Dr.
Rakhesh
Singh
Kshetrimayum
2. Electrostatics
Dr.
Rakhesh
Singh
Kshetrimayum
8/11/2014
1
Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum
2.1 Introduction
•
In this chapter, we will study •
how to find the electrostatic fields for various ca ses? •
for symmetric known charge distribution
•
for un-symmetric known charge distribution
•
when electric potential, etc.
•
what is the energy density of electrostatic fields?
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•
what is the energy density of electrostatic fields?
•
how does electrostatic fields behave at a media int erface?
•
We will start with Coulomb’s law and discuss how to find
electric fields?
D
What is Coulomb’s law?
D
It is an experimental law
2.2 Coulomb’s law and electric field
⇒
And it states that the electric force between two
point charges q
1
and q
2
is
⇒
along the line joining them (repulsive for same cha rges and
attractive for opposite charges)
⇒
directly proportional to the product q
1
and q
2
Fr
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⇒
directly proportional to the product q
1
and q
2
⇒
inversely proportional to the square of distance r between
them
⇒
Mathematically,
1 2 1 2
2 2q q q q
ˆ ˆ
= k
F r F r
r r
α
⇒
ur ur
9
0
1
9 10
4
k
π
ε
= ≅ ×
2.2 Coulomb’s law and electric field
P
Electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive
charge q kept at that point
Principle of Superposition:
2 2
0 0
1 Qq 1 Q
ˆ ˆ
= = = (N/C)
4 4
F
F r E r
r q r
π π
ε ε
∴
ur
ur ur
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Principle of Superposition: P
The resultant force on a charge due to collection o f charges is P
equal to the vector sum of forces P
due to each charge on that charge
P
Next we will discuss
P
How to find electric field from Gauss’s law? P
Convenient for symmetric charge distribution
2.3 Electric flux and Gauss’s law P
2.3.1 Electric flux:
P
We can define the flux of the electric field throug h an
area to be given by the scalar product .
P
For any arbitrary surface S, the flux is obtained b y integrating over all the surface elements
ds
r
=
d D ds
ψ
•
ur r
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integrating over all the surface elements
=
S S
d D ds
ψ ψ
= •
∫ ∫
ur r
2.3 Electric flux and Gauss’s law
enclosed
S
Qsd D= • =
∫
v
r
ψ
ψ
⇒
Total electrical flux
coming out of a closed surface S is equal to
Gauss’s law
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⇒
Total electrical flux
coming out of a closed surface S is equal to
⇒charge enclosed by the volume defined by the closed
surface S
⇒irrespective of the shape and size of the closed su rface
2.3 Electric flux and Gauss’s law
(
)
dv Q dvD sd D
V
enclosed
V S∫ ∫ ∫
= = •∇ = • =
ρ
ψ
r
v
r
ψ
⇒Since it is true for any arbitrary volume, we may e quate the two integrands and write,
⇒Applying divergence theorem,
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integrands and write, ⇒Next we will discuss
⇒How to find electric field from electric potential?
⇒Easier since electric potential is a scalar quantit y
0
= =
D E
ρ
ρ
ε
∇•⇒∇•
r r
[First law of Maxwell’s Equations]
2.4 Electric potential ⇒
Suppose we move a potential charge q from point A t o B in
an electric field
⇒
The work done in displacing the charge by a distanc e
⇒
The negative sign shows that the work is done by an external
Er
dl
r
= - = -q
dW F dl E dl
• •
ur r ur r
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⇒
The negative sign shows that the work is done by an external agent.
⇒
The potential difference between two points A and B is given
by
= -q
B
A
W E dl
∴ •
∫
ur r
= = -
B
AB
A
W
E dl
q
φ
•
∫
ur r
2.4 Electric potential Electric field as negative of gradient of electric
potential:
r
For 1-D case,
P
Differentiate both sides with respect to the upper limit of
( ) ( )
= - dx
x
x x
x E x
φ
∞∫
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P
Differentiate both sides with respect to the upper limit of integration, i.e., x
P
P
Extending to 3-D case,from fundamental theorem of
gradients,
= - E = - E
x
x x x
d
d dx
dxφ
φ
⇒
2.4 Electric potential
= - E - E - E
x y z
d dx dy dz
φ
⇒
= + +
d dx dy dz
x y zφ φ φ
φ
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
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⇒
Electric field intensity is negative of the gradien t of
E = -
x
xφ
∂
∴
∂
E = -
y
yφ
∂∂
E = -
z
zφ
∂∂
= -
E
φ
∇
φ
2.4 Electric potential P
Maxwell’s second equation for electrostatics:
P
Electrostaticforce is a conservative force,
P
i.e., the work done by the force in moving a unit c harge from
one point to another point
P
is independent of the path connecting the two point s
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P
is independent of the path connecting the two point s
1 2
B B
A A
Path Path
E dl E dl
• = •
∫ ∫
r r
r r
=
B A
A B
E dl E dl
• − •
∫ ∫
r r
r r
Q
2.4 Electric potential
1 2
+ 0
B A
A B
Path Path
E dl E dl
∴ • • =
∫ ∫
r r r r
∫
= •
⇒
0ld E
r
r
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⇒
Applying Stoke’stheorem, we have,
∫
(
)
∫
∫
= • ×∇ = •
⇒
0sd E ld E
r
r
r
r
0= ×∇E
r
[Second law of Maxwell’s
Equations for electrostatics]
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
Basically there are three ways of finding electric field :
D
First method is using D
Coulomb’s law and
D
Gauss’s law,
D
when the charge distribution is known
Er 8/11/2014 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum
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D
when the charge distribution is known
D
Second method is using ,
D
when the electric potential is known
E
=−∇Φ
r
Φ
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
Third method
D
In practical situation, D
neither the charge distribution nor the electric po tential
D
is known
D
Only the electrostatic conditions on charge and pot ential are
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D
Only the electrostatic conditions on charge and pot ential are known at some boundaries and D
it is required to find them throughout the space
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
P
In such cases, we may use P
Poisson’s or
P
Laplace’s equations or
P
method of images
P
for solving boundary value problems
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P
for solving boundary value problems
P
Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations
v
D
ρ
∇• =
r
v o
E
ρε
∇• =
r
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
Since
D
Poisson’s equation
E
=−∇Φ
r
2
v o
E
ρε
∇• =−∇•∇Φ=−∇ Φ=
r
ρ
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D
For charge free condition, Laplace’s equation
2
v o
ρε
∇ Φ=−
2
0
∇ Φ=
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
P
Uniqueness theorem:
P
Solution to P
Laplace’s or
P
Poisson’s equations
P
can be obtained in a number of ways
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P
can be obtained in a number of ways
P
For a given set of boundary conditions,
P
if we can find a solution to
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
Poisson’s or
D
Laplace’s equation
D
satisfying those boundary conditions
D
the solution is unique D
regardless of the method used to obtain the solutio n
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D
regardless of the method used to obtain the solutio n
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
P
Procedure for solving Poisson’s or Laplace’s
equation:
P
Solve the P
Laplace’s or
P
Poisson’s equation
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P
Poisson’s equation
P
using either direct integration
P
where is a function of one variable
Φ
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
or method of separation of variables
D
if is a function of more than one variable
D
Note that this is not unique D
since it contains the unknown integration constants
D
Then, apply boundary conditions
Φ
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D
Then, apply boundary conditions
D
to determine a unique solution for .
D
Once is obtained,
D
We can find electric field and flux density using
Φ
Φ
E
=−∇Φ
r
o r
D E
ε ε
=
r r
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
P
Method of images:
Q
Q
L
ρ
L
ρ
V
ρ
−
V
ρ
−
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P
(a) Point, line and volume charges over a perfectly
conducting plane and its (b) images and equi-potent ial
surface
Q
−
L
ρ
−
V
ρ
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
commonly used to find D
electric potential,
D
field and
D
flux density
D
due to charges in presence of conductors
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D
due to charges in presence of conductors
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
States that given a charge configuration above an i nfinite
grounded perfect conducting plane
D
may be replaced by the D
charge configuration itself,
D
its image and
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D
its image and
D
an equipotentialsurface
D
A surface in which potential is same is known as
equipotentialsurface
D
For a point charge the equipotentialsurfaces are sp heres
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
In applying image method,
D
two conditions must always be satisfied:
D
The image charges must be located within conducting region and
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and
D
the image charge must be located such that on condu cting
surface S,
D
the potential is zero or constant
2.5 Boundary value problems for
electrostatic fields
D
For instance,
D
Suppose a point charge q is held at a distance d ab ove an
infinite ground plane
D
What is the potential above the plane?
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D
What is the potential above the plane?
D
Note that the image method doesn’t give correct pot ential
inside the conductor
D
It gives correct values for potential above the con ductor only
2.6 Electrostatic energy D
Assume all charges were at infinity initially, D
then, we bring them one by one and fix them in diff erent
positions
D
To find the energy present in an assembly of charge s, D
we must first find the amount of work necessary to assemble
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D
we must first find the amount of work necessary to assemble them
1 2 3
W W W W
= + +
21 2 3 32 31
( )
q q
Φ × + Φ +Φ
=
2.6 Electrostatic energy ⇒
If the charges were placed in the reverse order Therefore,
3 2 1
W W W W
= + +
2 23 1 13 12
0 ( ) ( )
q q
+ Φ + Φ +Φ
=
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⇒
Therefore,
⇒
In general, if there are n point charges
1
1 1 2 2 3 3
2
( )
W q q q
⇒= Φ + Φ + Φ
1 13 12 2 23 21 3 32 31
2 ( ) ( ) ( )
W q q q
= Φ +Φ + Φ +Φ + Φ ×Φ
1
2
1
n
k k
k
W q
=
= Φ
∑
2.6 Electrostatic energy ⇒
If instead of point charges, ⇒
the region has a continuous charge distribution,
⇒
the summation becomes integration
⇒
For Line charge
1
2
L
L
W dl
ρ
= Φ
∫
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⇒
For surface charge
⇒
For volume charge
L
1
2
s
S
W ds
ρ
= Φ
∫
1
2
v
V
W dv
ρ
= Φ
∫
2.6 Electrostatic energy ⇒
Since
⇒
we have,
⇒
From vector analysis,
v
D
ρ
∇• =
r
(
)
1
2
v
W D dv
= ∇• Φ
∫
r
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⇒
Hence
⇒
Therefore,
(
)
D D D
∇• Φ = •∇Φ+Φ∇•
r r r
(
)
( )D D D
Φ ∇• =∇• Φ − •∇Φ
r r r
(
)
(
)
1 1
2 2
V V
W D dv D dv
= ∇• Φ − •∇Φ
∫ ∫
r r
2.6 Electrostatic energy
⇒
Applying Divergence theorem on the 1
st
integral, we have,
⇒
remains as 1/r
3
while remains as 1/r
2
, therefore
the first integral varies as 1/r,
(
)dv D sd D W
V S∫ ∫
Φ∇• − • Φ =
r
r
r
2
1
2
1
Dr
Φ
sdr
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the first integral varies as 1/r, ⇒
tend to zero as the surface becomes large and ⇒
tends to be infinite
⇒
Hence
(
)
1
2
V
W D dv
=− •∇Φ
∫
r
2 1 1
2 2
o
V V
D E dv E dv
ε
• =
∫ ∫
r r
2.6 Electrostatic energy ⇒
The integral E
2
can only increase (the integrand being
positive)
⇒
Note that the integral and is over the region
where the charge is located,
⇒
so any larger volume would do just as well
1
2v
V
W dv
ρ
=
∫
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⇒
so any larger volume would do just as well
⇒
The extra space and volume will not contribute to t he
integral
⇒
Since for those regions
0
=
v
ρ
2.6 Electrostatic energy ⇒
the energy density in electrostatic field is
2
2 1 1
2 2
2
o
o
V V
dW d d D
w D E dv E dv
dv dv dv
ε
ε
= = • = =
∫ ∫
r r
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2.7 Boundary conditions for electrostatic
fields
D
Two theorems or D
Maxwell’s first and
D
second equations in integral form
D
are sufficient to find the boundary conditions
D
2.7.1 Boundary conditions for electric field
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D
2.7.1 Boundary conditions for electric field
D
Let us consider the small rectangular contour PQRSP (see
Fig. 2.8
D
l is chosen such that E
1tand E
2tare constant along this
length
2.7 Boundary conditions for
electrostatic fields
S
∆
S
∆
σ
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D
Fig. 2.8 Boundary for electrostatic fields at the i nterface of
two media
2.7 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
⇒
Note that h∑0 at the boundary interface and
⇒
therefore there is no contribution from QR and SP i n the above line
integral
⇒
Also note that the direction of the line integral a long PQ and RS are
in the opposite direction
8/11/2014 Electromagnetic Field Theory by R. S. Kshetrimayum
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The tangential component of electric field vector i s continuous
at the interface
t t
t t
C
S
R
Q
P
E E
lElEld E ld E ld E
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1
0
= ⇒
− = • + • == •
∫ ∫∫
r r r r r r
Q
2.7 Boundary conditions for
electrostatic fields
D
2.7.2 Boundary conditions for electric flux density
D
Let us consider a small cylinder at the interface
D
Cross section of the cylinder must be such that
D
vector is the same Note that h
.
0 at the boundary interface
Dr
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D
Note that h
.
0 at the boundary interface
D
therefore, there are no contribution from the curve d surface
of the pillbox in the above surface integral
D
So only the top and bottom surfaces remains in the surface
integral
2.7 Boundary conditions for
electrostatic fields
⇒
The normal is in the upward direction in the top su rface
⇒
and downward direction in the bottom surface
∫ ∫ ∫
= • + • = •
surface bottom
enclosed
surface top pillbox
Q sd D sd D sd D
2 2 1 1
r
r
r
r
r
r
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⇒
and downward direction in the bottom surface
⇒
the normal component of electric flux density can o nly
change at the interface
⇒
if there is charge on the interface, i.e., surface charge is
present
2 1 2 1
S S = S
n n n n
D D D D
σ σ
⇒
∆ − ∆ ∆
⇒
− =
2.7 Boundary conditions for
electrostatic fields
D
If medium 2 is dielectric and medium 1 is conductor
D
Then in conductor D
1=0 and hence D
2n=σ
D
or in general case, D
n=σ
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