Edible oil industry

Latest details about Edible Oil Industry In India. Overview, Impact, demand, Supply, Consumption, Problems, Opportunities, etc. about Edible Oil Industry.

1. Edible Oil Industry In India By:- Jainik Shah Date:- 22/05/2018

2. Introduction Edible oil is an important component of the agriculture sector in India. India is a leading player in this sector and the largest importer in the world, with inward shipments rising by an average 12 per cent a year. India is the fourth-largest oil seed producing country in the world, next to USA, China and Brazil. There are nine types of oilseeds that are produced in India. Soyabean , ground nut and mustard are the major oilseeds produced in the country. The sector is largely dominated by the bulk segment. Unbranded segment accounts to 75-80% of the total consumption. It comprises approximately 15,000 oil mills, 600 solvent extraction units, 250 vanaspati, manufacturing units and about 400 refining units. The sector is highly dependent on availability of raw material, domestic production of oil seeds, annual rainfall, global price fluctuation and consumer preferences

3. Commodity Profile of Edible Oil for February - 2018 Production Trend of Domestic Oilseeds :-

4. Cont... Production Trend of Domestic Edible Oils :-

5. Cont... India’s import of major edible oils :-

6. Trade Policy Export Policy :- At present, export of edible oils is prohibited. The following exemptions are permitted from prohibition on export of edible oils: a) Castor oil b) Coconut oil from all EDI Ports and through all Land Custom Stations (LCS) on Indo-Nepal, IndoBangladesh, Indo-Bhutan and Indo-Pakistan borders. c) Deemed export of edible oils (as input raw material) from DTA to 100% EOUs for production of non-edible goods to be exported d) Edible oils from Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) to Special Economic Zones (SEZs) to be consumed by SEZ units for manufacture of processed food products, subject to applicable value addition norms e) Edible oils produced out of minor forest produce, ITC (HS) Code 15159010, 15159020, 15159030, 15159040, 15179010 and 15219020. f) Organic edible oil subject to export contacts being registered and certified as ‘Organic’ by Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA). g) Rice Bran oil bulk. h) Groundnut oil, Sesame oil, Soya bean oil and Maize (Corn) oil in bulk.

7. Department of Food & Public Distribution It seeks to coordinate management of edible oils in the country through a multi-pronged strategy, namely, Assessment of the domestic demand for edible oils and its availability from domestic sources. Mismatch of demand and supply is met through import of edible oils so as to maintain their prices at reasonable level . It also closely monitors prices of edible oils both in the domestic and in the international market and initiate necessary policy measures whenever necessary. 

8. Importance of Edible Oils in the Country’s Economy Oil seeds Edible oils are two of the most sensitive essential commodities. India is one of the largest producer of oilseeds in the world and this sector occupies an important position in the agricultural economy, accounting for the estimated production of 32.09 million tons of nine cultivated oilseeds during the year 2016-17 (November-October) as per 4 th  Advance Estimates released by the Ministry of Agriculture on 16.08.2017. India contributes about 6-7% of the world oilseeds production. Export of oil meals, oilseeds and minor oils was about 3.28 million tons in the financial year 2016-17 valued at Rs 15294 crores.

9. Types of Oils commonly in use in India Groundnut Mustard Rape seed Sesame Safflower Linseed Niger seed Castor Soya bean Sunflower Coconut Palm Among the non-conventional oils Rice bran oil Cotton seed oil In addition, oilseeds of tree and forest origin, which grow mostly in tribal inhabited areas, etc. India is fortunate in having a wide range of oilseeds crops grown in its different agro climatic zones like :-

10. Figures pertaining to estimated production of major cultivated oilseeds, availability of edible oils from all domestic sources (from Domestic and Import Sources) during the last ten years are as under: -

11. Consumption Pattern of Edible Oils in India India is a vast country and inhabitants of several of its regions have developed specific preference for certain oils largely depending upon the oils available in the region . For example :- People in the South and West prefer groundnut oil while those in the East and North use mustard, rapeseed oil. Likewise several pockets in the South have a preference for coconut and sesame oil . Inhabitants of northern plain are basically consumers of fats and therefore prefer Vanaspati, a term used to denote a partially hydrogenated edible oil mixture of oils like soya bean , sunflower, rice bran and cottonseed oils . Many new oils from oilseeds of tree and forest origin have found their way to the edible pool largely through vanaspati route.

12. Cont... Through modern technological means such as physical refining, bleaching and de- odorization , all oils have been rendered practically colourless, odourless and tasteless and therefore, have become easily interchangeable in the kitchen . The share of raw oil, refined oil and vanaspati in the total edible oil market is estimated roughly at 35%, 60% and 5% respectively . About 60% of domestic demand of edible oils is met through imports out of which palm oil, palmolein constitutes about 62%.  The consumption of refined palmolein (RBD palmolein) as well as its blending with other oils has increased substantially over the years and is used extensively in hotels, restaurants and in preparation of wide varieties of food products.

13. Status of the Vegetable Oil Industry (as on 31.01.2018)

14. Annual Capacity of Different Vegetable Oil Manufacturing Plants (as on 26.05.2016 ) Name of Plant Annual Capacity(Lakh MT) Oil Mill expeller 54.9 Solvent Extraction plant 5037.5 Refinery 1544.2 Hydrogenation Plant 50.0 Inter-Esterification Plant 14.9 Margarine/Spreads Plant 6.1 Blended Edible Vegetable Oil Plant 47.2

15. Demand & Supply Scenario India plays an important role in the global edible oil market, accounting for 10-12% share of consumption; 6-8% share of oilseed production; 4-6% share of edible oil production, and 12-14% share of world edible oil imports for OY16 . The industry is highly dependent on availability of raw material, domestic production of oil seeds, annual rainfall, global price fluctuations and consumer preferences . Moreover, production of oilseeds in India is insufficient to meet the domestic demand for edible oil . Majority of the demand supply gap of edible oil in India is being filled through imports . The demand supply gap is becoming wider mainly due to limited availability of oil seeds, shifting of acreage to other crops and increase in demand of edible oil . India imports edible oil from Indonesia, Malaysia, Argentina and Ukraine and they contribute about 36%, 23%, 17% and 13% respectively of total imports. 

16.  Around 60 per cent of crude vegetable oil, required for production of edible oil, is imported due to insufficient domestic cultivation of oilseeds . India's edible oil output to hit all-time high of 7.7 mn tonnes in 2017-18 Indore-based GGN International, one of India’s largest research firms, forecasts total edible oil production in the country at 7.66 million tonnes for the oil year (November–October) 2017-18, compared to 7.05 million tonnes in the previous year.  With an increase in opening stock of a record 2.42 million tonnes, India’s edible oil availability from domestic sources is estimated at an all-time high of over 10 million tonnes . The firm forecasts India’s kharif oilseed production at 14.43 million tonnes for the harvesting season 2017-18, down over 12 per cent from the previous year’s level of 16.43 million tonnes.  Meanwhile, the Central Government raised import duty on CPO and RBD (refined, bleached and diodized) to 15 per cent and 25 per cent in August from their respective levels of 5 per cent and 15 per cent earlier.

17. Statistical Charts Production of oilseeds and edible oils (in mn tonnes)

18. Product-wise production of edible oils in India (in thousand tonnes)

19. Product-wise imports of edible oils in India (in thousand tonnes)

20. Edible oil imports by India (in million tonnes)

21. Production of major edible oils in world and India

22. Area under oil seeds in India remains between 22 to 29 million hectares while production of the major oil seeds remains between 20 to 33 million tonnes.

23. Per capita consumption of edible oil in India vs. World Sr. No. Year India World 1 2000-2001 11.1 18.95 2 2009-2010 13.3 24.54 3 2016-2017 17 25 Rising income levels and cheap imports have helped increase per capita consumption. Indian Growth story is very much intact and our demand will keep growing.

24. Domestic Oil Availability 2016-17 Vs 2017-18 Oil 2016-2017 2017-2018 Groundnut oil 5.70 5.70 Soya 14.4 14.4 Rape Mustard 18.7 18.7 Cotton 12.4 13.2 Rice Bran 9.6 10.0 Others 9.7 8.5 Total 70.5 70.5 The source of the above data is Govind Bhai and his GGN-research.

25. Issues in Oilseed Production Today, the major problem in oil seeds production is low productivity. India is way behind the developed countries and neighbouring countries like China in its productivity of oil seeds per hectare. Since the increase in production could not keep pace with increased demand, India became more and more dependent on edible oil imports. One of the biggest constraints to raising oilseed output has been that production is largely in rain-fed areas. Oilseed crops are largely grown under rain-fed condition (>70%) and are more prone to biotic and a-biotic stresses. Only one fourth of oilseed producing area remains under the irrigation.

26. Cont... Oilseeds are energy rich crops but are grown under energy starved conditions (with minimum inputs with high risk). Majority of oilseed growers (more than 85%) are small and marginal farmers having poor resource base. High seed rate (number of seeds (Kg) to be used per hector or acre for maximum yield) and cost of seeds coupled with non-availability of quality seeds of varieties and hybrids. Limited adoption of improved varieties and technologies. Unorganized marketing infrastructure and procurement mechanism. External price shock on account of dependence on import is a major challenge in this sector. The cultivation of oil seed farms such as palm has long gestation period of about 3-7 years before the cultivators could actually begin to derive benefit from thereof.

27. Measures to improve Oilseed Production Bringing additional oilseed areas under irrigation Promotion of modern crop technology and better dry farming Promoting oil palm cultivation. Further, there is a need to enlarge the scope of research, technology diffusion and institutional intervention to re-energize the oil sector. This would include increase public research spending in oilseed crops for development of biotic and antibiotic stress tolerant varieties. Strengthen the oilseed crop seed chain, particularly in groundnut to match the variety specific demand for higher yield.

28. Cont... Provide incentives to private sector participation in processing and value addition in oilseed crops. Also, constraints for low capacity utilization should be addressed. Ensure availability of key physical (fertilizers, pesticides), financial (credit facilities, crop insurance) and technical inputs (extension services) in major crop ecological zones for oilseed crops. Apart from this, other measures would include market reforms and policies, such as contract farming and public-private partnership in production and processing, to ensure a competitive market for oilseeds and edible oil along with adequate protective measures to avoid unfair competition from the international markets.

29. Overview of Major Oil Seed Crops Groundnut Groundnut is most important oil seeds of India accounting for half of the major oilseeds produced in the country. Groundnut is predominantly a Kharif crop but is also sown as a Rabi crop. 90-95 % of the total area is devoted to kharif crop. It is a legume which thrives best in tropical climate and requires 20°C to 30°C temperature; 50-75 cm rainfall. The crop is highly susceptible to frost, drought, continuous rain and stagnant water. It needs dry winder at the time of ripening.   Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soils are well suited for its cultivation. In 2015-16, the top three states producing ground nut were Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

30. Rapeseed / Mustard Mustard is second most important oil seed crop of India after Groundnut. This planet belongs to cabbage family ( Brassica ) and farmers in India mainly grow three species of Mustard as follows: India Mustard ( Rai / Mohr locally) (Botanical name –  Brassica juncea ) has small and reddish brown seeds and accounts for around 70% of total mustard production in India. Mustard or Peeli (Yellow) Sarson ( Brassica campestric ) has thicker pods and yellowish brown seeds with thin seed coats. Rape Seed or Toria ( Brassica napus ) has reddish seeds and is mainly grown in Punjab. Mustard seeds have 25-45% oil content and its oil cake makes an important cattle feed and manure. The plant thrives in north and west India, mainly Satluj-Ganga plain. Its generally grown as a Rabi crop either purely or as mixed cropping with wheat or gram or barley. India has largest area and highest production of mustard. Currently, Rajasthan is top Mustard producing state of India, followed by Haryana and MP .

31. Sesamum  ( Til ) The Sesamum seed comprises of 45 to 50 per cent oil used for cooking purposes and for manufacturing perfumery and medicines. India has the world’s largest area under Sesamum and is also the largest producer of this crop accounting for one-third of the world production. Its mainly a Rainfed crop in India.

32. Linseed Linseed ( Alsi in Hindi) has a unique drying property and is suitable for manufacturing of paints, varnishes, printing ink etc. A small part is used as edible oil also. Castor Seed Castor seed comprises 50 per cent oil. It is mostly used in industries. Palm Oil India produces a very small fraction of palm oil but is one of the largest consumers. Most of India’s palm oil requirement is met by imports from Indonesia and Malaysia.

33. Vegetable Oil A  vegetable oil  is a triglyceride extracted from a  plant. Vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called  vegetable fats . In contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable  waxes lack  glycerin  in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, oil is extracted primarily from seeds. On food packaging, the term "vegetable oil" is often used in ingredients lists instead of specifying the exact plant being used, especially when the oil used is less desirable to the consumer or if a mix is used, such as palm, canola, soybean, and safflower oils, (whereas coconut oil and olive oil  may be perceived as more desirable)

34. Uses Of Vegetable Oil Culinary uses Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including  butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz . Secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods . Hydrogenated oils Industrial uses Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products.

35. Cont... Pet food additive Vegetable oil is used in production of some pet foods. AAFCO defines vegetable oil, in this context, as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes . Fuel Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel.

36. Cooking Oils Cooking oil  is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid . There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil(rapeseed oil ), corn oil, peanut oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal-based oils like butter and lard. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic .

37. Edible Oils Edible oils are most often plant-based oils, which are similar, if not the same as those produced by the industrial biotech industry for use as bio fuels such as biodiesel, for use in cosmetics, and in other everyday biotech products. Edible oils may be solid or liquid at room temperature . Plant-derived edible oils consist of carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains, in contrast to petroleum-based oils which lack the carboxyl group on the end. The carboxyl group makes the oils edible, providing a site for our enzymes to attack and break down the chain in a process called beta-oxidation. The lengths of the hydrocarbon chains and whether they are saturated or not, or unsaturated in a  cis  or trans conformation, determines how easily they are metabolized and how healthy or unhealthy they are as part of our diet.

38. What Are Inedible Oils ? Edible oils are, of course, differentiated from inedible oils such as petroleum-based products (gasoline, fuel oil, and related products). Various forms of grease and lubricant may also be considered inedible oils. There are, also, a number of plant-based oils that are inedible for humans--but are very useful for other purposes (primarily as biofuels ). These include (among others)  jatropha , Karanja , mahua , linseed, rubber seed, cottonseed and neem oils.

39. What Are the Most Commonly Used Edible Oils ? Coconut oil Corn oil Cottonseed oil Olive oil Palm oil Peanut oil Rapeseed/canola oil Safflower oil Sesame oil Soybean oil Sunflower oil

40. Which Edible Oils Are Healthiest for Human Consumption ? Edible oils can be broken into three large groups: saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated oils. It's easy to distinguish between these groups: Saturated oils are solid at room temperature; this describes shortenings, margarines, and a few other commonly eaten oils. Monounsaturated oils are liquid at room temperature but begin to solidify in the refrigerator. These include olive oil and peanut oil. Polyunsaturated oils remain liquid when at room temperature or when chilled. These include canola, sunflower, and walnut oils (among others).  Saturated oils are considered to be relatively unhealthy because they can contribute to higher cholesterol levels and heart disease. Thus, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils are usually a better choice for overall health .

41. Raw Materials Used in making Edible oil The average bottle of cooking oil contains vegetable oil, with no additives, preservatives, or special flavorings. The oil comes from various parts of plants, in most cases from what are commonly called seeds (including sunflower, palm kernel, safflower, cotton, sesame, and grapeseed oils) or nuts (including peanut, soybean, almond, and walnut oils ). A few special cases involve merely squeezing the oil from the flesh of the fruit of the plant. For example, coconut oil comes from the coconut's white meat, palm oil from the pulp of the palm fruit, and olive oil from the flesh of fresh olives. Atypically, corn oil is derived from the germ (embryo) of the kernel .

42. Production Process The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered. 1. Mechanical extraction Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing .“ Expeller-pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered  mortar and pestle) are also used . Method Percentage extracted Ghani 20–30% Expellers 34–37% Solvent 40–43%

43. 2. Solvent extraction The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents. 3. Hydrogenation Oils may be partially hydrogenated to produce various ingredient oils.  Hardening vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a catalyst in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen.

44. 4. Deodorization In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point, and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil.  5. Extraction and Refinement Extraction: There are three broad types of oil extraction: Chemical solvent extraction, most commonly using hexane. Pressing, using an expeller press or cold press (pressing at low temperatures to prevent oil heating). Decanter centrifuge. In large-scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction and/or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible .

45. Refinement Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination): Distilling, which heats the oil to evaporate off chemical solvents from the extraction process. Degumming, by passing hot water through the oil to precipitate out gums and proteins that are soluble in water but not in oil, then discarding the water along with the impurities. Neutralization ,  or deacidification , which treats the oil with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate to pull out free fatty acids, phospholipids, pigments, and waxes. Bleaching, which removes "off- colored " components by treatment with fuller's earth, activated carbon, or activated clays, followed by heating, filtering, then drying to recoup the oil. Dewaxing , or winterizing, improves clarity of oils intended for refrigeration by dropping them to low temperatures and removing any solids that form. Deodorizing, by treating with high-heat pressurized steam to evaporate less stable compounds that might cause "unusual" odors or tastes. Preservative addition, such as BHA and BHT to help preserve oils that have been made less stable due to high-temperature processing. Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it doesn't alter the state of the oil .

46. Cooking oil manufacture involves cleaning the seeds, grinding them, pressing, and extruding the oil from them. In extracting, a volatile hydrocarbon such as hexane is used as a solvent.  After extracting, the oil is refined, mixed with an alkaline substance, and washed in a centrifuge. Further washing and refining follows, and then the oil is filtered and/or distilled. It is then ready for packaging .

47. General Common Process Handling Cleaning and grinding Pressing Extracting additional oil with solvents Removing solvent traces Refining the oil Packaging the oil

48. Waste cooking oil Recycling Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used as animal feed, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel ,  soap, and other industrial products . In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically from deep fryers or griddles) is called recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable oil (WVO), or  yellow grease . Yellow grease is used to feed livestock, and to make soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents, and biodiesel  fuel. Used cooking oil, besides being converted to biodiesel, can be used directly in modified diesel engines and for heating .

49. By products/Waste The most obvious by-product of the oil making process is oil seed cake. Most kinds of seed cake are used to make animal feed and low-grade fertilizer; others are simply disposed of. In the case of cotton, the lint on the seed is used to make yarn and cellulose that go into such products as  mattresses, rayon,  and lacquer. Coconut oil generates several byproducts , with various uses: desiccated coconut meat  (copra)  is used in the confectionery industry; coconut milk can be consumed; and  coir,  the fiber from the outer coat, is used to make mats and rope. Since corn oil is derived from a small portion of the entire kernel, it creates corn meal and hominy if it is dry milled, and corn starch and corn syrup if it is wet milled. Lecithin is a byproduct of the degumming process used in making soybean oil. This industrially valuable product is used to make animal feed,  chocolate,  cosmetics, soap,  paint,  and plastics—to name just a few of its diverse uses. Recent research has focused on utilizing the residual oil seed cake. The cake is high in protein and other nutrients, and researchers are working to develop methods of processing it into a palatable food that can be distributed in areas where people lack sufficient protein in their diets. This goal requires ridding (through additional processing) the oil seed cake of various undesirable toxins (such as gossypol in cotton seed, or aflatoxin in peanut meal). Initial results are promising .

50. Chemicals Used In Edible Oil Sr. No. Chemicals Applications 1 Nickel catalyst Used for edible oil hydrogenation 2 Hexane solvent Used in a solvent extraction process 3 Phosphoric or citric acid to convert the remaining non- hydralable phospholipids (Ca, Mg salts) into hydratable phospholipids 4 Sodium hydroxide Neutralising of the free fatty acids 5 Aldehydes and ketones Deodorising to remove volatile components 6 Sulphuric acid The soaps are generally split with sulphuric acid to recover free fatty acids 7 Sodium sulphate Used with sulphuric acid 8 Spent flakes Spent flakes are saturated with solvent 9 Activated Clays for removal of soluble impurities and trace metals from edible oil

51. Triglycerides are the predominant component of most food fats and oils . A triglyceride is composed of glycerol and three fatty acids . Mono- and diglycerides are mono- and diesters of fatty acids and glycerol. They are used frequently in foods as emulsifiers . Free fatty acids are the unattached fatty acids present in a fat . Phosphatides consist of alcohols (usually glycerol), combined with fatty acids, phosphoric acid, and a nitrogen-containing compound.  Phosphatides are an important source of natural emulsifiers marketed as lecithin. Vegetable oil sterols collectively are termed " phytosterols “. Cholesterol is the primary animal fat sterol and is only found in vegetable oils in trace amounts . Stigmasterol and sitosterol are the best-known vegetable oil sterols. Sitosterol has been shown to reduce both serum and LDL cholesterol when incorporated into margarines, margarine spreads, salad dressings and various other food products  Tocopherols are important minor constituents of most vegetable fats. They serve as antioxidants to delayrancidity and as sources of the essential nutrient vitamin E . Carotenoids are colour materials occurring naturally in fats and oils. Most range in colour from yellow to deep red. 

52. The main components of edible fats and oils are triglycerides. The minor components include mono- and diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, tocopherols, pigments, waxes, and fatty alcohols. The free fatty acid content of crude oil varies widely based on the source. Other than the free fatty acids, crude vegetable oils contain approximately two percent of these minor components. Animal fats contain smaller amounts . Pigments:  Carotenoids are yellow to deep red colour materials that occur naturally in fats and oils. They consist mainly of carotenes such as lycopene, and xanthophylls such as lutein . Fatty Alcohols:  Long chain alcohols are of little importance in most edible fats. A small amount esterified with fatty acids is present in waxes found in some vegetable oils. Fatty acids can be classified according to their saturation, i.e. number of double bonds: Saturated fatty acids (SAFAs) have no double bonds, e.g. myristic, lauric palmitic and stearic acids. Fatty acids containing one or more double bonds are known as unsaturated . While monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) have one double bond (e.g. erucic, oleic, palmitoleic, myristoleic, gadoleic), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have two or more double bonds (e.g. linoleic linolenic, arachidic).

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