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6. Beyond Bibliometrics

7. Beyond Bibliometrics
Harnessing Multidimensional
Indicators of Scholarly Impact
 
 
edited by Blaise Cronin and Cassidy R. Sugimoto
 
 
The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts

London, England

8. © 2014 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any
electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or
information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the
publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Beyond bibliometrics : harnessing multidimensional indicators of scholarly
impact / edited by Blaise Cronin and Cassidy R. Sugimoto.
   p.  cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-262-02679-6 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN 978-0-262-32329-1 (retail e-book)
1. Bibliometrics. 2. Bibliographical citations — Evaluation. 3. Scholarly
publishing — Evaluation. 4. Scholarly electronic publishing — Evaluation. 5.
Scientific literatur e — Evaluation. 6. Research — Evaluation — Statistical
methods. 7. Communication in learning and scholarship — Technological
innovations. I. Cronin, Blaise, editor of compilation. II. Sugimoto, Cassidy R.,
editor of compilation.
Z669.8B49 2014
010. 72'7 — dc23
2013027449
EPUB Version 1.0
d_r0

9. Contents
Preface
I    History
1    Scholars and Scripts, Spoors and Scores
Blaise Cronin
2    History and Evolution of (Biblio)Metrics
Nicola De Bellis
II    Critiques
3    The Citation: From Culture to Infrastructure
Paul Wouters
4    “The Data—It Is Me!” (“Les données—c’est Moi!”)
Ronald E. Day
5    The Ethics of Evaluative Bibliometrics
Jonathan Furner
6    Criteria for Evaluating Indicators
Yves Gingras
III    Methods and Tools
7    Obliteration by Incorporation
Katherine W. McCain
8    A Network Approach to Scholarly Evaluation
Jevin D. West and Daril A. Vilhena
9    Science Visualization and Discursive Knowledge
Loet Leydesdorff

10. 10    Measuring Interdisciplinarity
Vincent Larivière and Yves Gingras
11    Bibliometric Standards for Evaluating Research
Institutes in the Natural Sciences
Lutz Bornmann, Benjamin F. Bowman, Johann Bauer,
Werner Marx, Hermann Schier, and Margit Palzenberger
12    Identifying and Quantifying Research Strengths Using
Market Segmentation
Kevin W. Boyack and Richard Klavans
13    Finding and Recommending Scholarly Articles
Michael J. Kurtz and Edwin A. Henneken
IV    Alternative Metrics
14    Altmetrics
Jason Priem
15    Web Impact Metrics for Research Assessment
Kayvan Kousha and Mike Thelwall
16    Bibliographic References in Web 2.0
Judit Bar-Ilan, Hadas Shema, and Mike Thelwall
17    Readership Metrics
Stefanie Haustein
18    Evaluating the Work of Judges
Peter A. Hook
19    Academic Genealogy
Cassidy R. Sugimoto
V    Perspectives
20    A Publishing Perspective on Bibliometrics
Judith Kamalski, Andrew Plume, and Mayur Amin

11. 21    Science Metrics and Science Policy
Julia Lane, Mark Largent, and Rebecca Rosen
List of Contributors
Index

12. Preface
The etymology of bibliometrics consists of the Greek words
for “book” (biblos) and “measure” (metron). In recent
decades the subject matter of concern to bibliometricians
has expanded well beyond books to include scholarly
journals and journal articles, authors and institutions,
bibliographic references, citations, acknowledgments,
patents, and much more. With the advent of the Web,
electronic journals, digital libraries, citation databases, and
social media, we are now much better positioned to see
what scholars produce (from monographs to videos, from
datasets to tweets), where they publish, how they
communicate with their various audiences, how their work
is received, critiqued, and used, whether and in what ways
their diverse contributions are acknowledged, how
influential they are within and across different intellectual
communities, and whether or not their oeuvre has an
impact over time, and, if so, precisely what kind of impact.
The we above refers, of course, to any interested party, be
it an individual scholar, university administrator, budget
director, federal funding agency, or national research
council, curious to know more about the immediate or long-
term outcomes and effects of research, whether personal
or institutional in nature, funded or unfunded.
Such is the variety of digital trace elements that can be
tracked and measured using currently available tools and
platforms that the term bibliometrics can seem a mite
anachronistic when placed alongside younger lexical
cousins, such as webometrics and scientometrics. But in

13. defense of the term bibliometrics we would merely note
that both of these neologisms themselves have quite
specific and limiting referents. For that reason, we have
decided to stick with Bibliometrics (albeit prefaced with
Beyond) in the title of this book, it being a term that has
both pedigree and currency. We see it as the logical
starting point for any serious discussion of the newer
metrics—often grouped under the rubric alternative
metrics—currently being proposed or already being
developed and tested in the context of research
assessment, faculty evaluation, or resource allocation
exercises.
Bibliometrics, once the preserve of a small population of
information scientists and mathematicians, is now a
sprawling, still fast-growing specialty, a multidisciplinary
mix of methodologists, conceptualists, policy analysts,
software developers, evaluators, and application
specialists, along with a sprinkling of critical theorists. The
heady enthusiasm that sometimes characterizes the field
should not, however, cause us to lose sight of the
fundamentals. Algorithmic and statistical refinement
matters not a jot if the metrics in question do not measure
what they claim to measure or are applied inappropriately:
fitness for purpose needs to be demonstrated, not
presumed. Despite the many technical advances recorded
in the literature—think, for instance, of all the papers
published in the last five years alone on Jorge Hirsch’s h-
index and its numerous derivatives—issues relating to
validity (and, no less, reliability) continue to plague
blibliometrics.
Do the tools we use and the indicators we favor measure
what we claim or believe them to measure, and, if so, are

14. those measures reliable—that is, capable of producing
consistent, and, ideally, transparent results? Are we not
sometimes so seduced by the incrementing sophistication
of our procedures (data capture and cleaning, weighting,
normalization, multivariate analysis, modeling,
visualization) that the technical tail could almost be said to
be wagging the disciplinary dog? Predictably, opinions are
cleft and debate on the pros and cons of evaluative
bibliometrics is as eristic as ever. But as the stakes rise, by
which we mean that the progressive institutionalization of
metrics-based assessment in both academe and science
policy circles has become an ineluctable trend, so, too,
does the need to explore the ramified ethical and cultural
consequences of relying on metrics of one kind or another
to capture putative evidence of research quality, scholarly
impact, and academic influence.
Beyond Bibliometrics showcases a diversity of recent
advances in metrics-based research, both theoretical and
applied, and also presents a number of penetrating
critiques of the subject. The chapters in this collection
reflect the Janus-faced nature of (biblio)metrics research:
the proliferation of techniques and applications
demonstrates that the field is flourishing, yet critics
highlight the considerable potential for misuse and abuse.
It is our hope that Beyond Bibliometrics will help promote
critical reflexivity within the field and foster a more
enlightened appreciation of the pros and cons of metrics-
based assessment among relevant communities of
practice.
Acknowledgments

15. We are grateful to Jylisa Doney and Andrew Tsou for their
assistance with bibliographic checking.

16. I
History
1
Scholars and Scripts, Spoors and Scores
Blaise Cronin
Est modus in rebus.
Horace, Satires 1.1.106
Communicating Science
In medieval Europe, scientific news traveled at a measured
pace, as slow or as fast as the peripatetic scholars who
journeyed from one center of learning to another. The

17. medium was the messenger. With the introduction of postal
services in the sixteenth and seventeen centuries the
speed of dissemination picked up. Letter writing gradually
became the dominant form of exchange between
gentlemen scientists such as the chemist Robert Boyle, the
statistician William Petty, and the other grandees of the
Scientific Revolution’s early days. Their correspondence
was often channeled through what might today be termed
clearinghouses, there being copied for wider distribution
and subsequent reading at local scientific gatherings
(Manten, 1980). In Paris, Friar Marin Mersenne, variously
referred to as the “mailbox of Europe” (Hatch, 2000, p.
265) or “chief philosophical intelligencer of his time” (Dear,
2000, p. 668), was the energetic embodiment of a
communications hub; he corresponded with many of the
leading minds on the continent, including Descartes,
Galileo, Huygens, and Pascal. In London, Henry Oldenburg
performed a similar role with industry and distinction.
Members of these “invisible colleges”—informal networks
of natural philosophers, unaffiliated with formal institutions
of learning (e.g., Crane, 1972; Lomas, 2002; Wagner, 2008)
—would assemble at private dwellings, coffee shops, or
taverns to conduct their business and exchange news of
the latest scientific findings. From such loose arrangements
evolved the national academies of the seventeenth
century, the Royal Society in London and the Académie
Royale des Sciences in Paris. Shortly after their
establishment, both bodies created in-house journals, the
Philosophical Transactions and Journal des Sçavans,
respectively. These prototypical scientific journals—learned
might be a more accurate qualifier given the initial breadth
of subject coverage (Waterman, n.d.)—superseded the

18. communication of experimental reports via
correspondence, formalizing a process that until then had
depended largely on individual agency and personal
motivation. The aforementioned Henry Oldenburg was
appointed Secretary to the Royal Society and became the
first editor of the Transactions, collating and editing the
many reports that flowed to him from near and far. In Paris,
Denis de Sallo, the founding editor of Journal des Sçavans,
which began as a weekly publication, fared less well; he
was ousted from his position after only a few months
because of his controversial book-reviewing practices
(Waterman, n.d.).
Not only did the two academies spur the development of
the scholarly journal as we have come to know it today, but
they also introduced and systematized the process of third-
party peer review. Over time, enlightened amateurism
ceded to a system in which learned societies, society
fellows, journal editors, and outside subject experts,
through distributed collective action, conferred legitimacy
on experimental reports and vouchsafed the integrity of
the truth claims put forward by individual authors. That
system, albeit in modified for m, is still with us today.
Much, it need hardly be said, has changed in the realm of
scholarly communication since the mid-17th century. But
the key components of the system post “etherization”
(Koku, Nazer, & Wellman, 2001, p. 1754)—that is, the
scientific article (today very formal and structured in its
presentation of experimental results), the journal of record
(now as likely to be commercial as societal in nature), and
the process of peer review (massively scaled up and more
complex than in Oldenburg’s time)—remain central to the
effective conduct of science. Across the centuries, the

19. discursive character and overall architecture of the
scholarly journal article have changed greatly, as Gross,
Harmon, and Reidy (2002) demonstrate in their
meticulously comprehensive biography of this doughty
publication genre.
The gradual incorporation of bibliographic references into
scholarly articles is a good illustration of the kind of
paratextual changes that have taken place. Citing the
works of scholars who have materially influenced one’s
thinking is a normatively mandated aspect of academic
writing, but one that was slow to establish itself in
consistent fashion across disciplines. Another relatively
recent and now near-ubiquitous addition to the feature set
of the scholarly journal article is the acknowledgments
section (Costas & Van Leeuwen, 2012; Cronin & Franks,
2007). This easily overlooked species of microattribution,
typically located at the end of a paper, captures a
miscellany of second-order contributions made by trusted
colleagues, technicians, and others. Together, references
and acknowledgments—w hich Heffner (1981) referred to
aptly as indicators of “subauthorship collaboration”—
provide a cumulating ledger of contributions, major and
minor, made by scholars and researchers to the
commonwealth of knowledge. As such, they—references in
particular—have become essential raw material for
bibliometricians, allowing us to move beyond productivity
measures (publication counts) to indicators of impact
(citation counts) and, more recently, indicators of influence
(acknowledgment counts).
Changes in the shape, content, and interactivity of the
traditional journal article, and even the scholarly
monograph, are imminent as commercial interests (see, for

20. example, Elsevier’s Article of the Future project1) and also
the scientific community itself (see the Force 11 [Future of
Research Communications and e-Scholarship] manifesto
2
)
seek to take full advantage of the capabilities of digital
technologies and networked infrastructures in an effort to
improve the transparency, efficiency, and overall
effectiveness of the multi-billion-dollar primary
communication system.
Crediting Influence
The progressive institutionalization of bibliographic
referencing behavior, coupled with the development in the
mid-1950s of the first experimental citation indexes to the
literature of science, created the preconditions necessary
to support large-scale multidimensional citation and
cocitation analyses (Cronin & Atkins, 2000). As the size,
depth, and reliability of commercially available citation
databases (e.g., Web of Science, Scopus) grew, so, too, did
the sophistication of the techniques being developed to
monitor, measure, and visualize various aspects of the
scholarly communication process. Bibliometrics—defined
parsimoniously as the quantitative analysis of publications,
authors, and bibliographic references—gradually became a
significant site of experimentation and research activity in
its own right, something much more than a set of methods
to be used by a handful of quantitatively inclined
information scientists.
It is no exaggeration to say that the advent of the
Internet and World Wide Web turbocharged research in the
field. For example, the affordances of massive datasets and

21. the easy manipulability of usage statistics have greatly
expanded the appeal of bibliometrics and extended the
ways quantitative techniques can be applied to the inputs,
outputs, and processes of science and scholarship. Today,
the field is a kaleidoscope of overlapping domains—
informetics, scientometrics, cybermetrics, webometrics,
influmetrics, digimetrics are just some of the neologisms—
and is populated by researchers from almost every
disciplinary background. It also has all the paraphernalia
(journals, professional societies, conferences, prizes,
curricula, research centers, etc.) that one associates with a
mature academic specialty. Interest in bibliometrics,
broadly construed, has never been greater, as
corporations, universities, and funding bodies seek to
identify robust indicators of research performance, whether
at the macro (country), meso (discipline), or micro
(program) level.
In the United Kingdom, by way of illustration, the
government’s Research Excellence Framework (REF),
successor to the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE),
which began in the mid-1980s, will focus on impact more
broadly than heretofore: unlike the RAE, REF will seek
evidence of not only the scientific/scholarly impact of
research but also evidence of downstream social,
economic, and cultural benefits.
3
Scholars, as Thelwall
(2012, p. 430) notes, may now be able to make the case
that they have “an impact on the world that is insufficiently
represented by the citations that their publications
receive.” For example, academics who spend a
considerable proportion of their time advising and
mentoring doctoral students should soon be able to
demonstrate the long-term fruits of their often-hidden

22. labors by using tools that reveal and quantify academic
genealogy (Russell & Sugimoto, 2009; see also Sugimoto,
chapter 19, this volume). Researchers whose ideas have
commercial significance can draw on diverse indicators of
impact from patent citation data to trade and industry
press coverage. Lewison (2005), for example, describes
five alternatives/complements to conventional citation
indexes that can be used to track the overall diffusion and
impact of biomedical research, namely, references to
research that appear in international standards, national
policy documents, clinical guidelines, textbooks, and
newspapers. The message seems to be that Web of
Science and Scopus do not tell the whole story.
The Web has engendered a variety of corpora, data
types, and, somewhat less concretely, “genres of
invocation” (Cronin, Snyder, Rosenbaum, Martinson, &
Callahan, 1998, p. 1326) that can be mined to reveal
heretofore largely invisible traces of interaction and
influence. Blog posts and tweets about a scholar’s ideas,
two instances of what has been termed “polymorphous
mentioning” (Cronin et al., 1998, p. 1320), can now be
incorporated into the impact portfolio of individuals or
groups alongside established indicators: the Total Impact
web application is an early prototype of what such a
system might look like.
4
We are no longer limited to
capturing data about formal publications and citations (the
scripts and spoors, respectively, in the title of this chapter).
Rather, the evaluator’s net can be cast more widely to
trawl for novel or overlooked indicators—alt(ernative)
metrics to use the term of art (Priem, 2010; see also
chapters 14, 17, and 16, by Priem, Haustein, and Bar-Ilan
et al., respectively, in this volume)—of scholarly

23. engagement and impact that are generated automatically
in the digital communication environment.
We are moving from a reliance on exclusively citation-
based metrics to the use of multidimensional, usage-based
metrics (Kurtz & Bollen, 2010). The easier data capture is,
the richer the picture of use and performance that can be
produced. This applies not only to scholarship. To take but
one illustration, in the highly competitive world of
professional soccer, information management and data-
mining tools are used routinely to assess the contributions
made and value added by individual team members during
every game over the course of a season: “The network of
cameras around the ground misses not a trick; every move,
every step is tracked and transformed into frequencies,
averages, ratios and correlations. Metrics are beginning to
replace mystique” (Cronin, 2009, p. 3). Signs of a similar
trend can be observed in the groves of academe.
Developments in online and open-access publishing are
inducing transparency across the various stages of the
scholarly communication process. The black box of
traditional scientific publishing is being opened up to
scrutiny, and orthodoxies, such as anonymous peer review
(single- or double-blind) and citation-based evaluation, are
being questioned by a growing band of scientists and
scholars who reflect the values of a different Zeitgeist (e.g.,
Kravitz & Baker, 2011) and are increasingly disillusioned
with the status quo. This extract from the Force 11
Manifesto (Bourne et al., 2011, para. 3) captures the mood
of the moment, in some quarters at least: “We see a future
in which scientific information and scholarly
communication more generally become part of a global,
universal and explicit network of knowledge; where every

24. claim, hypothesis, argument—every significant element of
the discourse—can be explicitly represented, along with
supporting data, software, workflows, multimedia, external
commentary, and information about provenance.” Force 11
is a self-described community of scholars, librarians,
archivists, publishers, and research funders that has arisen
organically to bring about change in the scholarly
communication process. One of its aims is to make the full
range of a scholar’s contributions more visible than is the
case at present, to counteract what might be called the
“neglect of silent evidence” (Taleb, 2010, p. 103).
Evaluating performance, allocating credit, and
distributing pecuniary rewards will become more
complicated because citations are now only one among
many indicators (and potential indicators) of scholarly
influence, visibility, and impact, broadly construed. How
does one factor into the academic reward system data on
mentoring successes, the inclusion of a scholar’s work on
syllabi, the frequency with which a researcher is
acknowledged by his or her peers? And how, to take an
admittedly contrived example, does one establish the
degree of equivalence between a positive review on Faculty
of 1000 (F1000), six complimentary tweets, four document
downloads, and two citations in Nature? This is not a novel
issue: in reality it is a variant of the old question, should a
citation from a Nobel laureate be weighted the same as
one from a doctoral student, one from Scientific American
the same as one coming from a minor journal? It also
throws into relief the problem of relying on indicators that
are incommensurable—yet one more illustration of the all-
too-prevalent phenomenon that Hadley Arkes has termed
“the ritual of empty exactitude” (Arkes, 2010, p. 131).

25. Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

26. CAKE-BASKET HOLDING MERINGUE MUSHROOMS
Make a loaf of any kind of cake, cup- or sponge-cake preferred.
Bake it in a fluted pan.
Soften a long piece of macaroni in boiling-hot water. It must be
pressed carefully and gradually into the water as the ends soften.
When the macaroni is sufficiently softened, pour cold water over it,
lay it on a board, and bend it into the shape of a handle of suitable
size for the cake. Let it dry, then brush it with the white of egg and
sprinkle it with granulated sugar.
Cut little holes in the top of the cake and insert the handle. Cover
the top of the cake with mushroom-shaped meringues (see page
189).

27. SMALL CAKES
No. 1. Jelly-roll. Make a layer of sponge-cake, and while it is still
hot cut off the edges, spread it with jelly, and roll it together.
Then roll it in a stiff paper and tie it. If the cake is not over-
baked and is rolled while hot it will not crack. The paper will
keep it in shape. Cover the top and ends with icing. Decorate it
with tracings of icing, candied cherries, and angelica.
No. 2. Daisy cakes. Drop separate spoonfuls of sponge-cake
mixture at intervals on a baking-sheet. Bake in a hot oven for a
few minutes only, and watch carefully that the edges do not
burn. The cakes will spread, rising in the center, and be thin on
the edges.
Spread the flat sides with an icing colored green. Blanch some
almonds, split them, and cut them in strips. Arrange them in a
circle, and place in the center a little icing mixed with yolk of
egg to color it yellow; or the icing can be white and the
almonds colored in the oven to a light yellow.
No. 3. Medallion fruit-cakes. Use a sponge- or a cup-cake
mixture and bake it in gem-pans. If they rise in the center cut
off the tops to even them. Invert them, and with a small cutter
stamp a circle in the center of each one and take out a thin
layer of the cake. Cover the rest of the cakes with icing, or the
cakes may be moistened with water and then rubbed over with
powdered sugar to whiten them. Place in the center of each,
where the piece was removed, a piece of preserved peach or
other fruit, cut with the same stamp previously used, so the
fruit will exactly fit the opening.

28. NO. 179. CUP-CAKES, DECORATION OF FLOWER DESIGN.

29. CUP-CAKES WITH DECORATION OF FLOWER
DESIGN
Make a cup-cake mixture and bake it in gem-pans. Invert the
cakes and cover them with icing Nos. 1, 2, or 3. Place on top of each
one half a candied cherry, the flat side down, two pieces of angelica
cut into diamond shape to imitate leaves, and a thin strip of angelica
to imitate a stem.
NO. 180. FANCY CAKES.
1. CHERRY CAKES. 2. DOMINO CAKES. 3. MARBLE CAKES. 4. HEMISPHERES.

30. FANCY CAKES
No. 1. Cherry-cakes. Cut a layer of any kind of cake into pieces
three inches long and two and a quarter wide. Ice them, lay on
candied cherries cut in halves, small strips of angelica imitating
stems, and angelica cut in diamond-shaped pieces imitating
leaves.
The cakes in illustration are made of sponge-cake; the two on
the outside are covered with icing No. 4, the other two with
maple icing No. 5.
No. 2. Domino cakes. Cut a layer of cake into two pieces. Cover
one with chocolate icing and the other with white icing. While
the icing is still soft cut the cake, using a sharp knife, into
pieces three inches long and one and a half inches wide.
Put a little decorating icing (No. 16) into a pastry-bag with
plain tube of small opening, and press it through on to the
cakes in dots and lines to imitate dominoes. Use white icing for
the chocolate pieces, and the same icing mixed with cocoa
powder for the white pieces.
No. 3. Marble cakes. Drop any cake mixture from a spoon on to a
floured baking-sheet, using about a dessertspoonful of mixture
for each cake, and leaving enough space for the cakes to
spread. Place on the flat sides icings of three colors and let
them run together irregularly to give a marble-like appearance.
No. 4. Hemispheres. Make a cake mixture, using,
¼ cupful of butter,
¼ cupful of powdered sugar,
¾ cupful of pastry flour,
½ teaspoonful of vanilla,
Yolks of two eggs.

31. Cream together the butter and sugar, add the yolks and flavoring,
and then the flour. Make it into balls one inch in diameter, by rolling
small portions of the mixture between the hands. Roll the balls in
powdered sugar and place them on a floured tin. They will flatten in
baking and leave the shape of hemispheres. Bake them in a
moderate oven ten to fifteen minutes. Cover the flat sides with icing
of different colors and ornament with decorating icing pressed
through a tube of small opening.
In the illustration some of the cakes have only the decorating icing
in rings with a spot of jelly in the center, others have pistache with
decoration, and others have plain icing with a spot of jelly in the
center.

32. CREAM-CAKES
To a cupful of hot water add a tablespoonful of butter, a
tablespoonful of sugar, and a dash of salt. When the sugar is
dissolved and the butter melted add a cupful and a quarter of flour.
Cook it, stirring all the time, until it is a smooth paste that leaves the
sides of the pan. Let it cool a few minutes and then add three or, if
necessary, four eggs, beating in well one at a time. The paste should
have sufficient consistency to hold its shape without spreading when
dropped from a spoon.
Put the paste into a pastry-bag with a plain tube of half-inch
opening and press it through into balls from three quarters of an
inch to two and a half inches in diameter, according to the size of
cakes wanted. Brush the tops with egg and bake in a slow oven for
thirty to forty minutes, or until the cakes are puffed and feel light.
If they are to be used for plain cream-cakes, open them on one
side and put in a spoonful of cream filling made as follows:

33. NO. 181. CREAM CAKES, ICED.
NO. 182. CREAM CAKES WITH JAM AND WHIPPED CREAM.

34. NO. 183. MERINGUE MUSHROOMS.

35. CREAM FILLING
Beat together the yolks of five eggs, half a cupful of sugar, and a
heaping tablespoonful of cornstarch, add a pint of scalding milk and
stir over the fire until it is well thickened, then add half a teaspoonful
of vanilla or other flavoring.

36. CREAM-CAKES, ICED
Make cream-cakes two inches in diameter, fill them with charlotte
russe filling, or with apricot or other jam, and whipped cream. Cover
them with icing No. 1 or 2; or fill them with cream filling flavored
with coffee and cover them with icing No. 1 made with coffee.

37. CREAM-CAKES WITH JAM AND WHIPPED CREAM
Make cream-cakes one to one and a half inches across. Open and
spread the inside with apricot or any jam, and then fill them with
whipped cream. Boil a little sugar and water to the crack; that is,
until a little of the boiling sugar dropped into water will be brittle
enough to break with a snap. Pour this over the cakes, and sprinkle
them with chopped blanched almonds.

38. LITTLE CREAM-CAKES WITH CARAMEL ICING
Make cream-cakes of one inch diameter. Fill them with cream
filling, and cover them with sugar boiled to the crack, as directed
above. Place each one in a little paper box and serve with other
fancy cakes.

39. MERINGUE MUSHROOMS
Place meringue mixture (see page 150) in a pastry-bag with a
plain tube, and press it through into shapes like mushroom caps.
This is done by holding the tube still until enough of the egg is
pressed through to form a cap of the size desired and high in the
center. With a wet knife lightly press down the point left by the tube,
and, if necessary, smooth the whole top. On another paper make
forms resembling mushroom stems, and with a wet knife flatten the
tops. Place all in a cool oven for a few minutes to form a crust, but
do not let them color. When a little firm place them on the hot shelf
to dry. Sprinkle the tops of the caps with powdered cocoa, and with
the finger darken an edge around the flat under surface to represent
the gills of a mushroom. Moisten the tops of the stems with white of
egg and stick them on the caps.

40. COCOANUT MERINGUES
Place meringue mixture (page 150) in a pastry-bag with plain tube
of one-half inch opening, and press it through on to paper in pieces
about three inches long. Cut the meringue from the tube to give
clean ends. Sprinkle the tops with as much grated cocoanut as will
adhere. Desiccated cocoanut can be used. Place in a moderate oven
to color it lightly, then remove to the hot shelf of the range to dry.
These meringues are also pretty if pressed through a star-tube
into rings.

41. GALETTES
Roll puff-paste trimmings as thin as possible. Stamp it all over with
some rough surface which will pierce the paste (a wooden meat-
pounder was used for those in illustration). Then cut with a plain
biscuit-cutter into round or oblong shapes. Lay these on a baking-
sheet, paint the tops all over evenly with egg, and sprinkle them
with powdered sugar. Bake in a medium oven until lightly colored.
Every scrap of paste can be utilized for these cakes, which are
very nice with ice-cream or for afternoon tea-cakes.
NO. 184. COCOANUT MERINGUES.

42. NO. 185. GALETTES.
There is a utensil for making these cakes, but it is too expensive
for general use. It is a metal plate with raised pattern, and over this
the thin paste is rolled.

43. PASTRY FINGERS
Roll puff-paste to one-eighth inch thickness. Cut it into strips one
inch wide and three inches long. Spread one half of the strips with a
thin layer of any kind of jam, and cover with the remaining strips,
making sandwich-like pieces. Bake in a hot oven for ten minutes, or
until done, then paint the tops with white of egg and sprinkle with
powdered sugar and chopped blanched almonds. Return to the oven
to glaze and slightly color the nuts.
If not used at once place the fingers in the oven a few minutes to
freshen them before serving.

44. ICINGS
No. 1. Using confectioners’ sugar. This is XXXX sugar, and is
exceedingly fine.
Mix confectioners’ sugar with enough water to make it spread
evenly. A little flavoring of any kind may be put in the water,
but is not necessary. This makes a soft, clear icing, which is
very nice and is the easiest of all icings to prepare and handle.
For orange icing. Use strained orange juice instead of water,
or soak the grated peel in hot water for a little while, and then
strain it through a cloth and use the water.
For yellow icing. Dilute the yolk of an egg with a little water,
and flavor with mandarin orange extract.
For pistache icing. Color the water with green coloring
paste, and flavor it with one teaspoonful of orange-flower
water and one quarter teaspoonful of bitter-almond extract.
For pink icing. Use strawberry juice, or color water with a
little cochineal.
For wine-cakes. Use sherry instead of water.
No. 2. Hard, white icing. Take the unbeaten white of an egg,
dilute it with a very little water and flavor it. Stir in powdered
sugar until it is of the consistency to spread.
This makes a hard, white icing.
No. 3. Boiled icing. Put a cupful of granulated sugar and a half
cupful of hot water into a saucepan and stir until the sugar is
dissolved, then let it boil without stirring until it threads or, if
dropped into water, it can be taken up and rolled between the
fingers into a soft ball. Remove it from the fire and stir until it
slightly clouds, then immediately pour it over the cake.

45. This makes a clear icing, and is a good covering for cakes
which are to be decorated, as it gives, with the decorating
icing, two colors.
No. 4. Boiled icing, No. 2. Cook, without stirring, after the sugar is
dissolved, one cupful of granulated sugar and one quarter
cupful of hot water until it threads, then pour it slowly over the
whipped white of one egg. Beat the mixture all the time, and
until it is cool enough to spread.
No. 5. Maple icing. Boil to the thread or soft-ball stage a cupful of
maple sugar with a quarter of a cupful of hot water to dissolve
it, or use maple syrup. Pour it slowly over the whipped white of
one egg as in No. 4.
No. 6. Caramel icing. Boil a cupful of granulated sugar, a half
cupful of milk, and a teaspoonful of butter to the thread or
soft-ball stage. Flavor with a few drops of vanilla and stir until
it begins to grain.
No. 7. Crystal icing. Spread any icing over a cake, and while it is
still moist sprinkle over it the coarse grains of granulated sugar
obtained by sifting.
No. 8. Powdered sugar. Moisten with a brush the surface of a
cake with the white of an egg diluted with a tablespoonful of
water and stirred just enough to break the stringiness; then
dust it thickly with powdered sugar, using a sifter. After the egg
has dried, shake off the sugar that does not adhere.
No. 9. Whipped cream. Flavor a half pint of cream with a few
drops of vanilla and whip it until it is stiff and dry. Just before
serving the cake ornament it with the whipped cream pressed
through a pastry-bag and star-tube.
This cream is used with strawberry cake and with molasses
gingerbread.
No. 10. Whipped cream with maple flavor. Heat two
tablespoonfuls of maple syrup and dissolve in it one

46. teaspoonful of granulated gelatine which has been soaked in a
tablespoonful of cold water. Let the syrup cool so it will not
heat the cream, but before it sets stir it into a half pint of
cream. Whip the cream to a stiff froth and press it through a
pastry-bag and tube on to the cake in an ornamental pattern.
No. 11. Butter. Whip a half pound of butter until it is smooth and
light, sweeten it with thick sugar syrup flavored, and add a
level tablespoonful of cornstarch. Press it through a pastry-bag
and tube on to the cake in ornamental designs.
No. 12. Mocha cream. Whip half a pound of butter, using a fork,
until it is smooth and light. Flavor it with syrup made of a half
cupful of sugar and a quarter cupful of strong coffee. Add a
level tablespoonful of cornstarch to give the butter more
stability. Press it through a pastry-bag and tube.
No. 13. Chocolate icing, No. 1. Dissolve one and a half ounces of
unsweetened chocolate in one third cupful of cream or milk,
and add half a teaspoonful of butter. When this mixture is a
little cool add the beaten yolk of one egg, one half teaspoonful
of vanilla, and enough confectioners’ sugar to make it spread.
No. 14. Chocolate icing, No. 2. Melt two ounces of unsweetened
chocolate on a hot pan, remove it from the fire, and add half a
cupful of sugar, one teaspoonful of butter, and lastly a quarter
cupful of milk. Replace it on the fire and cook until a little
dropped into water will form a soft ball. Pour it over the cake.
No. 15. Tutti frutti icing. Cook a cupful of sugar and a quarter
cupful of water to the thread or soft-ball stage. Turn it slowly
on to the whipped white of one egg. Beat them together and
add a tablespoonful each of chopped blanched almonds, citron
cut in small pieces, seeded raisins, candied cherries cut into
pieces, and angelica cut into bits. Spread it roughly over the
cake. Any combination of fruits may be used instead of those
given above. As this is a rich icing, it should be used on a plain
cake, such as cup- or sponge-cake.

47. No. 16. Decorating icing. Whip the whites of two eggs to a very
stiff froth, then add slowly powdered sugar until the mixture is
so stiff that every point and thread left by the beater will hold
its place. It requires beating a long time. It is the same as
meringue mixture, except that it is made hard with sugar
instead of by drying, and takes about a half cupful of sugar to
each egg.
Note.—Sprinkle a cake that is going to be frosted with flour as soon
as it is taken from the pan. Before icing, wipe off the flour. This
prevents the icing from running so much, and makes it easier
to spread.
Note.—Smooth icings with the broad side of a wet knife. Wipe the
blade clean, and dip it in water each time it is drawn over the
icing. In this way very rough surfaces can be smoothed.
Note.—Icing left over will keep any length of time, if excluded from
the air and not allowed to dry. Put it in a cup, cover the cup
with a wet cloth, double several times, and cover the cloth
with a saucer.
Note.—For other icings and directions, see “Century Cook Book,”
page 483.

49. ChaétÉr XIV
 
BREADS

50. BREADS
Stirred Bread
Water Bread
Whole Wheat Bread
Unleavened Bread-chips
Scotch Oat-cakes
Pulled Bread
Lace Toast or Zwieback
Swiss Rolls
Luncheon or Dinner Rolls, Braids, Twists
Striped Bread and Butter
Checkered Bread and Butter
Sandwiches, Bread and Butter
Sandwiches, Rolled or Motto
Sandwiches, Lettuce
Sandwiches: Cucumber, Egg, Cheese, Watercress, Pâté de Foie
Gras, Chicken, Fish or Meat, Nasturtium Flowers, Olives,
Nuts, Jam or Jellies
Sandwiches, Toasted Cheese
Brioche
Corn-muffins
Cheese-crackers

51. NO. 187. STIRRED BREAD.

52. STIRRED BREAD
1½ quarts of water,
2 tablespoonfuls of sugar,
1 tablespoonful of butter, lard, or cottolene,
1 tablespoonful of salt,
1 cake of compressed yeast,
Flour enough to make a thick batter, or about two and three-
quarter quarts.
This quantity of material will make three loaves.
Have the water warm, not hot. Stir into the water the sugar, salt,
softened butter, and the yeast, which has been dissolved in a
tablespoonful of water (yeast is more easily dissolved in a small
quantity of water), then stir in enough flour to make a batter as
thick as can be stirred easily. Stir and beat the batter well for about
ten minutes. Cover the bread-pan and set it in a warm place (eighty
degrees is the right temperature). When the dough is light, or about
doubled in bulk, stir it down, and beat it well for a few minutes. Let
it rise a second time, and again beat it, then turn it into the pans,
filling them half full. The tops of the loaves can be made smooth by
brushing them with a pastry-brush dipped in water.
The stirring gives a fine texture. The dough rises quickly after the
first rising, and must be watched that it does not get light enough to
sour. Let the loaves rise in the baking-pans to double in size, then
bake in a hot oven for one hour.
Bread made in this way is very light and spongy, and is much
better than that which is made so thick with flour that it can be
kneaded. It has also the other advantages of being easier to make,
the results are more reliable, and the objection of too much handling

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