Copernicus
Earth was not the centre of the universe

4 1565 Conrad Gesner
A graphite pencil

5 1569
Gerardus
Mercator
Mercator map projection
6 1589 William Lee Knitting machine called the "Stocking frame
7 1590 Zacharias Janssen compound microscope
8 1593 Galileo water thermometer
9 1600 Gilbert Book on optics Magnet

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1.3.1.2 Contributions of Science in the 17th Century


Sl.
No
Year
Name of
scientist
Discovery
1
1610- 1634

Galileo
Wrote the book ―‖Sidereal messenger‖describing
telescopic observations.
In 1632, published ―Dialogue Concerning the Two
Chief World Systems‖, supporting the Sun-
centered (heliocentric) model of the solar system.

2
1571-1630

Johannes
Kepler
planets revolve around the sun in ellipses and
they move faster as they approach the sun

3 1668 Isaac Newton
Reflecting telescope
Published his masterpiece ―‖Philosophic naturals
Principia Mathematica‖.
In 1704 Newton also wrote a book on light called
‗Optics‘ .
Newton showed that white light is made up of
several colours.

4
1629-1695

Christiaan
Huygens
Titan, the moon of Saturn.
In 1656 he made the first pendulum clock.

5
1661-1691

Robert Boyle
Wrote Book Skeptical Chemist, Modern
chemistry. Boyle's law

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1.3.1.3 Contributions of science in 18
th
century

Sl. No Year Name of scientist Discovery
1 1751 Axel Cronstedt

Nickel
2 1752 Benjamin Franklin Lighting is a form of electricity

3 1756 Joseph Black Carbon dioxide

4 1766 Henry Cavendish Isolated hydrogen and studied its
properties

5 1772 Daniel Rutherford Nitrogen

6 1774 Joseph Priestley Oxygen

7 1743-
1794
Antoine Lavoisier

Oxygen combines with substances.
He also discovered the role of
oxygen in respiration and corrosion
of metals

8 1785 James Hutton Theory of the Earth

9 1781 William Herschel Planet Uranus

10 1784 John Goodricke Variable stars

11 1800 Alessandro Volta First chemical battery

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1.3.1.4 Contributions of science in 19
th
century

Sl.
No.
Year Name of the Scientist Discovery

1 1808 John Dalton Atomic theory Colour blindness
2 1819 Hans Christian Oersted The electric current in a wire caused a
nearby compass needle to move
3 1822 Friedrich Wohler Isolated aluminum produced urea
4 1834-
1907
Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic Table

5 1847 Hermannvon
Helmholtz
Law of the Conservation of Energy

6 1854 John Snow Cholera was transmitted by water
7 1822-
1895
Louis Pasteur Microscopic organisms caused disease
8 1873 James Clerk Maxwell Light is an electromagnetic wave
9 1791-
1867
Michael Faraday Dynamo
10 1896 Henri Becquerel Radioactivity
11 1797-
1875
Charles Lyell

Formation of Rocks
Principles of Geology
12 1898 Marie curie
Pierre curie
Radium
13 1897 Joseph Thomson Electron
14 1801 Giuseppe Piazzi First asteroid, Ceres
15 1838 Friedrich Bessel Measured the distance to a star
16 1846 Johann Gottfried
Galle, John Couch
Adams
Planet Neptune

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1.3.1.5 Contributions of science in 20
th
century
Sl. No. Year Name of the
Scientist
Discovery

1 1862 Lord Kelvin The age of the solar system, including
Earth, was determined, and it turned out to
be much older than believed earlier: more
than 4 billion years, rather than the 20
million years suggested
2 1969 Neil Armstrong The first person from Earth to walk on
another celestial body
3 1957 Soviet Union The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1,
was launched
4 1903 Mikhail Tsvet chromatography
5 1904 HantaroNagaoka proposed an early nuclear model of the
atom, where electrons orbit a dense
massive nucleus
6 1905 Fritz Haber and
Carl Bosch

Developed the Haber process for
making ammonia, a milestone in
industrial chemistry with deep
consequences in agriculture.
7 1909 S. P. L. Sørensen pH concept and develops methods for
measuring acidity
8 1912 Peter Debye Developed the concept of the molecular
dipole to describe asymmetric charge
distribution in some molecules
9 1913 Niels Bohr Bohr introduced the concepts of quantum
mechanics to the atomic structure by
proposing what is now known as the Bohr
model of the atom

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The development of post-Newtonian theories in physics, such as the Special theory of
Relativity, general theory of relativity, and quantum mechanics led to the development of
nuclear weapons. New models of the structure of the atom led to developments in theories of
chemistry and the development of new materials such as nylon and plastics. Advances in
biology led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such
as polio.A massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century.

Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the
phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally
deployed. The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century, large
airplanes such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 flew thousands of miles in a matter of
hours. The development of television and computers caused massive changes in the
dissemination of information.



10 1913 Henry Moseley working from Van den Broek's earlier
idea introduces the concept of atomic
number to fix inadeq uacies of
Mendeleev's periodic table, which had
been based on atomic
weight

11 1913 Frederick Soddy' Radiochemistry
12 1913 J. J. Thomson mass spectrometry
13 1916 Gilbert N. Lewis The Atom of the Molecule
14 1951 Clemens C. J.
Roothaan
Roothaan equations.
15 1970 John Pople computational chemistry
16 1951 SumioIijima electron microscopy

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1.3.1.6 Contributions of science in 21
st
century





Sl. No. Year Name of the Scientist Discovery

1 1910 Ernest Rutherford Atomic nucleus
2 1932 James Chadwick Neutron.
3 1900 Max Planck Quantum theory
4 1905 Albert Einstein The special theory of
Relativity
5 1915 Albert Einstein General Theory of Relativity
6 1927 Werner Heisenberg Uncertainty principle and
speed of a
subatomic particle.

7 1915 Alfred Wegener Continental drift
8 1926 Arthur Eddington Stars are powered by nuclear
fusion
9 1920 Edwin Hubble Our galaxy is only one of
many galaxies
10 1930 Clyde Tombaugh Pluto
11 1928 Alexander Fleming Penicillin.
12 1964 Murray Gell-Mann Quarks exist
13 1924-
2018

Stephen Hawking Black holes, relativity and
cosmology

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2. EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
Science education has evolved significantly over the centuries, influenced by prominent
thinkers, scientists, and social changes.
Landmarks in the Development of Science Education: A Global View
Early Contributions and the Inductive Method
Roger Bacon was one of the first scholars to emphasize the importance of experiments and
inductive inquiry in education. Francis Bacon expanded upon these ideas, advocating for
sensory training and systematic observation as integral to learning. This approach laid the
foundation for modern science teaching, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and
evidence-based reasoning.
Influential Scientists
Significant contributions to science education were made by pioneers such as Galileo
Galilei, William Harvey, and Andreas Vesalius. Their work not only advanced knowledge
in their respective fields but also inspired teaching methods grounded in experimentation
and observation. Comenius further highlighted the role of objects and pictures in learning,
promoting visual and hands-on teaching strategies.
Institutional Milestones
The establishment of the Royal Society in 1664 marked a major milestone, providing a
platform for scientific inquiry and knowledge sharing. During the 17th century, several
scientific academies were established, fostering collaboration and dissemination of
scientific knowledge. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century brought science closer
to society, emphasizing its practical applications. The University of London, founded in
1827, introduced natural science education, with scientists such as T.A. Huxley, John
Tyndall, and Michael Faraday advocating for the spread of science education.
Science in School Curriculum
Science was formally introduced into school curricula for the first time at Rugby School,
England, in 1849, where Botany, Geology, Physics, and Chemistry were taught. Towards

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the late 19th century, H.E. Armstrong promoted the Heuristic Method of teaching, which
encouraged students to discover concepts themselves rather than passively receiving
information.
20th Century Expansion
In 1916, the Thomson Committee in Britain evaluated the state of natural science education,
resulting in the Thomson Report, which emphasized systematic science instruction. The
20th century witnessed the global propagation of science education, making it an essential
component of school curricula worldwide.

EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN INDIA
Post-Independence Developments
Science education in India received significant attention after independence. The Secondary
Education Commission (1953) highlighted the necessity of integrating science into
education to keep pace with rapid technological and scientific advancements. The
commission stressed vocational education, research, and the development of scientific
thinking among students.
Seminars and Policy Initiatives
The All India Seminars on Teaching Science (1956) suggested a uniform system of science
teaching focusing on observation, experimentation, creative thinking, and environmental
awareness. These seminars emphasized cultivating habits of systematic thinking, healthful
living, and scientific curiosity.
National Scientific Policy Resolution (1958)
This policy underscored the importance of science and technology in national prosperity,
highlighting that effective utilization of scientific knowledge could overcome deficiencies
in resources and enhance industrial and economic growth. It laid the foundation for
promoting research, scientific training, and technological innovation in India.

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Institutions and Committees
Several key institutions and initiatives further strengthened science education:
NCERT (1961): Established the Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics (DESM) to conduct research, develop curricula, and train teachers. It
emphasized environmental education, modern pedagogy, and outreach activities like
science fairs and exhibitions.
UNESCO Planning Mission (1963): Provided technical guidance to improve science
and mathematics education in India.
Indian Education Commission (1964–66): Recommended compulsory science
education and modernization of teaching methods, linking science with agriculture
and technology.
National Policy on Education (1986): Focused on problem-solving, decision-making
skills, and application of science in daily life. Initiatives like Navodaya Vidyalayas
aimed to provide quality science education in rural areas.
University Grants Commission (UGC) and IITs: Promoted higher education and
research in science and technology, establishing national centers and institutes with
advanced facilities.
Science as a Discipline and Its Role in Curriculum
Science became a part of school curricula in the 19th century in Europe and the USA through
efforts of scientists like Huxley, Spencer, and Faraday. Initially, there was resistance from
scholars of the humanities, who considered science as materialistic. Today, science education
is integral to general education, aiming to develop scientific literacy, which includes
knowledge of concepts, processes, and applications for personal and societal decision-
making.
Scientific Literacy and Its Objectives
Scientific literacy involves three aspects:
1. Promoting rational thinking and separating fact from superstition
2. Learning about science – understanding its impact on society.
3. Doing science – applying the scientific method to solve problems.

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The objectives of science education include:
1. Preparing students for the workforce by developing observation, reasoning, and
problem-solving skills.
2. Understanding scientific reports and media discussions.
3. Appreciating the relationship between science, technology, and society.
4. Encouraging curiosity, hobbies, and aesthetic appreciation of nature.
5. Promoting rational thinking and separating fact from superstition
SCIENCE EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
Science has deeply influenced society, enabling industrialization, improved healthcare, and
technological progress. However, it also presents challenges such as environmental damage
and ethical dilemmas. Conferences like the Budapest Conference (1999) emphasized
concepts like science for knowledge, peace, development, and society, highlighting
responsible use of scientific knowledge.
The interaction between science and politics has often been contentious, with policymakers
seeking quick solutions, sometimes contrary to scientific evidence. Thus, science education in
schools is crucial to developing informed citizens capable of understanding and critically
evaluating science-related issues.
Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Modern Approaches
Modern science education focuses on inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving rather
than rote memorization. Key elements include:
Hands-on learning and experimentation.
Integration of environmental science with social studies at primary levels.
Group discussions, continuous assessment, and activity-based pedagogy.
Science fairs, children‘s science congresses, and interactive textbooks.
The National Curriculum Framework (2005) emphasized nurturing creativity, linking
classroom learning with real-world applications, and developing learner-friendly, activity-
oriented textbooks

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CONCLUSION
The journey of science across ancient, medieval, and modern periods demonstrates
humanity‘s relentless pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the natural world. Ancient
civilizations laid the foundation with mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering.
The medieval period preserved and expanded this knowledge despite social and religious
constraints, while the modern period revolutionized science with systematic experimentation,
theories, and technological innovations.
The evolution of science education highlights its essential role in shaping informed and
responsible citizens. From rote learning to inquiry-based, activity-oriented approaches, it
fosters curiosity, reasoning, and practical application of knowledge. In India and worldwide,
science education continues to adapt to technological advances, societal needs, and
environmental challenges. By promoting scientific literacy, critical thinking, and ethical use
of knowledge, it equips learners to make sound decisions, contribute to progress, and live
responsibly in an increasingly complex and interconnected world.

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REFERENCES
1. Sengupta, M., Mitra, C., & Maji, P. K. (2016). Understanding Discipline and Subjects
(1st Semester, Course-V). Kolkata: Rita Publication
2. https://mangaloreuniversity.ac.in/sites/default/files/Course-
7(d)%20Physical%20Science%20(Part-1).pdf
3. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/evolution-of-science-education-1/192756481
4. https://pkmcollege.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Learning-Resources.pdf
5. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/12195/1/Unit-5.pdf
6. https://edukemy.com/blog/medieval-science-and-technology-upsc-art-culture-notes/