FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
See step-by-step examples of how to approach
important concepts in the Worked examples.
Analyse in-depth Case studies that present issues in
context, encouraging you to integrate and apply the
concepts discussed in the chapter to the workplace.
Each one has a clearly marked Commentary section that
discusses the case.-
To summarise, we have shown that we can express the profit for the first period, from time T
0
to
time T
1
, as:
-����������-�����
�
�������
�
f�������
�
Similarly, we can express the profit for the second period, the period between time T
1
and time T
2
, as:
-����������-�����
�
�������
�
f�������
�
We have also established that the profit or loss is derived by measuring the wealth of an individual, or
an entity, at two points in time. Now let us look in more detail at what we are trying to measure and how
we can measure it.
We start by examining the case of an individual because this is simpler and more in line with your own
experience. fle underlying arguments and principles are just the same for an entity but the degree of
complexity increases. Let us suppose that we asked an individual to measure his or her wealth; that is, the
sum of possessions less debts.
-����������������������
-������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������
-���������������������
•������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������•���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
����������������������������������
��������������������������
•��•�������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������
�
�������������������������
�
AsetCsurnr as1r0rNNa Asretonta0orN-surnr as1r0rNNa
cetsetCs-0t99 u4ts9aTts-0t99
l25ts9420 9 u4ts9aTtsL25ts9420 9
lri0sba209srLs–tae9 l25tsba209srLs–tae9
cets9i0LSra0- cets9i0LSra0-
hd’’sqa94 hy’’sqa94
-����������������������������������������•���������������•��•�����������������������������������������
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������-��������
�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
•����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���
�•����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������-€‚ƒ� „�…�����†�
‡��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
The onleydifrcfhy
ThTh--������--������ ���-� ���������
262 part 1 finA nciA l Accounting
Case study 9.1
Company A Company B
$ $
Assets
Current assets 100 000 100 000
Non-current assets
1 900 000 1 400 000
Total assets 2 000 000 1 500 000
Liabilities
Current liabilities 500 000 500 000
Non-current liabilities 500 000 –
Total liabilities 1 000 000 500 000
Net assets 1 000 000 1 000 000
Shareholders’ equity
Paid up capital 500 000 500 000
Retained profits 500 000 500 000
1 000 000 1 000 000
Commentary
The only difference between the balance sheets of Company A and Company B is $500 000 in
non-current assets and $500 000 in non-current liabilities. Company A has just borrowed $500 000
f rom the bank over a period of 10 years. It has purchased a machine that has an estimated life of 10
years with zero residual value. B has just signed a lease agreement to acquire the use of an identical
machine to that purchased by A. The lease agreement is for 10 years and cannot be cancelled by
either party unless B fails to make a lease payment. Given these facts, should the balance sheets
of A and B be any different? In Company A’s balance sheet, total liabilities to shareholders’ equity
is 100 per cent. However, for Company B this ratio is only 50 per cent. This suggests that the lease
arranged by Company B is less risky than that arranged by Company A. Is this a fair conclusion?
In response to the problem of the non-disclosure of leases, the accounting profession issued accounting
standards that required the reporting of leases that met certain criteria. In Australia, AASB 1008 Accounting
for Leases was the initial standard and, with the adoption of IFRSs, this was replaced with AASB 117 Leases.
In 2016 this standard was replaced by AASB 16 Leases. AASB 16 requires a lessee to record a lease as an
asset and a liability at the present value of the lease payments for the period the lease is non-cancellable.
The asset recorded in the lessee’s accounts is then amortised or depreciated to the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income over the lease period. The lease liability is reported as a non-current
liability except the portion payable in the next 12 months which is reported as a current liability. Each lease
payment incorporates principal and interest components; the interest component is treated as an expense.
The liability is systematically reduced in each period by the principal component of each lease payment.
Therefore, each lease payment is similar to the loan repayment that Company A would be required to make
in Case study 9.1.
262 part 1 finA nciA l Accounting
Case study 9.1
Company A Company B
$ $
Assets
Current assets 100 000 100 000
Non-current assets 1 900 000 1 400 000
Total assets 2 000 000 1 500 000
Liabilities
Current liabilities 500 000 500 000
Non-current liabilities 500 000 –
Total liabilities 1 000 000 500 000
Net assets 1 000 000 1 000 000
Shareholders’ equity
Paid up capital 500 000 500 000
Retained profits 500 000 500 000
1 000 000 1 000 000
Commentary
The only difference between the balance sheets of Company A and Company B is $500 000 in
non-current assets and $500 000 in non-current liabilities. Company A has just borrowed $500 000
f rom the bank over a period of 10 years. It has purchased a machine that has an estimated life of 10
years with zero residual value. B has just signed a lease agreement to acquire the use of an identical
machine to that purchased by A. The lease agreement is for 10 years and cannot be cancelled by
either party unless B fails to make a lease payment. Given these facts, should the balance sheets
of A and B be any different? In Company A’s balance sheet, total liabilities to shareholders’ equity
is 100 per cent. However, for Company B this ratio is only 50 per cent. This suggests that the lease
arranged by Company B is less risky than that arranged by Company A. Is this a fair conclusion?
In response to the problem of the non-disclosure of leases, the accounting profession issued accounting
standards that required the reporting of leases that met certain criteria. In Australia, AASB 1008 Accounting
for Leases was the initial standard and, with the adoption of IFRSs, this was replaced with AASB 117 Leases.
In 2016 this standard was replaced by AASB 16 Leases. AASB 16 requires a lessee to record a lease as an
asset and a liability at the present value of the lease payments for the period the lease is non-cancellable.
The asset recorded in the lessee’s accounts is then amortised or depreciated to the statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income over the lease period. The lease liability is reported as a non-current
liability except the portion payable in the next 12 months which is reported as a current liability. Each lease
payment incorporates principal and interest components; the interest component is treated as an expense.
The liability is systematically reduced in each period by the principal component of each lease payment.
Therefore, each lease payment is similar to the loan repayment that Company A would be required to make
in Case study 9.1.
Extracts from the Woolworths Ltd 2018 Annual
Report are included in the Appendix, and the
margin icon indicates places in the text where reference
is made to these extracts. These will help you become
familiar with and appreciate the functioning of a real
company’s financial report.
The Ethics and corporate social responsibility
icons in the margin highlight ethical issues and
discussion of CSR throughout the text.
Statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income
The first difference is in the title of the statement: the fact that Jack is a proprietary limited company must
be stated, and the new title does this. In addition, the statement contains comparative figures for the
previous year, as well as references to a number of notes. These notes contain greater detail than can be
shown on the face of the statement, and so are an integral part of the analysis of the accounts of a company.
This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. We can see that down to ‘Gross profit’ the format is
familiar. However, we then find that expenses are classified into broad categories. These categories are
laid down in AASB 101 Presentation of Financial Statements. The other difference is that the statement is
called a statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. We discuss statements of financial
performance in detail in Chapter 6.
It is from the point at which the profit is shown that the real differences arise. The most striking of
these is that taxation is included in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income. This is
because the company is recognised as a separate entity for legal and tax purposes and its profits are liable
to company tax. In contrast, the sole trader and the partnership are not separate legal or taxable entities:
their profits are not taxed as such, but only as they form part of the income of the owner.
Balance sheet
We now look at the balance sheet of a proprietary limited liability company and the differences that arise.
The format uses the current/non-current classification. AASB 101 allows companies to choose an
alternative format in which assets and liabilities are listed in order of liquidity. Most banks list assets and
liabilities in order of liquidity and do not use the current/non-current classification. We discuss balance
sheets in detail in Chapter 5.
As you can see, the top part of the balance sheet is similar to those we have encountered before, except
for the inclusion of dividends and taxation and the fact that a lot of the detail is included in the notes to the
statements. For example, Note 6 would contain details of non-current assets bought and sold during the
year, as well as the depreciation to date, and that charged during the year.
The lower part of the balance sheet is somewhat different in that the owners’ equity is referred to as
share capital. This might consist of different types, each carrying different voting rights, and so on. This
would only be apparent if we looked at the detail contained in the notes. Similarly, there may be different
types of reserves, such as a revaluation reserve for revalued assets such as land and buildings. Jack has a
revaluation reserve and more details are provided in the statement of changes in equity.
2.2 Financial statements
for a public company
The statements presented for Jack Pty Ltd above are for a private company and are simpler than those for
a public company. Woolworths is a public company and its financial statements illustrate the usual format
of each statement. Refer to the Woolworths financial report in Appendix 1. Note that the statements are
headed ‘consolidated’.
Most major companies, such as Woolworths, operate in a parent–subsidiary (or controlled entity)
relationship for a variety of reasons. In fact, such companies often control many companies. For
example, Woolworths has over 70 wholly owned subsidiaries, including Cellarmasters and Safeway.
reserves
(Chapter 2) Amounts
set aside out of profits
and other surpluses
which are not designed
to meet any liability,
contingency, commitment
or diminution in value of
assets known to exist at
the date of the balance
sheet. Reserves do not
equal cash.
W
LO 2.2
Identify the main
characteristics of the
financial statements of
a public company and
the role and meaning of
consolidated financial
statements.
38 part 1 financial accounting
Auditor’s Independence Declaration
60
The Board of Directors
Woolworths Group Limited
1 Woolworths Way
Bella Vista
NSW 2153
20 August 2018
Dear Board Members
Woolworths Group Limited
In accordance with section 307C of the Corporations Act 2001, I am pleased to provide the following declaration of independence
to the directors of Woolworths Group Limited.
As lead audit partner for the audit of the financial statements of Woolworths Group Limited for the financial year ended 24 June 2018,
I declare that to the best of my knowledge and belief, there have been no contraventions of:
(i) the auditor independence requirements of the Corporations Act 2001 in relation to the audit; and
(ii) any applicable code of professional conduct in relation to the audit.
Yours sincerely
DELOITTE TOUCHE TOHMATSU
A V Griffiths
Partner
Chartered Accountants
Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu
A.C.N. 74 490 121 060
Grosvenor Place
225 George Street
Sydney NSW 2000
PO Box N250 Grosvenor Place
Sydney NSW 1217 Australia
DX 10307SSE
Tel: +61 (0) 2 9322 7000
Fax: +61 (0) 2 9322 7001
www.deloitte.com.au
Liability limited by a scheme approved under Professional Standards Legislation.
Member of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited
Appendix 1
Extracts from Woolworths Ltd 2018 Annual Report
To see the full annual report, please visit http://www.woolworthslimited.com.au and follow the links to the Investor Centre
and then to Reports .
601
There are also issues relating to the ways in which a business is perceived and the ways in which
management wishes the business to be perceived. Research has shown that managers, especially the managers of smaller entities, believe bankers are interested in the amount of assets available as security for a loan or overdraft. There is therefore a temptation to try to enhance the value of assets, perhaps by revaluing land and buildings, before applying for a loan. Similarly, in a number of cases where a business is in trouble, assets have been revalued in order to bolster the image of the business and to promote the
impression of a sound asset base.
In Australia there are severe penalties for directors of public companies or other entities who attempt
fraudulently to inflate assets or decrease liabilities. In Chapter 1, we discussed contacts, agency costs and incentives for managers to select certain accounting policies but this does not include fraudulent behaviour. In Chapter 3, we discussed the concept of ethics and the costs of unethical and fraudulent behaviour.
Ethics/CSR
Sometimes managers
might feel the temptation
to try to enhance assets
on a balance sheet when
applying for a loan. There
can be severe penalties
for this.
Stop and think 4
What are the main limitations of a balance sheet? Does this mean a balance sheet is of no use?
Format used in the book
In this chapter we have defined the nature, purpose and content of balance sheets and highlighted some of
the problems with such statements. We have also introduced the wider context in which accounting reports
can be viewed. Before proceeding, it is important to make sure you understand the definitions involved and
can apply them to real problems. As you have seen, a balance sheet can take many forms and in a book of
this nature there is no need to cover all of them. For simplicity, therefore, we use one format throughout
the book − the one shown for Simple Ltd in Worked example 5.3.
The needs of an entity determine the format of the balance sheet. We have chosen a format appropriate
to an introductory text. Before following a different format, ensure that you understand the reasons behind
it and consider whether the information is presented as clearly as it is in the Simple Ltd balance sheet. This
format is the one previously required under the Corporations Act 2001 and many companies in Australia are
still using it. Turn to Appendix 1 and study the balance sheet of Woolworths Limited and note its format.
The balance sheet is headed with the name of the entity and the date to which the statement relates. As
explained previously, a balance sheet relates to one point in time and that date needs to be clearly stated
in the heading.
Finally, we emphasise again that a balance sheet’s format may differ according to the requirements of the
users or the owners (as illustrated in the previous section by examples for an individual and a partnership).
Other formats are also possible. For example, it is unlikely that a corner store would be part of a public
company. A more appropriate format in this case may be to list the current assets less the current liabilities.
If current assets are more than current liabilities, this would indicate that the business should be able to
meet its short-term commitments when they become due.
W
128 pArt 1 financial accoUntinG
GUIDE TO THE TEXT xvCopyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202