Disciplines and Ideas in Social Sciences

Module 6

1. Marxism Theory according to Quexbook , 2018 Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and argues for a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism. Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie, or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.

2. Marxism Theory according to Quexbook , 2018 Karl Marx is, along with Freud, one of a handful of thinkers from the last two centuries who has had a truly transformative effect on society, on culture, and on our very understanding of ourselves. Although there were a few critics claiming an end to Marxist thought (and even an end to ideology) after the fall of the communist system in the former Soviet Union, Marxist thought has continued to have an important influence on critical thought, all the more so recently after the rise of globalization studies. As protests at recent G7 and IMF meetings make clear, the school can also still have important political effects.

3. Marxism Theory according to Quexbook , 2018 Louis Althusser represents an important break in Marxist thought, particularly when it comes to the notion of ideology. His Lacan-inspired version of Marxism significantly changed the way many Marxists approached both capitalism and hegemony after the Second World War.

4. Marxism Theory according to Quexbook , 2018 Fredric Jameson is surely the most influential contemporary Marxist thinker in the United States. His own alterations of and dialogue with Althusserian and Lacanian thought have established him as an important influence on the rise of globalization studies, an important critical school of the last few years. In particular, he has attempted to make sense of the continuing staying power of capitalism and the ways that capitalism has transformed since Marx wrote his critiques in the nineteenth century, addressing such issues as multi-national (or "late") capitalism, the power of the media, and the influence of postmodernity on Marxist debate. The lattermost issue is explored in the Jameson modules under Postmodernism.

5. Marxism Theory according to Quexbook , 2018 A class is a group of people who share similar characteristics specifically with regard to their socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status refers to a person’s standing with regard to his/her access to resources, monetary capability, income status, occupation, and living situation. Class conflict (class warfare or class struggle) refers to the conflict between different classes in a community that is composed of different social or economic positions and opposing interests.

6. Variables that Determine Class from a Marxian Perspective according to Quexbook , 2018 Conflicts over the distribution of economic rewards between the classes Easy communication between the individuals in the same class positions so that ideas and action programs are readily disseminated. Growth of class consciousness in the sense that members of the class have a feeling of solidarity and understanding of their historic role. Profound dissatisfaction of the lower class over its inability to control the economic structure of which it feels itself to be exploited victim Establishment of a political organization resulting from the economic structure, the historical situation, and maturation of class consciousness.

7. The Six Elements in Marx’s View of Class Conflict according to Quexbook , 2018 Classes are authority relationships based on property ownership. A class defines groupings of individuals with shared life situations and interests. Classes are naturally antagonistic by virtue of their interests. Imminent within modern society is the growth of two antagonistic classes and their struggle, which eventually absorbs all social relations. Political organization and Power are an instrumentality of class struggle and reigning ideas are its reflection. Structural change is a consequence of the class struggle.

8. Two Types of People According to Karl Marx according to Quexbook , 2018 Proletariat is consisting of the working or labor class. Bourgeoisie is consisting of the management class; those who own the means of production

9. The Three Sources of Income Owners of simple labor power or laborers whose main source of income is labor. Owners of capital or capitalists whose main source of income is profit or surplus value. Landowners whose main source of income is ground rent.

10. The Three Levels of Culture Model according to Quexbook , 2018 Infrastructure - population, basic biological need, and resources (labor, equipment, technology, etc.). Structure - pattern of organization (government, education, production regulation, etc.). Superstructure - social institutions (law, religion, politics, art, science, superstition, values, emotions, traditions, etc.).

11. Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionism is a social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the actual name of the theory comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students). According to this theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part socially constructed.

12. Examples of Symbolic Interactionism in Everyday Life 1. An image of a stick figure with a dress means woman. 2. An image of a stick figure without a dress means man. 3. A drawing of a heart means love. 4. A bald eagle means freedom and America. 5. A stick figure sitting in a chair with a large wheel means handicapped. 6. Putting your thumb up means yes. 7. Putting your thumb down means no. 8. Skull and crossbones mean danger. 9. A balance symbolizes justice. 10. The lone t shape symbolizes a cross, spirituality, or religion. 11. Water holds the meaning of rebirth, vitality, or cleansing.

13. Examples in Society Philippine Flag A horizontal flag bicolor with equal bands of royal blue and crimson red, with a white, equilateral triangle at the hoist. In the center of the triangle is a golden-yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing a province of the Philippines. At each vertex of the triangle is a five-pointed, golden-yellow star, each of which representing one of the country's three main island groups— Luzon, Visayas (though originally referring to Panay) and Mindanao. The white triangle at the flag represents liberty, equality, and fraternity. A unique feature of this flag is its usage to indicate a state of war if it is displayed with the red side on top, which is effectively achieved by flipping the flag upside-down.

14. Gender Gender can be understood through symbolic interactionism because gender is a sociological construct. For example, for the symbols attached to “males” and “females”, actions and looks are based on what is believed is true from your interactions rather than what is objectively true. For example, women might be seen as weaker than men. A man wearing a dress might be seen as feminine. These problematic attributes lead to inequality and biases such as women getting paid less than men in the workforce.

15. Colorism Race and ethnicity is another area where symbolic interactionism comes into play. This can definitely be seen through the issue of colorism. In colorism, people of the same racial identification are treated differently based on the lightness or darkness of their skin. For example, a study by Lance Hannon on colorism demonstrated lighter-skinned Latinos "looked" smarter according to Caucasians.

16. Relationship Roles Symbolic interactionism plays a big role in family and relationships. Your understanding of a word or event changes based on interactions with it. For example, if you have a great relationship with your wife, the word wife will be positive. However, if your relationship with your wife is rocky, the meaning behind the word and what a wife symbolizes changes.

17. Rainbow Societies’ meanings behind symbols can change and morph with time. One example of this is the meaning of a rainbow. The rainbow has been seen as a Christian symbol of hope but another meaning of rainbow is now associated with the LGBTQ community.

18. Meaning behind Symbolic Interaction The way you see the world colors your understanding of it. Look no further than symbolic interactionism to see how this is true. Interested to explore more about behaviors, check out operant conditioning examples.

19. Operant Conditioning Examples Operant conditioning is a learning process whereby deliberate behaviors are reinforced through consequences. It differs from classical conditioning, also called respondent or Pavlovian conditioning, in which involuntary behaviors are triggered by external stimuli. With classical conditioning, a dog that has learned the sound of a bell precedes the arrival of food may begin to salivate at the sound of a bell, even if no food arrives. By contrast, a dog might learn that, by sitting and staying, it will earn a treat. If the dog then gets better at sitting and staying in order to receive the treat, then this is an example of operant conditioning.

20. Operant Conditioning and Timing The core concept of operant conditioning is simple: when a certain deliberate behavior is reinforced, that behavior will become more common. Psychology divides reinforcement into four main categories: Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction

21. Operant Conditioning Examples Timing and frequency are very important in reinforcement. A continuous reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated CRF) provides reinforcement for all noted behaviors. That is, every time the behavior occurs, reinforcement is provided. An intermittent reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated INT) reinforces some target behaviors but never all of them. Think of it like a slot machine. You won't win on every pull of the lever, but you do win sometimes, and that reinforces the behavior of pulling the lever.

22. Examples of Positive Reinforcement conditioning: receiving a reward for acting in a certain way. 1. Many people train their pets with positive reinforcement. Praising a pet or providing a treat when they obey instructions -- like being told to sit or heel -- both helps the pet understand what is desired and encourages it to obey future commands. 2. When a child receives praise for performing a chore without complaint, like cleaning their room, they are more likely to continue to perform that chore in the future. 3. When a worker is rewarded with a performance bonus for exceptional sales figures, she is inclined to continue performing at a high level in hopes of receiving another bonus in the future.

23. Examples of Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement is a different but equally straightforward form of operant conditioning. Negative reinforcement rewards a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, rather than adding a pleasant one. 1. An employer offering an employee a day off is an example of negative reinforcement. Rather than giving a tangible reward, they reduce the presence of something undesirable; that is, the amount of time spent at work. 2. In a sense, young children condition their parents through negative reinforcement. Screaming, tantrums and other "acting out" behaviors are generally intended to draw a parent's attention. When the parent behaves as the child wants, the unpleasant condition - the screaming and crying - stops. That’s negative reinforcement. 3. Negative reinforcement is common in the justice system. Prisons will sometimes ease regulations on a well-behaved prisoner, and sentences are sometimes shortened for good behavior. The latter in particular is classic negative reinforcement: the removal of something undesirable (days in prison) in response to a given behavior.

24. Examples of Punishment 1. An employee who misses work may suffer a cut in wages. The loss of income (an undesired consequence) constitutes the punishment for missing work (an undesired behavior). 2. A sharp "No!" addressed to a pet engaging in unacceptable behavior is a classic example of punishment. The shout punishes the pet, conditioning it to avoid doing wrong behavior in the future. 3. Punishments are commonly used in lab experiments. Most often, a lab animal is punished for a given behavior with a mild electric shock.

25. Examples of Extinction 1. An employee punished once for missing work, then never again, may become more likely to miss work later on because they no longer expect to be punished for absence. 2. Animals often test the limits of their conditioning. For instance, a cat punished with a spray bottle every time it climbs on a counter may come near the counter or jump on the counter when it believes no one is around. If no punishment occurs, the cat is likely to keep jumping on the counter because the conditioning against it is extinct.

26. Examples of Extinction 3. In school, if a student receives a gold star for an excellent test score but does not receive more gold stars in subsequent tests, he may become increasingly unmotivated to perform well in future tests. The operant conditioning of the positive behavior (doing well on a test) is becoming extinct.

27. B.F. Skinner and Conditioning Burrhus Frederic Skinner was a psychologist and researcher credited with establishing the principles of operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner began with Thorndike's law of effect, which states that behaviors that cause satisfactory results will be repeated. Skinner considered satisfaction to be insufficiently specific to measure and set out to design a means of measuring learned behaviors. The operant conditioning chamber, popularly known as a Skinner box, was his solution. He kept his test subjects, primarily pigeons and rats, in circumstances that allowed him to closely observe their behavior. He would isolate the animal and every time the animal performed a defined behavior, like pushing a lever, it'd be rewarded with food. When the animal began to reliably push the lever, he'd know it had been conditioned. Skinner's work took that first principle and applied it to human behavior, representing the school of psychology called behaviorism. Behaviorism defined much of psychology for the second half of the 20th century but is currently being combined with other psychological perspectives.

28. Activities

29. A. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

30. DIRECTIONS: Your task is to explain what you observed in your community, its structure and function, and how they are interrelated to each other. Based on the following QUESTIONS, write your answers on a separate sheet of paper: a) What is the structure of your community/barangay? b) How do the structures “function” in the community or society? c) What does your community prioritize in your community? (e.g., healthcare, agricultural sector, etc.) d) How are structures interrelated to each other? e) Have you heard or have an idea of Structural-Functionalism Theory?

31. B. MARXISM DIRECTIONS: Your task is to explain what you have learned on Karl Marx’ concept of society by using the figure below. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Karl Marx asserted that all elements of a soci ety’s structure depend on its economic structure

32. DIRECTIONS: Your task is to identify the importance of the structural-functional and Marxism approach based on socio-cultural, economic, and political conditions on the following identified factors. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

33. DIRECTIONS: Your task is to apply the concepts of Structural functionalism and Marxism in examining socio-cultural, economic, and political perspectives based on the current issues (Covid-19 Pandemic). You may cite your personal life experiences to elaborate on your answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.