embodied carbon emissions in buildings. a comparative analysis on the various strategies given on leed , igbc and griha .
PrasadDevyani
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Oct 26, 2025
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About This Presentation
this ppt is my study on embodied carbon emission by the buildings and what the various strategies mentioned on the various green rating systems.
Slide Content
EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS IN
BUILDINGS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
OF LEED, IGBC AND GRIHA
STRATEGIES
SUBMITTED BY:
DEVYANI PRASAD
21133022
IX SEM / 5 YR
TH
GUIDED BY - DR PREETHA JACOB
DISSERTATION PRESENTATION
BUILDINGS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
OF LEED, IGBC AND GRIHA
STRATEGIES
SUBMITTED BY:
DEVYANI PRASAD
21133022
IX SEM / 5 YR
TH
GUIDED BY - DR PREETHA JACOB
DISSERTATION PRESENTATION
Table of
Content
This dissertation explores the critical issue of embodied carbon emissions in the
building sector, which accounts for a significant portion of global carbon output.
Unlike operational carbon, embodied carbon is released during material
extraction, manufacturing, transportation, and construction—making its reduction
essential for sustainable development. The study compares three major green
building rating systems—LEED v4.1, IGBC Green New Buildings v3.0, and GRIHA
V2019—by analyzing their strategies, credit structures, and case study
implementations. Through a detailed review of literature and certified projects, the
research highlights the strengths and limitations of each system in addressing
embodied carbon and proposes an integrated framework to promote low-carbon
construction practices in India.
DISSERTATION PRESENTATION
BACKGROUND STUDY
LITERATURE STUDY
CONCLUSION
CASE STUDY
FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
Content
This dissertation explores the critical issue of embodied carbon emissions in the
building sector, which accounts for a significant portion of global carbon output.
Unlike operational carbon, embodied carbon is released during material
extraction, manufacturing, transportation, and construction—making its reduction
essential for sustainable development. The study compares three major green
building rating systems—LEED v4.1, IGBC Green New Buildings v3.0, and GRIHA
V2019—by analyzing their strategies, credit structures, and case study
implementations. Through a detailed review of literature and certified projects, the
research highlights the strengths and limitations of each system in addressing
embodied carbon and proposes an integrated framework to promote low-carbon
construction practices in India.
DISSERTATION PRESENTATION
BACKGROUND STUDY
LITERATURE STUDY
CONCLUSION
CASE STUDY
FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The building sector contributes nearly 40% of global energy-related
carbon emissions.
These emissions come from two major sources: Operational Carbon
and Embodied Carbon
While Operational carbon arises from energy used during the
building’s life (e.g., lighting, HVAC), Embodied carbon is released
upfront—during material extraction, manufacturing, transportation,
and construction.
Unlike operational emissions, embodied carbon cannot be reduced
after construction, making early design and material choices critical.
To address these challenges, green building rating systems have been
developed to guide sustainable construction practices.
While operational carbon can be reduced over time, embodied carbon
is released upfront and irreversible.
Green building rating systems like LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA aim to guide
sustainable practices—but differ in how they address embodied
carbon.
Fig 1.1 - 40% annual global carbon emissions derived from the
built environment
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
The building sector contributes nearly 40% of global energy-related
carbon emissions.
These emissions come from two major sources: Operational Carbon
and Embodied Carbon
While Operational carbon arises from energy used during the
building’s life (e.g., lighting, HVAC), Embodied carbon is released
upfront—during material extraction, manufacturing, transportation,
and construction.
Unlike operational emissions, embodied carbon cannot be reduced
after construction, making early design and material choices critical.
To address these challenges, green building rating systems have been
developed to guide sustainable construction practices.
While operational carbon can be reduced over time, embodied carbon
is released upfront and irreversible.
Green building rating systems like LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA aim to guide
sustainable practices—but differ in how they address embodied
carbon.
Fig 1.1 - 40% annual global carbon emissions derived from the
built environment
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
WHAT IS EMBODIED CARBON ?
Embodied Energy refers to the total energy consumed throughout the entire
lifecycle of building materials—from raw material extraction to construction.
It includes Energy used in:
Extraction of natural resources (e.g., mining, quarrying)
Processing and manufacturing of materials (e.g., cement, steel, bricks)
Transportation of materials to the construction site
On-site construction and assembly
This energy is consumed before the building is occupied, making it a “front-end”
or “upstream” carbon footprint.
Unlike operational energy, Embodied energy is locked into the building and
cannot be reduced after construction.
Buildings are composed of various processed materials—each material
contributes differently to the total embodied energy.
Material selection is critical: choosing low-energy materials like fly ash bricks,
AAC blocks, and CSEBs can significantly reduce embodied carbon emissions.
fig 1.2-Embodied energy in building life cycle
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Embodied Energy refers to the total energy consumed throughout the entire
lifecycle of building materials—from raw material extraction to construction.
It includes Energy used in:
Extraction of natural resources (e.g., mining, quarrying)
Processing and manufacturing of materials (e.g., cement, steel, bricks)
Transportation of materials to the construction site
On-site construction and assembly
This energy is consumed before the building is occupied, making it a “front-end”
or “upstream” carbon footprint.
Unlike operational energy, Embodied energy is locked into the building and
cannot be reduced after construction.
Buildings are composed of various processed materials—each material
contributes differently to the total embodied energy.
Material selection is critical: choosing low-energy materials like fly ash bricks,
AAC blocks, and CSEBs can significantly reduce embodied carbon emissions.
fig 1.2-Embodied energy in building life cycle
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
GREEN BUILDING RATING SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
LEED IGBC GRIHA
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Indian Green Building Council
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council,
LEED is a globally recognized certification
system.
It emphasizes Life Cycle Assessment (LCA),
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs),
and global benchmarks.
LEED v4.1 includes credits for material
transparency, recycled content, and regional
sourcing.
While strong in lifecycle methodology, LEED
often lacks contextual specificity for Indian
materials and climate conditions.
IGBC is India’s adaptation of LEED, developed by
the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
It promotes regionally sourced materials,
recycled content, and certified products.
IGBC is market-friendly, widely adopted by
private developers and corporates.
Embodied carbon is addressed indirectly,
through material efficiency and construction
practices.
GRIHA is India’s indigenous rating system,
developed by TERI and the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE).
It focuses on low-energy materials, earth-
based construction, and waste management.
GRIHA directly rewards embodied energy
reduction, especially through BIS-approved
materials and on-site production.
It is widely used in government and institutional
projects, aligning with India’s climate-responsive
goals.
Green building rating systems provide structured frameworks to evaluate and promote sustainable construction practices. They guide architects,
developers, and policymakers in reducing environmental impact through energy efficiency, material selection, and lifecycle carbon management. This
study focuses on three major systems—LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA—each offering unique approaches to embodied carbon reduction.
LEED IGBC GRIHA
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Indian Green Building Council
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council,
LEED is a globally recognized certification
system.
It emphasizes Life Cycle Assessment (LCA),
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs),
and global benchmarks.
LEED v4.1 includes credits for material
transparency, recycled content, and regional
sourcing.
While strong in lifecycle methodology, LEED
often lacks contextual specificity for Indian
materials and climate conditions.
IGBC is India’s adaptation of LEED, developed by
the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
It promotes regionally sourced materials,
recycled content, and certified products.
IGBC is market-friendly, widely adopted by
private developers and corporates.
Embodied carbon is addressed indirectly,
through material efficiency and construction
practices.
GRIHA is India’s indigenous rating system,
developed by TERI and the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE).
It focuses on low-energy materials, earth-
based construction, and waste management.
GRIHA directly rewards embodied energy
reduction, especially through BIS-approved
materials and on-site production.
It is widely used in government and institutional
projects, aligning with India’s climate-responsive
goals.
Green building rating systems provide structured frameworks to evaluate and promote sustainable construction practices. They guide architects,
developers, and policymakers in reducing environmental impact through energy efficiency, material selection, and lifecycle carbon management. This
study focuses on three major systems—LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA—each offering unique approaches to embodied carbon reduction.
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
AIM OF THE STUDY
To compare and analyze the embodied
carbon emission reduction strategies
of LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA in the building
sector, with a focus on wall and roof
materials that minimize embodied
carbon in buildings.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To study and document the criteria of LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA related to
carbon emissions.
To analyse and understand effectiveness of strategies toward reducing
embodied carbon in building.
To assess the performance impact of selected case studies under each
rating system.
To develop Recommendation for carbon-conscious design.
AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
AIM OF THE STUDY
To compare and analyze the embodied
carbon emission reduction strategies
of LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA in the building
sector, with a focus on wall and roof
materials that minimize embodied
carbon in buildings.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To study and document the criteria of LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA related to
carbon emissions.
To analyse and understand effectiveness of strategies toward reducing
embodied carbon in building.
To assess the performance impact of selected case studies under each
rating system.
To develop Recommendation for carbon-conscious design.
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
The study employs a comparative methodology involving literature review, case study analysis, and evaluation of LEED, IGBC,
and GRIHA frameworks to assess their effectiveness in addressing embodied carbon emissions.
METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
The study employs a comparative methodology involving literature review, case study analysis, and evaluation of LEED, IGBC,
and GRIHA frameworks to assess their effectiveness in addressing embodied carbon emissions.
CHAPTER 1 : BACKGROUND OF STUDY
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
SCOPE OF STUDY LIMITATION OF STUDY
• Comparative analysis limited to LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA
rating systems.
• Geographic focus: India for IGBC and GRIHA; India and
international for LEED.
Restricted to embodied carbon emissions in buildings,
with emphasis on wall materials.
Limited Case Study for Walling Material-only
Secondary Data Collection.
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
SCOPE OF STUDY LIMITATION OF STUDY
• Comparative analysis limited to LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA
rating systems.
• Geographic focus: India for IGBC and GRIHA; India and
international for LEED.
Restricted to embodied carbon emissions in buildings,
with emphasis on wall materials.
Limited Case Study for Walling Material-only
Secondary Data Collection.
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature study involves reviewing diverse written sources—research
papers, technical standards, policy documents, and rating system manuals
—to understand the historical, theoretical, and contextual dimensions of
embodied carbon in buildings.
This process helps:
Build a conceptual framework for analyzing embodied carbon
emissions
Identify global and national precedents in measurement and reduction
strategies
Evaluate cultural, environmental, and regulatory influences on
sustainable building practices
It is essential for comparing how rating systems like LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA
address embodied carbon, and for shaping effective design and material
strategies to reduce emissions in the construction sector.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature study involves reviewing diverse written sources—research
papers, technical standards, policy documents, and rating system manuals
—to understand the historical, theoretical, and contextual dimensions of
embodied carbon in buildings.
This process helps:
Build a conceptual framework for analyzing embodied carbon
emissions
Identify global and national precedents in measurement and reduction
strategies
Evaluate cultural, environmental, and regulatory influences on
sustainable building practices
It is essential for comparing how rating systems like LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA
address embodied carbon, and for shaping effective design and material
strategies to reduce emissions in the construction sector.
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
JOURNAL STUDY
This literature study reviews national and international research on embodied carbon in buildings, focusing on life cycle assessment, material selection,
and rating system strategies. It highlights carbon calculation methods, regional databases, and circular design innovations. National studies expose
gaps in Indian rating systems and material practices, while international research offers broader strategies for carbon reduction. Together, these insights
support sustainable building approaches aligned with LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA frameworks.
Emissions from a Net-Zero Building in India: Life Cycle
Assessment by Jain & Rawal (2022), published in Building and
Environment.
Evaluating Green Building Standards: A Comparative Analysis
of LEED and GRIHA by Garg & Betmawala (2025), published in
Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering.
Review of Indian Green Building Rating Systems Using
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) by Dhingra (2024), published
in International Journal of Construction Management.
Embodied Energy and Thermal Performance of Alternate
Walling Materials in Affordable Housing in Delhi by Jain,
Manchanda & Singh (2024), published in Energy and Buildings.
Low Embodied Energy Building Materials in India by Kumar,
Ralhan, Nath, Joshi & Nautiyal (2024), published in Journal of
Green Building.
Estimation and Minimization of Embodied Carbon of Buildings:
A Review by Akbarnezhad & Xiao (2017), published in Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
Embodied Carbon Emissions in Buildings: Explanations,
Interpretations, Recommendations by Lützkendorf & Balouktsi
(2022), published in Building Research & Information.
Assessment on Embodied Energy of Non-Load Bearing Walls
for Office Buildings by Salehian, Ismail & Arin (2020), published
in Journal of Cleaner Production.
Low Carbon and Low Embodied Energy Materials in Buildings:
A Review by Cabeza et al. (2019), published in Sustainable Cities
and Society.
Sustainability of Building Materials: Embodied Energy and
Embodied Carbon of Masonry by Asdrubali et al. (2023),
published in Energy Reports.
NATIONAL PAPERS INTERNATIONAL PAPERS
JOURNAL STUDY
This literature study reviews national and international research on embodied carbon in buildings, focusing on life cycle assessment, material selection,
and rating system strategies. It highlights carbon calculation methods, regional databases, and circular design innovations. National studies expose
gaps in Indian rating systems and material practices, while international research offers broader strategies for carbon reduction. Together, these insights
support sustainable building approaches aligned with LEED, IGBC, and GRIHA frameworks.
Emissions from a Net-Zero Building in India: Life Cycle
Assessment by Jain & Rawal (2022), published in Building and
Environment.
Evaluating Green Building Standards: A Comparative Analysis
of LEED and GRIHA by Garg & Betmawala (2025), published in
Journal of Sustainable Architecture and Civil Engineering.
Review of Indian Green Building Rating Systems Using
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) by Dhingra (2024), published
in International Journal of Construction Management.
Embodied Energy and Thermal Performance of Alternate
Walling Materials in Affordable Housing in Delhi by Jain,
Manchanda & Singh (2024), published in Energy and Buildings.
Low Embodied Energy Building Materials in India by Kumar,
Ralhan, Nath, Joshi & Nautiyal (2024), published in Journal of
Green Building.
Estimation and Minimization of Embodied Carbon of Buildings:
A Review by Akbarnezhad & Xiao (2017), published in Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
Embodied Carbon Emissions in Buildings: Explanations,
Interpretations, Recommendations by Lützkendorf & Balouktsi
(2022), published in Building Research & Information.
Assessment on Embodied Energy of Non-Load Bearing Walls
for Office Buildings by Salehian, Ismail & Arin (2020), published
in Journal of Cleaner Production.
Low Carbon and Low Embodied Energy Materials in Buildings:
A Review by Cabeza et al. (2019), published in Sustainable Cities
and Society.
Sustainability of Building Materials: Embodied Energy and
Embodied Carbon of Masonry by Asdrubali et al. (2023),
published in Energy Reports.
NATIONAL PAPERS INTERNATIONAL PAPERS
PAPER AIM OBJECTIVE METHODOLOGY FINDINGS INFERENCES
Jain & Rawal, 2022 – Emissions
from a Net-Zero Building in
India: LCA
Quantify gap between net-zero energy
and net-zero carbon in an Indian
building
Assess life-cycle GHG emissions;
identify system boundary & data
quality effects; highlight challenges in
applying international LCA
Life Cycle Assessment (cradle-to-
grave); system boundary analysis;
material & operational energy
accounting
NZEB still had 866 tCO₂e emissions
over 60 years; HVAC contributes 52%;
embodied & end-of-life carbon
significant
Net-zero energy ≠ net-zero carbon;
embodied carbon from materials &
systems is crucial; need low-carbon
materials, efficient systems, and
Indian-specific LCA database
Garg & Betmawala, 2025 –
Evaluating Green Building
Standards: LEED vs GRIHA
Compare LEED-India and GRIHA
criteria, methodology, and
effectiveness
Examine construction growth impact;
compare certification processes;
assess spatial distribution; analyze
policies & incentives
Comparative analysis of rating
manuals, project data, and adoption
patterns
Both emphasize energy efficiency;
LEED stricter & standardized; GRIHA
flexible; Maharashtra leads adoption;
uneven distribution across India
Energy efficiency prioritized, but
embodied carbon is less emphasized;
adoption influenced by government
policies; flexibility (GRIHA) allows local
adaptation; uniform framework
needed
Dhingra, 2024 – Review of
Indian Green Building Rating
Systems using AHP
Compare GRIHA and IGBC across
criteria, methodology, strengths, and
relevance
Examine principles & parameters;
evaluate buildings on energy, water,
waste, material use; identify
differences & advantages
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
scoring across multiple sustainability
parameters
GRIHA focuses on energy, thermal
comfort, water; IGBC emphasizes site
selection & innovation; IGBC more
market-driven; GRIHA more
government-driven
GRIHA better aligns with local climate
& environmental needs; IGBC
preferred for brand/international
linkage; dual system creates adoption
confusion; policy incentives affect
uptake
Jain, Manchanda & Singh, 2024
– Embodied Energy & Thermal
Performance of Alternate
Walling Materials
Analyze embodied energy & thermal
performance of walling materials in
affordable housing
Assess cradle-to-gate embodied
energy; evaluate thermal comfort;
compare materials for EWS housing
Material analysis (fly ash bricks, AAC
blocks, RCC, burnt clay bricks);
thermal simulations for indoor
comfort
Fly ash bricks lowest embodied energy
& best comfort; AAC moderate; RCC
highest; burnt clay bricks
unsustainable
Material choice directly affects both
embodied & operational energy; fly
ash & AAC preferred; RCC & traditional
clay bricks high-carbon; material
selection essential in early design
Kumar et al., 2024 – Low
Embodied Energy Building
Materials in India
Evaluate embodied carbon
contribution of materials & its impact
on total emissions
Define embodied vs operational
carbon; assess cement, steel, glass
contributions; review global & local
reduction strategies
Literature review, comparative
analysis of materials, policies, and
standards
Embodied carbon accounts for 20–
50% of total emissions; cement &
steel largest contributors; low-carbon
alternatives (fly ash, recycled steel,
timber) significantly reduce emissions
Embodied carbon is critical in low-
energy buildings; circular economy &
low-carbon materials key; India lacks
integrated policy and tools;
mainstreaming low-carbon materials
essential
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
NATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
Jain & Rawal, 2022 – Emissions
from a Net-Zero Building in
India: LCA
Quantify gap between net-zero energy
and net-zero carbon in an Indian
building
Assess life-cycle GHG emissions;
identify system boundary & data
quality effects; highlight challenges in
applying international LCA
Life Cycle Assessment (cradle-to-
grave); system boundary analysis;
material & operational energy
accounting
NZEB still had 866 tCO₂e emissions
over 60 years; HVAC contributes 52%;
embodied & end-of-life carbon
significant
Net-zero energy ≠ net-zero carbon;
embodied carbon from materials &
systems is crucial; need low-carbon
materials, efficient systems, and
Indian-specific LCA database
Garg & Betmawala, 2025 –
Evaluating Green Building
Standards: LEED vs GRIHA
Compare LEED-India and GRIHA
criteria, methodology, and
effectiveness
Examine construction growth impact;
compare certification processes;
assess spatial distribution; analyze
policies & incentives
Comparative analysis of rating
manuals, project data, and adoption
patterns
Both emphasize energy efficiency;
LEED stricter & standardized; GRIHA
flexible; Maharashtra leads adoption;
uneven distribution across India
Energy efficiency prioritized, but
embodied carbon is less emphasized;
adoption influenced by government
policies; flexibility (GRIHA) allows local
adaptation; uniform framework
needed
Dhingra, 2024 – Review of
Indian Green Building Rating
Systems using AHP
Compare GRIHA and IGBC across
criteria, methodology, strengths, and
relevance
Examine principles & parameters;
evaluate buildings on energy, water,
waste, material use; identify
differences & advantages
Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
scoring across multiple sustainability
parameters
GRIHA focuses on energy, thermal
comfort, water; IGBC emphasizes site
selection & innovation; IGBC more
market-driven; GRIHA more
government-driven
GRIHA better aligns with local climate
& environmental needs; IGBC
preferred for brand/international
linkage; dual system creates adoption
confusion; policy incentives affect
uptake
Jain, Manchanda & Singh, 2024
– Embodied Energy & Thermal
Performance of Alternate
Walling Materials
Analyze embodied energy & thermal
performance of walling materials in
affordable housing
Assess cradle-to-gate embodied
energy; evaluate thermal comfort;
compare materials for EWS housing
Material analysis (fly ash bricks, AAC
blocks, RCC, burnt clay bricks);
thermal simulations for indoor
comfort
Fly ash bricks lowest embodied energy
& best comfort; AAC moderate; RCC
highest; burnt clay bricks
unsustainable
Material choice directly affects both
embodied & operational energy; fly
ash & AAC preferred; RCC & traditional
clay bricks high-carbon; material
selection essential in early design
Kumar et al., 2024 – Low
Embodied Energy Building
Materials in India
Evaluate embodied carbon
contribution of materials & its impact
on total emissions
Define embodied vs operational
carbon; assess cement, steel, glass
contributions; review global & local
reduction strategies
Literature review, comparative
analysis of materials, policies, and
standards
Embodied carbon accounts for 20–
50% of total emissions; cement &
steel largest contributors; low-carbon
alternatives (fly ash, recycled steel,
timber) significantly reduce emissions
Embodied carbon is critical in low-
energy buildings; circular economy &
low-carbon materials key; India lacks
integrated policy and tools;
mainstreaming low-carbon materials
essential
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
NATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
PAPER AIM OBJECTIVE METHODOLOGY FINDINGS INFERENCES
Decarbonizing Construction
Materials
(Journal of Building
Engineering, 2022)
To assess carbon reduction potential
of alternative construction materials.
- Identify low-carbon substitutes for
cement and steel.
- Evaluate embodied carbon savings
through material substitution.
Comparative carbon analysis using
Environmental Product Declarations
(EPDs) for conventional vs. low-
carbon materials.
Use of fly ash, GGBS, and engineered
timber can reduce embodied carbon
by up to 40%.
Material innovation is the most direct
strategy to cut embodied emissions,
especially through blended cements
and renewable materials.
Timber as a Carbon Sink
(Sustainable Construction
Review, 2020)
To evaluate timber’s role as a
structural and carbon-storing
material. - Study carbon sequestration
potential of mass timber.
- Compare embodied emissions of
CLT/glulam vs. steel and concrete.
Lifecycle carbon assessment of
timber buildings across multiple
climates. CLT and glulam structures store
carbon and have 60–70% lower
embodied emissions than
concrete/steel frames.
Engineered timber serves as both a
structural solution and a long-term
carbon sink, supporting climate-
positive design.
Integrating Embodied and
Operational Carbon Accounting
(Building Research &
Information, 2023)
To establish a unified framework
connecting embodied and
operational carbon.
- Quantify total lifecycle carbon.
-Explore design synergy between
material choice and building systems.
Mixed-method approach using LCA
and energy simulation models on
various building types.
Synergistic design—combining
passive cooling, renewables, and low-
carbon materials—yields maximum
lifecycle reduction.
A holistic approach integrating
embodied and operational carbon
metrics ensures long-term
sustainability and realistic net-zero
targets.
Comparative Analysis of
Embodied Carbon in Global
Building Typologies
(Int. Journal of Sustainable Built
Environment, 2022)
To compare embodied carbon
intensity across building types
globally. -Identify carbon hotspots in materials
and systems.
-Benchmark carbon intensity for
residential and commercial buildings.
Database-based comparative analysis
of case studies from 12 countries
using LCA software (One Click LCA). Structural systems and façades
account for over 60% of total
embodied carbon; optimization here
offers largest savings.
System-level material efficiency and
façade optimization are crucial for
global embodied carbon reduction
Circular Construction and
Carbon Neutral Design
(World Green Building Council
Report, 2023)
To promote circular design principles
for carbon-neutral construction.
- Assess impact of material reuse and
recycling on carbon emissions.
-Develop circularity metrics for
design stages.
Case study evaluation of reuse-based
projects across Europe and North
America. Reuse and disassembly-ready
components reduce embodied
emissions by 30–50% across lifecycle
stages.
Circular construction and material
reuse are critical for achieving
carbon-neutral building practices
globally.
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
Decarbonizing Construction
Materials
(Journal of Building
Engineering, 2022)
To assess carbon reduction potential
of alternative construction materials.
- Identify low-carbon substitutes for
cement and steel.
- Evaluate embodied carbon savings
through material substitution.
Comparative carbon analysis using
Environmental Product Declarations
(EPDs) for conventional vs. low-
carbon materials.
Use of fly ash, GGBS, and engineered
timber can reduce embodied carbon
by up to 40%.
Material innovation is the most direct
strategy to cut embodied emissions,
especially through blended cements
and renewable materials.
Timber as a Carbon Sink
(Sustainable Construction
Review, 2020)
To evaluate timber’s role as a
structural and carbon-storing
material. - Study carbon sequestration
potential of mass timber.
- Compare embodied emissions of
CLT/glulam vs. steel and concrete.
Lifecycle carbon assessment of
timber buildings across multiple
climates. CLT and glulam structures store
carbon and have 60–70% lower
embodied emissions than
concrete/steel frames.
Engineered timber serves as both a
structural solution and a long-term
carbon sink, supporting climate-
positive design.
Integrating Embodied and
Operational Carbon Accounting
(Building Research &
Information, 2023)
To establish a unified framework
connecting embodied and
operational carbon.
- Quantify total lifecycle carbon.
-Explore design synergy between
material choice and building systems.
Mixed-method approach using LCA
and energy simulation models on
various building types.
Synergistic design—combining
passive cooling, renewables, and low-
carbon materials—yields maximum
lifecycle reduction.
A holistic approach integrating
embodied and operational carbon
metrics ensures long-term
sustainability and realistic net-zero
targets.
Comparative Analysis of
Embodied Carbon in Global
Building Typologies
(Int. Journal of Sustainable Built
Environment, 2022)
To compare embodied carbon
intensity across building types
globally. -Identify carbon hotspots in materials
and systems.
-Benchmark carbon intensity for
residential and commercial buildings.
Database-based comparative analysis
of case studies from 12 countries
using LCA software (One Click LCA). Structural systems and façades
account for over 60% of total
embodied carbon; optimization here
offers largest savings.
System-level material efficiency and
façade optimization are crucial for
global embodied carbon reduction
Circular Construction and
Carbon Neutral Design
(World Green Building Council
Report, 2023)
To promote circular design principles
for carbon-neutral construction.
- Assess impact of material reuse and
recycling on carbon emissions.
-Develop circularity metrics for
design stages.
Case study evaluation of reuse-based
projects across Europe and North
America. Reuse and disassembly-ready
components reduce embodied
emissions by 30–50% across lifecycle
stages.
Circular construction and material
reuse are critical for achieving
carbon-neutral building practices
globally.
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE STUDY
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
CASE STUDY
A case study is a detailed, contextual analysis of real-world architectural
projects that exemplify key concepts relevant to a research topic. In this
dissertation, case studies are used to explore how different design
approaches help reduce embodied carbon emissions in buildings.
NATIONAL CASE STUDIES
Suzlon One Earth, Pune
Govardhan Eco Village, Maharashtra
CII–Godrej Green Business Centre, Hyderabad .
These projects showcase India’s use of local materials like fly ash bricks and CSEB blocks,
along with passive and vernacular strategies suited to regional climates.
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
Bullitt Center, Seattle (USA)
One Angel Square, Manchester (UK)
Empire State Building Retrofit, New York (USA) .
These examples highlight global innovations in material substitution, adaptive reuse, and
lifecycle carbon management.
Together, these case studies demonstrate practical, climate-responsive strategies for
designing buildings with significantly lower embodied carbon footprints.
CASE STUDY
A case study is a detailed, contextual analysis of real-world architectural
projects that exemplify key concepts relevant to a research topic. In this
dissertation, case studies are used to explore how different design
approaches help reduce embodied carbon emissions in buildings.
NATIONAL CASE STUDIES
Suzlon One Earth, Pune
Govardhan Eco Village, Maharashtra
CII–Godrej Green Business Centre, Hyderabad .
These projects showcase India’s use of local materials like fly ash bricks and CSEB blocks,
along with passive and vernacular strategies suited to regional climates.
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
Bullitt Center, Seattle (USA)
One Angel Square, Manchester (UK)
Empire State Building Retrofit, New York (USA) .
These examples highlight global innovations in material substitution, adaptive reuse, and
lifecycle carbon management.
Together, these case studies demonstrate practical, climate-responsive strategies for
designing buildings with significantly lower embodied carbon footprints.
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: Hadapsar, Pune
Site Area: 10.5 acres (40,000 sq.m)
Architect: CCBA Designs (Christopher Benninger)
Completion Year: 2009
Building Type: Corporate Headquarters
Certification: LEED Platinum & GRIHA 5-Star
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Five interconnected blocks: Sun, Aqua, Sky,
Tree, Sea
Includes offices, R&D labs, meeting zones, and
employee amenities
Designed as an “office within a garden” with
low-rise, horizontal planning
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
SUZLON ONE EARTH , PUNE
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Use of recycled and locally
sourced materials
Fly ash-based components
and low-VOC finishes
Renewable energy systems:
wind turbines + solar
photovoltaics
Meets ≈92% of total energy
demand through renewables
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Low-rise design reduces material
intensity
Material efficiency and renewable
integration significantly lower embodied
and operational carbon emissions
Serves as a benchmark for sustainable
corporate campuses in India
Location: Hadapsar, Pune
Site Area: 10.5 acres (40,000 sq.m)
Architect: CCBA Designs (Christopher Benninger)
Completion Year: 2009
Building Type: Corporate Headquarters
Certification: LEED Platinum & GRIHA 5-Star
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Five interconnected blocks: Sun, Aqua, Sky,
Tree, Sea
Includes offices, R&D labs, meeting zones, and
employee amenities
Designed as an “office within a garden” with
low-rise, horizontal planning
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
SUZLON ONE EARTH , PUNE
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Use of recycled and locally
sourced materials
Fly ash-based components
and low-VOC finishes
Renewable energy systems:
wind turbines + solar
photovoltaics
Meets ≈92% of total energy
demand through renewables
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Low-rise design reduces material
intensity
Material efficiency and renewable
integration significantly lower embodied
and operational carbon emissions
Serves as a benchmark for sustainable
corporate campuses in India
ROOF MATERIALS
Reinforced concrete slab → Used as the primary structural roofing system
across all office blocks for durability and load-bearing capacity.
Green roof system → Installed over select roof areas to enhance thermal
insulation, reduce heat gain, and support landscape integration.
Solar panels → Mounted on rooftops to generate renewable electricity,
contributing to approximately 92% of the campus’s energy needs.
Flyash
aac blocks
green roof
Roof Material
rcc slab
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - SUZLON ONE EARTH , PUNE
WALL MATERIALS
Fly ash bricks → Embodied carbon: ~80–100 kg CO₂e/m³
→ Low-carbon alternative to clay bricks; utilizes industrial
waste
Stone cladding (AAC BLOCKS) → Embodied carbon: ~100–
150 kg CO₂e/m³ → Durable and regionally available, but
varies by quarrying method
IMPACT
Estimated 50% reduction in embodied carbon compared
to conventional buildings
Demonstrates replicable low-carbon strategies for
commercial architecture in India
Wall Material
Reinforced concrete slab → Used as the primary structural roofing system
across all office blocks for durability and load-bearing capacity.
Green roof system → Installed over select roof areas to enhance thermal
insulation, reduce heat gain, and support landscape integration.
Solar panels → Mounted on rooftops to generate renewable electricity,
contributing to approximately 92% of the campus’s energy needs.
Flyash
aac blocks
green roof
Roof Material
rcc slab
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - SUZLON ONE EARTH , PUNE
WALL MATERIALS
Fly ash bricks → Embodied carbon: ~80–100 kg CO₂e/m³
→ Low-carbon alternative to clay bricks; utilizes industrial
waste
Stone cladding (AAC BLOCKS) → Embodied carbon: ~100–
150 kg CO₂e/m³ → Durable and regionally available, but
varies by quarrying method
IMPACT
Estimated 50% reduction in embodied carbon compared
to conventional buildings
Demonstrates replicable low-carbon strategies for
commercial architecture in India
Wall Material
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: Thane , Maharashtra
Site Area: 100 acres (includes built and natural
zones)
Architectural Lead: Eco-conscious planning by
ISKCON-led design team
Completion Year: Phased development since
2010
Building Type: Spiritual retreat and eco-campus
Certification: IGBC Platinum
Key Features: Earth-based architecture, water
conservation, permaculture, and community-led
construction
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Spread across natural terrain with zoned
development for spiritual, residential, and agricultural
functions
Structures include temples, eco cottages, community
halls, and learning centers
Built using low-rise, climate-responsive planning
Landscape integrates permaculture, water bodies,
and native vegetation
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
GOVARDHAN ECO VILLAGE , THANE
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Use of natural and locally sourced
materials like CSEB blocks, adobe,
and bamboo
Rainwater harvesting, organic
farming, and waste recycling
Passive design: cross ventilation,
shaded courtyards, and thermal
mass
Community-led construction with
minimal mechanization
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Extremely low embodied carbon due to use
of earth-based materials and manual
labor
Minimal reliance on concrete and steel
Avoidance of high-carbon finishes and
imported materials
Lifecycle emissions reduced through on-site
resource loops and low-energy design
Location: Thane , Maharashtra
Site Area: 100 acres (includes built and natural
zones)
Architectural Lead: Eco-conscious planning by
ISKCON-led design team
Completion Year: Phased development since
2010
Building Type: Spiritual retreat and eco-campus
Certification: IGBC Platinum
Key Features: Earth-based architecture, water
conservation, permaculture, and community-led
construction
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Spread across natural terrain with zoned
development for spiritual, residential, and agricultural
functions
Structures include temples, eco cottages, community
halls, and learning centers
Built using low-rise, climate-responsive planning
Landscape integrates permaculture, water bodies,
and native vegetation
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
GOVARDHAN ECO VILLAGE , THANE
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Use of natural and locally sourced
materials like CSEB blocks, adobe,
and bamboo
Rainwater harvesting, organic
farming, and waste recycling
Passive design: cross ventilation,
shaded courtyards, and thermal
mass
Community-led construction with
minimal mechanization
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Extremely low embodied carbon due to use
of earth-based materials and manual
labor
Minimal reliance on concrete and steel
Avoidance of high-carbon finishes and
imported materials
Lifecycle emissions reduced through on-site
resource loops and low-energy design
ROOF MATERIALS
Terracotta tiles → Used for sloped roofs; locally made and thermally
efficient
Bamboo trusses → Lightweight, renewable, and low-carbon alternative to
steel
Thatch roofing (select areas) → Biodegradable and climate-responsive
for temporary structures
bamboo truss
cseb block
adobe and cob
Roof Material
terracotta
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - GOVARDHAN ECO VILLAGE , THANE
WALL MATERIALS
CSEB blocks (Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks) → Used
extensively for cottages and community buildings →
Locally sourced soil, low energy input
Adobe and cob walls → Traditional techniques revived for
spiritual and residential structures → High thermal mass,
minimal embodied carbon
Stone masonry → Used for temple structures and
retaining walls → Durable and regionally available
IMPACT
Extremely low embodied carbon due to natural materials
and manual construction
IGBC Platinum rating for sustainable campus design
Serves as a replicable model for rural eco-architecture in
India
Wall Material
stone masonry
thatch roof
Terracotta tiles → Used for sloped roofs; locally made and thermally
efficient
Bamboo trusses → Lightweight, renewable, and low-carbon alternative to
steel
Thatch roofing (select areas) → Biodegradable and climate-responsive
for temporary structures
bamboo truss
cseb block
adobe and cob
Roof Material
terracotta
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - GOVARDHAN ECO VILLAGE , THANE
WALL MATERIALS
CSEB blocks (Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks) → Used
extensively for cottages and community buildings →
Locally sourced soil, low energy input
Adobe and cob walls → Traditional techniques revived for
spiritual and residential structures → High thermal mass,
minimal embodied carbon
Stone masonry → Used for temple structures and
retaining walls → Durable and regionally available
IMPACT
Extremely low embodied carbon due to natural materials
and manual construction
IGBC Platinum rating for sustainable campus design
Serves as a replicable model for rural eco-architecture in
India
Wall Material
stone masonry
thatch roof
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: HITEC City, Hyderabad, Telangana
Site Area: ~5,000 sq.m
Architect: Karan Grover & Associates
Completion Year: 2004
Building Type: Office and Research Centre
Certification: First LEED Platinum building in India
Design Philosophy: Demonstration of
sustainable building practices for India’s green
movement
CII–SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUSINESS CENTRE , HYDERABAD
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
95% of materials locally sourced, with 77% recycled
content
Passive design: central courtyard, natural
ventilation, daylighting
Roof garden and high-performance glazing to
reduce heat gain
Water efficiency: 35% reduction in municipal water
use through low-flow fixtures
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Use of recycled steel, fly ash concrete, and
low-VOC finishes
Minimal use of high-carbon materials like
aluminum and PVC
Green roof and courtyard design reduce
material intensity and operational load
Lifecycle approach to material selection
and building performance
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Compact, low-rise structure with
central courtyard for airflow and
daylight
Includes office spaces, training halls,
exhibition areas, and green labs
Landscape integrates native vegetation,
rainwater harvesting, and permeable
paving
Designed to be a replicable model for
sustainable commercial buildings
across India
Location: HITEC City, Hyderabad, Telangana
Site Area: ~5,000 sq.m
Architect: Karan Grover & Associates
Completion Year: 2004
Building Type: Office and Research Centre
Certification: First LEED Platinum building in India
Design Philosophy: Demonstration of
sustainable building practices for India’s green
movement
CII–SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUSINESS CENTRE , HYDERABAD
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
95% of materials locally sourced, with 77% recycled
content
Passive design: central courtyard, natural
ventilation, daylighting
Roof garden and high-performance glazing to
reduce heat gain
Water efficiency: 35% reduction in municipal water
use through low-flow fixtures
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Use of recycled steel, fly ash concrete, and
low-VOC finishes
Minimal use of high-carbon materials like
aluminum and PVC
Green roof and courtyard design reduce
material intensity and operational load
Lifecycle approach to material selection
and building performance
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Compact, low-rise structure with
central courtyard for airflow and
daylight
Includes office spaces, training halls,
exhibition areas, and green labs
Landscape integrates native vegetation,
rainwater harvesting, and permeable
paving
Designed to be a replicable model for
sustainable commercial buildings
across India
ROOF MATERIALS
Reinforced concrete slab → Used for structural roofing; optimized with fly
ash concrete mix
Green roof system → Installed over parts of the building to reduce heat
gain and enhance insulation
High-reflectance tiles → Used on exposed roof surfaces to reduce solar
absorption and cooling loads
green roof
JAALI SCREEN
REFLECTIVE TILE
Roof Material
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - CII-SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUSINESS CENTRE, HYDERABAD
WALL MATERIALS
Fly ash concrete blocks → Used extensively for external
and internal walls → Made from industrial waste,
reducing cement usage and embodied carbon
Recycled stone masonry → Used in landscape walls and
select facades → Durable, regionally sourced, and low-
carbon
Jali screens (perforated stone or brick) → Provide
shading and ventilation while reducing material mass
IMPACT
One of the first buildings in India to quantify and reduce
embodied carbon
Demonstrated that locally sourced, recycled materials
can meet high-performance standards
Serves as a replicable model for sustainable commercial
architecture across India
Wall Material
stone masonry
rcc slab
Flyash
Reinforced concrete slab → Used for structural roofing; optimized with fly
ash concrete mix
Green roof system → Installed over parts of the building to reduce heat
gain and enhance insulation
High-reflectance tiles → Used on exposed roof surfaces to reduce solar
absorption and cooling loads
green roof
JAALI SCREEN
REFLECTIVE TILE
Roof Material
NATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - CII-SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUSINESS CENTRE, HYDERABAD
WALL MATERIALS
Fly ash concrete blocks → Used extensively for external
and internal walls → Made from industrial waste,
reducing cement usage and embodied carbon
Recycled stone masonry → Used in landscape walls and
select facades → Durable, regionally sourced, and low-
carbon
Jali screens (perforated stone or brick) → Provide
shading and ventilation while reducing material mass
IMPACT
One of the first buildings in India to quantify and reduce
embodied carbon
Demonstrated that locally sourced, recycled materials
can meet high-performance standards
Serves as a replicable model for sustainable commercial
architecture across India
Wall Material
stone masonry
rcc slab
Flyash
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: Capitol Hill, Seattle, Washington
Site Area: ~4,000 sq.m
Architect: Miller Hull Partnership
Completion Year: 2013
Building Type: Commercial Office
Certification: LEED PLATINUM
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Six-story office building with open floor plates
and flexible interior layouts
Rooftop solar canopy designed as a “tree
canopy” metaphor
Central core includes staircase, mechanical
systems, and rainwater cistern
Surrounded by urban streets, designed to
integrate with dense city fabric
Publicly accessible ground floor with educational
exhibits on sustainability
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
BULLITT CENTER , USA
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Net-zero energy , Net zero Water.
Biophilic design: daylight access,
natural materials, and visual
connection to nature
Irresistible staircase promotes
physical activity and reduces
elevator use
Designed for a 250-year lifespan,
emphasizing durability and
adaptability
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Timber Structure: Used FSC-certified
wood instead of steel or concrete to cut
embodied carbon.
Clean Materials: Avoided PVC and toxic
finishes; followed Declare and Red List
standards.
Smart Design:Modular, durable, and
disassemblable—built to minimize
lifecycle carbon.
Location: Capitol Hill, Seattle, Washington
Site Area: ~4,000 sq.m
Architect: Miller Hull Partnership
Completion Year: 2013
Building Type: Commercial Office
Certification: LEED PLATINUM
CAMPUS LAYOUT
Six-story office building with open floor plates
and flexible interior layouts
Rooftop solar canopy designed as a “tree
canopy” metaphor
Central core includes staircase, mechanical
systems, and rainwater cistern
Surrounded by urban streets, designed to
integrate with dense city fabric
Publicly accessible ground floor with educational
exhibits on sustainability
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
BULLITT CENTER , USA
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Net-zero energy , Net zero Water.
Biophilic design: daylight access,
natural materials, and visual
connection to nature
Irresistible staircase promotes
physical activity and reduces
elevator use
Designed for a 250-year lifespan,
emphasizing durability and
adaptability
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Timber Structure: Used FSC-certified
wood instead of steel or concrete to cut
embodied carbon.
Clean Materials: Avoided PVC and toxic
finishes; followed Declare and Red List
standards.
Smart Design:Modular, durable, and
disassemblable—built to minimize
lifecycle carbon.
green roof
ROOF MATERIALS
Rooftop solar canopy → 242 kW photovoltaic array generates net-positive
energy → Designed to resemble a tree canopy, extending beyond the
roofline
Green roof zones → Support stormwater management and insulation
Heavy timber and concrete base → Concrete used sparingly for
foundational support only
TIMBER FRAME
GLAZING
Roof Material
SOLAR PANEL
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - BULLITT CENTER , USA
WALL MATERIALS
FSC-certified timber framing → Used for structural walls
instead of steel or concrete→ Sourced within 1,000 km to
reduce transportation emissions
Non-toxic insulation and finishes → Avoided PVC,
formaldehyde, and other Red List materials→ Promotes
indoor air quality and reduces lifecycle toxicity
High-performance glazing → Maximizes daylight while
minimizing heat gain
IMPACT
545 metric tons of CO₂ sequestered in timber structure
Concrete and steel minimized and sourced within 500 km
Material transparency through Declare labels and Red List compliance
Lifecycle carbon reduced via modular design, disassembly potential, and long-term
durability
Among the first buildings globally to quantify embodied carbon under the Living
Building Challenge
Wall Material
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
ROOF MATERIALS
Rooftop solar canopy → 242 kW photovoltaic array generates net-positive
energy → Designed to resemble a tree canopy, extending beyond the
roofline
Green roof zones → Support stormwater management and insulation
Heavy timber and concrete base → Concrete used sparingly for
foundational support only
TIMBER FRAME
GLAZING
Roof Material
SOLAR PANEL
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - BULLITT CENTER , USA
WALL MATERIALS
FSC-certified timber framing → Used for structural walls
instead of steel or concrete→ Sourced within 1,000 km to
reduce transportation emissions
Non-toxic insulation and finishes → Avoided PVC,
formaldehyde, and other Red List materials→ Promotes
indoor air quality and reduces lifecycle toxicity
High-performance glazing → Maximizes daylight while
minimizing heat gain
IMPACT
545 metric tons of CO₂ sequestered in timber structure
Concrete and steel minimized and sourced within 500 km
Material transparency through Declare labels and Red List compliance
Lifecycle carbon reduced via modular design, disassembly potential, and long-term
durability
Among the first buildings globally to quantify embodied carbon under the Living
Building Challenge
Wall Material
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: NOMA District, Manchester, England
Site Area: ~5,000 sq.m
Architect: 3DReid
Completion Year: 2013
Building Type: Corporate Headquarters (The Co-
operative Group)
Certification: BREEAM ‘Outstanding’ (95.16%) &
EPC ‘A’ Rated
Design Philosophy: Create a carbon-neutral,
energy-efficient workplace aligned with
sustainable corporate values
CAMPUS LAYOUT
14-story high-rise with central atrium and open-
plan offices
Includes roof terrace, collaboration zones, and
training spaces
Designed for flexibility, employee wellness, and
urban integration
Located in the heart of Manchester’s sustainable
NOMA district
ONE ANGEL SQUARE , MANCHESTER
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Double-skin façade for natural
ventilation and thermal buffering
Rainwater harvesting and greywater
recycling systems
98% of energy sourced from
renewables
80% of construction waste diverted
from landfill
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Structure optimized for low embodied
carbon through design analysis
Use of off-site prefabrication to reduce
material waste
Earth tubes supply 50,000 L/s of fresh air,
saving over 2,300 tonnes of CO₂
Lifecycle carbon minimized through
material efficiency, durability, and energy-
positive systems
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
Location: NOMA District, Manchester, England
Site Area: ~5,000 sq.m
Architect: 3DReid
Completion Year: 2013
Building Type: Corporate Headquarters (The Co-
operative Group)
Certification: BREEAM ‘Outstanding’ (95.16%) &
EPC ‘A’ Rated
Design Philosophy: Create a carbon-neutral,
energy-efficient workplace aligned with
sustainable corporate values
CAMPUS LAYOUT
14-story high-rise with central atrium and open-
plan offices
Includes roof terrace, collaboration zones, and
training spaces
Designed for flexibility, employee wellness, and
urban integration
Located in the heart of Manchester’s sustainable
NOMA district
ONE ANGEL SQUARE , MANCHESTER
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Double-skin façade for natural
ventilation and thermal buffering
Rainwater harvesting and greywater
recycling systems
98% of energy sourced from
renewables
80% of construction waste diverted
from landfill
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Structure optimized for low embodied
carbon through design analysis
Use of off-site prefabrication to reduce
material waste
Earth tubes supply 50,000 L/s of fresh air,
saving over 2,300 tonnes of CO₂
Lifecycle carbon minimized through
material efficiency, durability, and energy-
positive systems
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
ROOF MATERIALS
Reinforced concrete slab → Forms the structural base of the roof;
designed for long-term durability
Green roof zones → Support stormwater management and thermal
insulation
Photovoltaic panels → Installed to supplement renewable energy
generation
PRECONCRETE PANEL
INSULATION
Roof Material
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - ONE ANGEL SQUARE , MANCHESTER
WALL MATERIALS
Precast concrete panels → Used for external walls;
manufactured off-site to reduce waste and improve quality
Double-skin façade → Combines glass and shading layers
for thermal buffering and natural ventilation
High-performance insulation → Enhances energy
efficiency and reduces heating/cooling demand
IMPACT
Optimized structural design reduced material intensity
Off-site prefabrication minimized construction waste and
emissions
Earth tubes and passive systems saved over 2,300 tonnes
of CO₂
Lifecycle carbon reduced through durable materials,
energy-positive systems, and waste diversion
Wall Material
DOUBLE SKIN
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
rcc slab
SOLAR PANEL
green roof
Reinforced concrete slab → Forms the structural base of the roof;
designed for long-term durability
Green roof zones → Support stormwater management and thermal
insulation
Photovoltaic panels → Installed to supplement renewable energy
generation
PRECONCRETE PANEL
INSULATION
Roof Material
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - ONE ANGEL SQUARE , MANCHESTER
WALL MATERIALS
Precast concrete panels → Used for external walls;
manufactured off-site to reduce waste and improve quality
Double-skin façade → Combines glass and shading layers
for thermal buffering and natural ventilation
High-performance insulation → Enhances energy
efficiency and reduces heating/cooling demand
IMPACT
Optimized structural design reduced material intensity
Off-site prefabrication minimized construction waste and
emissions
Earth tubes and passive systems saved over 2,300 tonnes
of CO₂
Lifecycle carbon reduced through durable materials,
energy-positive systems, and waste diversion
Wall Material
DOUBLE SKIN
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
rcc slab
SOLAR PANEL
green roof
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Location: Midtown Manhattan, New York City
Site Area: ~8,000 sq.m footprint
Architect: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon
Completion Year: 1931 (Retrofit: 2009–2011)
Building Type: Commercial High-Rise
Certification: LEED Gold (post-retrofit)
Design Philosophy: Preserve historic architecture
while modernizing for energy efficiency and
sustainability
EMPIRE STATE BUILDING , NEW YORK
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Refurbished 6,514 windows with triple-glazed,
insulated panels
Upgraded HVAC systems and installed energy
recovery units
Lighting retrofits and occupancy sensors
throughout
Real-time energy monitoring and tenant
engagement programs
Reuse of existing structure avoided demolition
waste and new material emissions
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Preservation of original steel and concrete
frame minimized new material demand
Retrofit strategy prioritized upgrades over
reconstruction
Material reuse and efficient retrofitting
significantly reduced embodied carbon
Serves as a global model for sustainable
retrofitting of historic high-rises
CAMPUS LAYOUT
102-story Art Deco skyscraper with
centralized vertical core
Includes office spaces, observation
decks, and retail zones
Retrofit maintained original layout while
integrating modern building systems
Located in dense urban fabric with
transit connectivity and walkability
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
Location: Midtown Manhattan, New York City
Site Area: ~8,000 sq.m footprint
Architect: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon
Completion Year: 1931 (Retrofit: 2009–2011)
Building Type: Commercial High-Rise
Certification: LEED Gold (post-retrofit)
Design Philosophy: Preserve historic architecture
while modernizing for energy efficiency and
sustainability
EMPIRE STATE BUILDING , NEW YORK
SUSTAINABILITY FEATURES
Refurbished 6,514 windows with triple-glazed,
insulated panels
Upgraded HVAC systems and installed energy
recovery units
Lighting retrofits and occupancy sensors
throughout
Real-time energy monitoring and tenant
engagement programs
Reuse of existing structure avoided demolition
waste and new material emissions
EMBODIED CARBON IMPACT
Preservation of original steel and concrete
frame minimized new material demand
Retrofit strategy prioritized upgrades over
reconstruction
Material reuse and efficient retrofitting
significantly reduced embodied carbon
Serves as a global model for sustainable
retrofitting of historic high-rises
CAMPUS LAYOUT
102-story Art Deco skyscraper with
centralized vertical core
Includes office spaces, observation
decks, and retail zones
Retrofit maintained original layout while
integrating modern building systems
Located in dense urban fabric with
transit connectivity and walkability
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
ROOF MATERIALS
Concrete slab with waterproofing membrane → Original structural roof
system; retrofitted for energy efficiency
Cool roof coating → Applied during retrofit to reflect solar radiation and
reduce heat island effect
Mechanical penthouse upgrades → Roof-level systems modernized for
energy recovery and HVAC efficiency
HVAC UPGRADE
STEEL STRUCTURE
COOL ROOF
Roof Material
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - EMPIRE STATE BUILDING , NEW YORK
WALL MATERIALS
Limestone and granite cladding → Used for the iconic Art
Deco façade; durable and regionally sourced
Steel structural frame with masonry infill → Traditional
high-rise construction; high embodied carbon but long
lifespan
Triple-glazed retrofit windows (post-2009) → Installed
during energy retrofit to improve thermal performance
and reduce HVAC loads
IMPACT
Achieved 38% reduction in energy consumption post-
retrofit
Avoided over 105,000 metric tons of CO₂ emissions over 15
years
Demonstrated that historic buildings can be transformed
into high-performance assets
Influenced global best practices in energy retrofitting and
carbon-conscious preservation
Wall Material
RETROFITTING
CONCRETE slab
LIMESTONE CLADDING
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
Concrete slab with waterproofing membrane → Original structural roof
system; retrofitted for energy efficiency
Cool roof coating → Applied during retrofit to reflect solar radiation and
reduce heat island effect
Mechanical penthouse upgrades → Roof-level systems modernized for
energy recovery and HVAC efficiency
HVAC UPGRADE
STEEL STRUCTURE
COOL ROOF
Roof Material
MATERIAL ANALYSIS - EMPIRE STATE BUILDING , NEW YORK
WALL MATERIALS
Limestone and granite cladding → Used for the iconic Art
Deco façade; durable and regionally sourced
Steel structural frame with masonry infill → Traditional
high-rise construction; high embodied carbon but long
lifespan
Triple-glazed retrofit windows (post-2009) → Installed
during energy retrofit to improve thermal performance
and reduce HVAC loads
IMPACT
Achieved 38% reduction in energy consumption post-
retrofit
Avoided over 105,000 metric tons of CO₂ emissions over 15
years
Demonstrated that historic buildings can be transformed
into high-performance assets
Influenced global best practices in energy retrofitting and
carbon-conscious preservation
Wall Material
RETROFITTING
CONCRETE slab
LIMESTONE CLADDING
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 3 CHAPTER 3 : CASE STUDY
Material Source Type Embodied Carbon Benefit Research Insight
Fly Ash Bricks Industrial Waste 60% lower than clay bricks Utilizes fly ash, improves insulation
CSEB Natural Earth 4× less CO₂ than fired bricks Ideal for low-rise, load-bearing walls
Bamboo
Renewable
Biomass
Very low embodied energy Fast-growing, suitable for eco-zones
Recycled Steel Reused Industrial 30–50% lower than virgin steel Modular reuse reduces emissions
QUOTE BOXES
“Fly ash bricks reduce embodied carbon by up to
60% compared to traditional clay bricks.” — IJNRD,
2023
“CSEBs emit four times less CO₂ than kiln-fired bricks
and are ideal for low-rise, load-bearing structures.”
— JETIR, 2022
“Bamboo is a fast-growing, renewable material with
low embodied energy, suitable for eco-sensitive
zones.” — IJFMR, 2023
Practice Description Embodied Carbon Benefit Research Insight
Manual
Construction
Labor-intensive, low-
mechanization
Reduces fuel use and machinery
emissions
Ideal for rural and semi-urban zones
Vernacular
Techniques
Adobe, cob, lime plaster Uses local, natural materials Proven thermal comfort and low carbon
Low-Rise
Planning
Compact, horizontal layouts Less structural demand
Suitable for housing and institutional
buildings
On-site Material
Sourcing
Use of locally available earth,
stone, bamboo
Avoids transport-related
emissions
Encourages regional identity and
sustainability
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM NATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
“Material selection is the first design decision that shapes a building’s carbon legacy.”
QUOTE BOXES
“Vernacular construction using adobe
and cob can reduce embodied
carbon by over 50% compared to RCC
frames.” — JETIR, 2022
“Manual construction methods in
rural India offer a viable path to low-
carbon development.” — IJERMCE,
2023
Fly Ash Bricks Industrial Waste 60% lower than clay bricks Utilizes fly ash, improves insulation
CSEB Natural Earth 4× less CO₂ than fired bricks Ideal for low-rise, load-bearing walls
Bamboo
Renewable
Biomass
Very low embodied energy Fast-growing, suitable for eco-zones
Recycled Steel Reused Industrial 30–50% lower than virgin steel Modular reuse reduces emissions
QUOTE BOXES
“Fly ash bricks reduce embodied carbon by up to
60% compared to traditional clay bricks.” — IJNRD,
2023
“CSEBs emit four times less CO₂ than kiln-fired bricks
and are ideal for low-rise, load-bearing structures.”
— JETIR, 2022
“Bamboo is a fast-growing, renewable material with
low embodied energy, suitable for eco-sensitive
zones.” — IJFMR, 2023
Practice Description Embodied Carbon Benefit Research Insight
Manual
Construction
Labor-intensive, low-
mechanization
Reduces fuel use and machinery
emissions
Ideal for rural and semi-urban zones
Vernacular
Techniques
Adobe, cob, lime plaster Uses local, natural materials Proven thermal comfort and low carbon
Low-Rise
Planning
Compact, horizontal layouts Less structural demand
Suitable for housing and institutional
buildings
On-site Material
Sourcing
Use of locally available earth,
stone, bamboo
Avoids transport-related
emissions
Encourages regional identity and
sustainability
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM NATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
“Material selection is the first design decision that shapes a building’s carbon legacy.”
QUOTE BOXES
“Vernacular construction using adobe
and cob can reduce embodied
carbon by over 50% compared to RCC
frames.” — JETIR, 2022
“Manual construction methods in
rural India offer a viable path to low-
carbon development.” — IJERMCE,
2023
QUOTE BOXES
“Using materials with Environmental Product Declarations
enables designers to quantify and reduce embodied
carbon from early design stages.”— NIST Special
Publication 1324, 2022 Source
“FSC-certified timber not only stores carbon but also
offers one of the lowest embodied carbon footprints
among structural materials.”— World Green Building
Council Report, 2021
“Low-carbon cement blends like GGBS and fly ash
concrete can reduce embodied emissions by up to 70%
compared to traditional OPC.”— European Cement
Association, 2020
QUOTE BOXES
“Prefabrication and modular
construction can reduce embodied
carbon by up to 45% compared to
traditional methods.” — Buildings &
Cities Journal, 2023
“Designing for disassembly ensures
that building components can be
reused, extending their lifecycle and
reducing demolition waste.” —EU
Commission Report, 2022
Material/Approach Description
Embodied Carbon
Benefit
Research Insight
FSC-Certified Timber
Sustainably harvested
wood with EPDs
Sequesters carbon, low EC
Used in Bullitt Center,
Seattle
Recycled Concrete &
Steel
Reuse of structural
components
Reduces mining and
processing emissions
Common in retrofits
(Empire State Building)
Low-Carbon Cement
(GGBS)
Cement blended with
ground granulated blast
furnace slag
30–70% lower EC than
OPC
Widely adopted in EU
projects
Declare/EPD Materials
Products with transparent
lifecycle data
Enables carbon tracking
and selection
Required under Living
Building Challenge
Technique Description Embodied Carbon Benefit Research Insight
Prefabrication
Off-site manufacturing of
components
Reduces waste and transport
emissions
Used in One Angel Square, UK
Modular Design
Components designed for
reuse/disassembly
Extends lifecycle, reduces
demolition waste
Promoted in EU circular economy
models
Retrofit & Reuse Upgrading existing structures Avoids new material demand
Empire State Building retrofit
reduced EC by 38%
Passive Design
Integration
Orientation, shading, natural
ventilation
Reduces operational energy,
complements low EC materials
Common in BREEAM and LEED
Platinum buildings
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
“Material selection is the first design decision that shapes a building’s carbon legacy.”
“Using materials with Environmental Product Declarations
enables designers to quantify and reduce embodied
carbon from early design stages.”— NIST Special
Publication 1324, 2022 Source
“FSC-certified timber not only stores carbon but also
offers one of the lowest embodied carbon footprints
among structural materials.”— World Green Building
Council Report, 2021
“Low-carbon cement blends like GGBS and fly ash
concrete can reduce embodied emissions by up to 70%
compared to traditional OPC.”— European Cement
Association, 2020
QUOTE BOXES
“Prefabrication and modular
construction can reduce embodied
carbon by up to 45% compared to
traditional methods.” — Buildings &
Cities Journal, 2023
“Designing for disassembly ensures
that building components can be
reused, extending their lifecycle and
reducing demolition waste.” —EU
Commission Report, 2022
Material/Approach Description
Embodied Carbon
Benefit
Research Insight
FSC-Certified Timber
Sustainably harvested
wood with EPDs
Sequesters carbon, low EC
Used in Bullitt Center,
Seattle
Recycled Concrete &
Steel
Reuse of structural
components
Reduces mining and
processing emissions
Common in retrofits
(Empire State Building)
Low-Carbon Cement
(GGBS)
Cement blended with
ground granulated blast
furnace slag
30–70% lower EC than
OPC
Widely adopted in EU
projects
Declare/EPD Materials
Products with transparent
lifecycle data
Enables carbon tracking
and selection
Required under Living
Building Challenge
Technique Description Embodied Carbon Benefit Research Insight
Prefabrication
Off-site manufacturing of
components
Reduces waste and transport
emissions
Used in One Angel Square, UK
Modular Design
Components designed for
reuse/disassembly
Extends lifecycle, reduces
demolition waste
Promoted in EU circular economy
models
Retrofit & Reuse Upgrading existing structures Avoids new material demand
Empire State Building retrofit
reduced EC by 38%
Passive Design
Integration
Orientation, shading, natural
ventilation
Reduces operational energy,
complements low EC materials
Common in BREEAM and LEED
Platinum buildings
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH PAPERS
“Material selection is the first design decision that shapes a building’s carbon legacy.”
ASPECT SUZLON ONE EARTH GOVARDHAN ECO VILLAGE CII-SORABJI GODREJ
ARCHITECT CCBA Designs (Christopher Benninger) Biome Environmental Solution, Bangalore Karan Grover & Associates
YR OF CONST. 2009 2012 2004
RATING LEED Platinum, GRIHA 5-Star GRIHA 5-Star LEED Platinum, IGBC HQ
WALL MATERIAL Fly ash bricks, Fly ash concrete, AAC blocks
CSEB, Rammed Earth, Cob, Adobe, limited RCC with blended
cement
Locally quarried granite, Fly ash concrete, Recycled aluminum
louvers & stone jaalis
ROOF MATERIAL Aluminium sheets (Kalzip), White ceramic tiles, SRI>78
Mangalore tiles, Bamboo & timber rafters; RCC slabs with lime-
based finish; Solar panels
Flat green roof with reflective finishes, Pergolas with native
vegetation; Solar PV panels
REDUCTION OF EE
Recycled/local materials; low-rise design; daylighting & natural
ventilation; fly ash concrete; adaptable layouts; landscaping &
water management; wind + solar energy
On-site CSEBs; earthen walls; minimal RCC; local & vernacular
materials; modular & durable layouts; passive cooling &
landscaping; solar & biogas; rainwater harvesting
Local & recycled materials; passive design (courtyards, wind
towers, jaalis); fly ash concrete; daylighting & natural
ventilation; green roof & landscaping; water-efficient systems
INFERENCES
Suzlon One Earth demonstrates LEED + GRIHA approach:
balancing material efficiency, design typology, and renewable
energy to reduce both embodied and operational carbon in a
corporate context. Fly ash and low-rise design are key
strategies aligned with rating systems.
Govardhan Eco Village exemplifies GRIHA-focused vernacular
strategy: ultra-low embodied carbon through earth-based
materials, minimal cement, and local sourcing. Highlights how
traditional techniques and site-based production can achieve
superior reductions in embodied emissions.
CII-Godrej GBC shows IGBC/LEED integration: use of
local/recycled materials and passive strategies achieves
moderate embodied carbon reduction while maintaining
modern office functionality. Emphasizes importance of
contextual architecture in lowering embodied emissions.
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM NATIONAL CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
The selected case studies reveal diverse strategies for reducing embodied carbon across building types, climates, and certification systems. By comparing
material choices, construction techniques, and retrofit approaches, key patterns emerge that inform best practices for low-carbon architecture.
ARCHITECT CCBA Designs (Christopher Benninger) Biome Environmental Solution, Bangalore Karan Grover & Associates
YR OF CONST. 2009 2012 2004
RATING LEED Platinum, GRIHA 5-Star GRIHA 5-Star LEED Platinum, IGBC HQ
WALL MATERIAL Fly ash bricks, Fly ash concrete, AAC blocks
CSEB, Rammed Earth, Cob, Adobe, limited RCC with blended
cement
Locally quarried granite, Fly ash concrete, Recycled aluminum
louvers & stone jaalis
ROOF MATERIAL Aluminium sheets (Kalzip), White ceramic tiles, SRI>78
Mangalore tiles, Bamboo & timber rafters; RCC slabs with lime-
based finish; Solar panels
Flat green roof with reflective finishes, Pergolas with native
vegetation; Solar PV panels
REDUCTION OF EE
Recycled/local materials; low-rise design; daylighting & natural
ventilation; fly ash concrete; adaptable layouts; landscaping &
water management; wind + solar energy
On-site CSEBs; earthen walls; minimal RCC; local & vernacular
materials; modular & durable layouts; passive cooling &
landscaping; solar & biogas; rainwater harvesting
Local & recycled materials; passive design (courtyards, wind
towers, jaalis); fly ash concrete; daylighting & natural
ventilation; green roof & landscaping; water-efficient systems
INFERENCES
Suzlon One Earth demonstrates LEED + GRIHA approach:
balancing material efficiency, design typology, and renewable
energy to reduce both embodied and operational carbon in a
corporate context. Fly ash and low-rise design are key
strategies aligned with rating systems.
Govardhan Eco Village exemplifies GRIHA-focused vernacular
strategy: ultra-low embodied carbon through earth-based
materials, minimal cement, and local sourcing. Highlights how
traditional techniques and site-based production can achieve
superior reductions in embodied emissions.
CII-Godrej GBC shows IGBC/LEED integration: use of
local/recycled materials and passive strategies achieves
moderate embodied carbon reduction while maintaining
modern office functionality. Emphasizes importance of
contextual architecture in lowering embodied emissions.
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM NATIONAL CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
The selected case studies reveal diverse strategies for reducing embodied carbon across building types, climates, and certification systems. By comparing
material choices, construction techniques, and retrofit approaches, key patterns emerge that inform best practices for low-carbon architecture.
ASPECT BULLITT CENTER, USA ONE ANGEL SQUARE, UK EMPIRE STATE BUILDING, USA
ARCHITECT Miller Hull Partnership 3DReid
Original: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon (1931); Renovation: Johnson
Controls, JLL, RMI, Clinton Climate Initiative
YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION / RENOVATION 2013 2013 Renovation: 2011
CERTIFICATION / RATING LEED Platinum; Living Building Challenge BREEAM Outstanding (95.16%) LEED Gold (Existing Buildings: O&M)
WALL MATERIALS
FSC-certified timber frame + triple-glazed windows; Glulam
beams & columns; CLT panels; low-VOC finishes
Double-skin façade with high-performance glazing;
Reinforced concrete with GGBS + recycled steel; Modular
interior partitions
Retained limestone cladding; original steel frame; refurbished
windows with triple-glazing films
ROOF MATERIALS
Flat roof with 575-panel solar PV; high-R insulation & Red
List–free membranes
Flat roof with PV panels + green roof; high-performance
insulation
Existing roof retained; insulation upgrades inside spandrels;
energy-efficient HVAC integration
STRATEGIES FOR EMBODIED CARBON &
OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY
FSC timber & CLT reduce concrete/steel use; local materials
(85% within 500 km); Red List-free materials; efficient timber
structure; rooftop solar for net-zero energy; on-site rainwater
& wastewater treatment
High recycled content (steel, GGBS concrete); double-skin
façade & atrium for daylight; local sourcing (>70% UK);
prefabrication & modularity; CHP on rapeseed oil; natural
ventilation; PV + passive solar; high-performance insulation;
rainwater/greywater reuse
Reuse of original steel frame & limestone façade; window
retrofits (triple-glazing films); efficient HVAC & lighting
upgrades; local sourcing & material reuse; reduced demolition
& reconstruction needs
INFERENCES RELATED TO EMBODIED
CARBON
Demonstrates regenerative design: heavy use of engineered
timber, local sourcing, and net-zero energy reduce both
embodied and operational carbon. Living Building Challenge
principles prioritize material transparency and long lifespan.
Emphasizes whole-life CO₂ reduction in large-scale office:
recycled materials, modular prefabrication, and passive
design reduce embodied carbon, while CHP and PV reduce
operational emissions. BREEAM approach integrates
embodied carbon into life-cycle thinking.
Highlights retrofit strategy for historic structures: preserving
existing materials (steel, limestone) avoids massive embodied
carbon from demolition. Efficient upgrades reduce
operational carbon while maintaining heritage value.
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
The selected case studies reveal diverse strategies for reducing embodied carbon across building types, climates, and certification systems. By comparing
material choices, construction techniques, and retrofit approaches, key patterns emerge that inform best practices for low-carbon architecture.
ARCHITECT Miller Hull Partnership 3DReid
Original: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon (1931); Renovation: Johnson
Controls, JLL, RMI, Clinton Climate Initiative
YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION / RENOVATION 2013 2013 Renovation: 2011
CERTIFICATION / RATING LEED Platinum; Living Building Challenge BREEAM Outstanding (95.16%) LEED Gold (Existing Buildings: O&M)
WALL MATERIALS
FSC-certified timber frame + triple-glazed windows; Glulam
beams & columns; CLT panels; low-VOC finishes
Double-skin façade with high-performance glazing;
Reinforced concrete with GGBS + recycled steel; Modular
interior partitions
Retained limestone cladding; original steel frame; refurbished
windows with triple-glazing films
ROOF MATERIALS
Flat roof with 575-panel solar PV; high-R insulation & Red
List–free membranes
Flat roof with PV panels + green roof; high-performance
insulation
Existing roof retained; insulation upgrades inside spandrels;
energy-efficient HVAC integration
STRATEGIES FOR EMBODIED CARBON &
OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY
FSC timber & CLT reduce concrete/steel use; local materials
(85% within 500 km); Red List-free materials; efficient timber
structure; rooftop solar for net-zero energy; on-site rainwater
& wastewater treatment
High recycled content (steel, GGBS concrete); double-skin
façade & atrium for daylight; local sourcing (>70% UK);
prefabrication & modularity; CHP on rapeseed oil; natural
ventilation; PV + passive solar; high-performance insulation;
rainwater/greywater reuse
Reuse of original steel frame & limestone façade; window
retrofits (triple-glazing films); efficient HVAC & lighting
upgrades; local sourcing & material reuse; reduced demolition
& reconstruction needs
INFERENCES RELATED TO EMBODIED
CARBON
Demonstrates regenerative design: heavy use of engineered
timber, local sourcing, and net-zero energy reduce both
embodied and operational carbon. Living Building Challenge
principles prioritize material transparency and long lifespan.
Emphasizes whole-life CO₂ reduction in large-scale office:
recycled materials, modular prefabrication, and passive
design reduce embodied carbon, while CHP and PV reduce
operational emissions. BREEAM approach integrates
embodied carbon into life-cycle thinking.
Highlights retrofit strategy for historic structures: preserving
existing materials (steel, limestone) avoids massive embodied
carbon from demolition. Efficient upgrades reduce
operational carbon while maintaining heritage value.
FINDINGS AND INFERENCES FROM INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
The selected case studies reveal diverse strategies for reducing embodied carbon across building types, climates, and certification systems. By comparing
material choices, construction techniques, and retrofit approaches, key patterns emerge that inform best practices for low-carbon architecture.
EMBODIED
CARBON
REDUCTION Material Substitution-
Use fly ash cement,
GGBS, engineered
timber
STRATEGIES TO REDUCE EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS IN BUILDINGS
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
Local Sourcing
- Minimize transport
with on-site CSEB
Lifecycle Tools → LCA,
BIM carbon mapping,
Red List–free
materials
Longevity Design -
Modular, durable,
adaptable spaces
Renewable Systems →
Solar PV, rainwater
harvesting
Passive Design →
Courtyards,
daylighting, natural
ventilation
Adaptive Reuse →
Retain existing
structures and
façades
CARBON
REDUCTION Material Substitution-
Use fly ash cement,
GGBS, engineered
timber
STRATEGIES TO REDUCE EMBODIED CARBON EMISSIONS IN BUILDINGS
CHAPTER 4 : FINDINGS AND INFERENCE
Local Sourcing
- Minimize transport
with on-site CSEB
Lifecycle Tools → LCA,
BIM carbon mapping,
Red List–free
materials
Longevity Design -
Modular, durable,
adaptable spaces
Renewable Systems →
Solar PV, rainwater
harvesting
Passive Design →
Courtyards,
daylighting, natural
ventilation
Adaptive Reuse →
Retain existing
structures and
façades
LEARNINGS FROM LEED, GRIHA, AND IGBC
LEED (USA) Emphasizes lifecycle analysis, material
transparency (EPDs), and integration of renewable energy.
LEED Platinum buildings like the Bullitt Center
demonstrate how modular timber and net-zero systems
can drastically reduce embodied carbon.
GRIHA (India) Prioritizes regional relevance, passive
design, and material reuse. Case studies like Govardhan
Eco Village show how vernacular methods and natural
materials align with GRIHA’s low-carbon goals.
IGBC (India) Focuses on industrial and commercial
applications with flexibility in material selection. Projects
like CII-Godrej GBC highlight the role of recycled content
and green roofing in reducing embodied emissions.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION
This study explored strategies to reduce embodied carbon emissions in buildings through material
selection, construction techniques, and policy frameworks. By analyzing national and international case
studies, it became evident that both high-tech and vernacular approaches can achieve significant
carbon savings when guided by intentional design. The findings reinforce that embodied carbon must be
addressed from the earliest design stages, not just through operational efficiency or certification
compliance.
Inference:
While all three systems promote sustainability, embodied
carbon reduction depends more on design intent and
material strategy than certification alone.
LEED (USA) Emphasizes lifecycle analysis, material
transparency (EPDs), and integration of renewable energy.
LEED Platinum buildings like the Bullitt Center
demonstrate how modular timber and net-zero systems
can drastically reduce embodied carbon.
GRIHA (India) Prioritizes regional relevance, passive
design, and material reuse. Case studies like Govardhan
Eco Village show how vernacular methods and natural
materials align with GRIHA’s low-carbon goals.
IGBC (India) Focuses on industrial and commercial
applications with flexibility in material selection. Projects
like CII-Godrej GBC highlight the role of recycled content
and green roofing in reducing embodied emissions.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION
This study explored strategies to reduce embodied carbon emissions in buildings through material
selection, construction techniques, and policy frameworks. By analyzing national and international case
studies, it became evident that both high-tech and vernacular approaches can achieve significant
carbon savings when guided by intentional design. The findings reinforce that embodied carbon must be
addressed from the earliest design stages, not just through operational efficiency or certification
compliance.
Inference:
While all three systems promote sustainability, embodied
carbon reduction depends more on design intent and
material strategy than certification alone.
MATERIAL RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION
Use Low-Carbon Substitutes: Fly ash cement, GGBS concrete, AAC blocks, and engineered
timber (CLT, glulam)
Prioritize Natural & Locally Sourced Materials: CSEB, adobe, bamboo, lime plaster—especially
in rural and semi-urban contexts
Incorporate Recycled & Reused Components: Recycled steel, salvaged wood, reused
masonry from demolition sites
Ensure Material Transparency: Choose products with Environmental Product Declarations
(EPDs) and Red List–free certifications
FINAL REFLECTION
Embodied carbon is often overlooked in mainstream building practice, yet it represents a critical portion of a building’s total environmental impact.
This dissertation underscores the need for a paradigm shift—from operational efficiency alone to holistic lifecycle thinking. Whether through
vernacular wisdom or advanced prefabrication, the path to low-carbon architecture lies in conscious material choices, adaptive reuse, and design
strategies that respect both ecology and economy.
“The greenest building is the one that is already built.”
— Carl Elefante
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION
Use Low-Carbon Substitutes: Fly ash cement, GGBS concrete, AAC blocks, and engineered
timber (CLT, glulam)
Prioritize Natural & Locally Sourced Materials: CSEB, adobe, bamboo, lime plaster—especially
in rural and semi-urban contexts
Incorporate Recycled & Reused Components: Recycled steel, salvaged wood, reused
masonry from demolition sites
Ensure Material Transparency: Choose products with Environmental Product Declarations
(EPDs) and Red List–free certifications
FINAL REFLECTION
Embodied carbon is often overlooked in mainstream building practice, yet it represents a critical portion of a building’s total environmental impact.
This dissertation underscores the need for a paradigm shift—from operational efficiency alone to holistic lifecycle thinking. Whether through
vernacular wisdom or advanced prefabrication, the path to low-carbon architecture lies in conscious material choices, adaptive reuse, and design
strategies that respect both ecology and economy.
“The greenest building is the one that is already built.”
— Carl Elefante
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