Empowerment Series: Essential Research Methods for Social Work 4th Edition, (Ebook PDF)

Empowerment Series: Essential Research Methods for Social Work 4th Edition, (Ebook PDF)
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5. SE/Rubin, Essential research methods for social work, 4th Edition  ISBN- 13: 978-1-305-10168-5 ©2016 Designer: LD
Text & Cover printer: West Group  Binding: PB  Trim: 8 x 10"  CMYK
To register or access your online learning solution or purchase materials
for your course, visit www.cengagebrain.com.
essential research methods
for social work
FOURTH EDITION
Allen Rubin Earl Babbie
Rubin

Babbie
FOURTH

EDITION
essential research methods for social work
01685_cvr_ptg01_hires.indd 1 28/10/14 9:30 AMCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

6. 3.2AComparisonofQuantitativeandQualitative
MethodsofInquiry46
3.3MixedMethods49
3.3aTypesofMixedMethodsDesigns50
3.3bReasonsforUsingMixedMethods54
3.4PhasesintheResearchProcessinQuantitative,
Qualitative,andMixedMethodsStudies55
3.5MainPoints57
3.6Practice-RelatedExercises57
3.7InternetExercises58
3.8AdditionalReadings58
3.8aCompetencyNotes58
CHAPTER4
FactorsInfluencingtheResearchProcess..........59
4.1Introduction60
4.2ResearchPurposesinQualitativeandQuantitative
Studies60
4.2aExploration60
4.2bDescription61
4.2cExplanation61
4.2dEvaluation62
4.2eConstructingMeasurementInstruments62
4.2fMultiplePurposes63
4.2gExplainingandPredicting64
4.3TheTimeDimension64
4.3aCross-SectionalStudies64
4.3bLongitudinalStudies65
4.4TheInfluenceofParadigms66
4.5TheInfluenceofTheories68
4.5aInductiveandDeductiveUsesofTheory70
4.6SocialWorkPracticeModels71
4.7TheInfluenceofEthicalConsiderations72
4.8TheInfluenceofMulticulturalFactors73
4.9TheInfluenceofOrganizationalandPolitical
Concerns74
4.10MainPoints74
4.11Practice-RelatedExercises75
4.12AdditionalReading75
4.12aCompetencyNotes75
PART3
EthicalandCulturalIssuesinSocialWork
Research........................................................77
CHAPTER5
EthicalIssuesinSocialWorkResearch.............79
5.1Introduction80
5.2EthicalGuidelinesinSocialWorkResearch80
5.2aNASWCodeofEthics80
5.2bVoluntaryParticipationandInformed
Consent81
5.2cNoHarmtotheParticipants84
5.2dAnonymityandConfidentiality85
5.2eDeceivingParticipants85
5.2fAnalysisandReporting86
5.3WeighingBenefitsandCosts87
5.3aAnIllustration:LivingwiththeDying—Useof
ParticipantObservation87
5.3bRighttoReceiveServicesVersus
ResponsibilitytoEvaluateService
Effectiveness88
5.4ThreeEthicalControversies89
5.4aObservingHumanObedience89
5.4bTroubleintheTearoom90
5.4cSocialWorkerSubmitsBogusArticletoTest
JournalBias91
5.5InstitutionalReviewBoards92
5.6BiasandInsensitivityRegardingGenderand
Culture93
5.7PoliticsandValues95
5.7aSocialResearchandRace96
5.8MainPoints98
5.9Practice-RelatedExercises98
5.10InternetExercises99
5.11AdditionalReadings99
5.11aCompetencyNotes100
CHAPTER6
CulturallyCompetentResearch......................101
6.1Introduction102
6.2RecruitingandRetainingtheParticipationof
MinorityandOppressedPopulationsinResearch
Studies102
6.2aObtainEndorsementfromCommunity
Leaders103
6.2bUseCulturallySensitiveApproaches
RegardingConfidentiality103
6.2cEmployLocalCommunityMembersas
ResearchStaff103
6.2dProvideAdequateCompensation104
viContentsCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

7. 6.2eAlleviateTransportationandChildCare
Barriers104
6.2fChooseaSensitiveandAccessible
Setting104
6.2gUseandTrainCulturallyCompetent
Interviewers105
6.2hUseBilingualStaff105
6.2iUnderstandCulturalFactorsInfluencing
Participation106
6.2jUseAnonymousEnrollmentwithStigmatized
Populations106
6.2kUseSpecialSamplingTechniques107
6.2lLearnWheretoLook107
6.2mConnectwithandNurtureReferral
Sources107
6.2nUseFrequentandIndividualizedContactsand
PersonalTouches107
6.2oUseAnchorPoints108
6.2pUseTrackingMethods108
6.3CulturallyCompetentProblemFormulation109
6.4CulturallyCompetentDataAnalysisand
Reporting110
6.5Acculturation111
6.6CulturallyCompetentMeasurement111
6.6aLanguageProblems111
6.6bCulturalBias112
6.6cMeasurementEquivalence112
6.6dAssessingMeasurementEquivalence113
6.7MainPoints114
6.8Practice-RelatedExercises115
6.9InternetExercises115
6.10AdditionalReadings115
6.10aCompetencyNote116
PART4
ProblemFormulationandMeasurement........117
CHAPTER7
ProblemFormulation......................................119
7.1Introduction120
7.2SelectingaTopic120
7.3LiteratureReview120
7.4SelectingaResearchQuestion121
7.4aFeasibility121
7.4bInvolvingOthersinFormulatingResearch
Questions122
7.5Conceptualization123
7.6ConceptualizationinQuantitativeInquiry124
7.6aDevelopingaProperHypothesis125
7.6bMediatingandModeratingVariables125
7.6cControllingfortheEffectsof
Variables126
7.6dConstants127
7.6eTheSameConceptCanBeaDifferent
TypeofVariableinDifferent
Studies127
7.6fTypesofRelationshipsbetween
Variables128
7.6gOperationalDefinitions129
7.6hTheInfluenceofOperational
Definitions129
7.6iAlternativeSourcesofDatafor
OperationalDefinitionsinSocial
Work130
7.6jExistingScales131
7.6kLevelsofMeasurement134
7.7ConceptualizationinQualitativeInquiry135
7.8MainPoints137
7.9Practice-RelatedExercises138
7.10InternetExercises138
7.11AdditionalReading138
7.11aCompetencyNotes138
CHAPTER8
MeasurementinQuantitativeandQualitative
Inquiry........................................................141
8.1Introduction142
8.2SourcesofMeasurementError142
8.2aErrorsinAlternateSourcesofData143
8.3Reliability144
8.3aTypesofReliability144
8.4Validity146
8.4aTypesofValidity146
8.5RelationshipbetweenReliabilityandValidity152
8.6ReliabilityandValidityinQualitative
Research152
8.7MainPoints155
8.8Practice-RelatedExercises156
8.9InternetExercises156
8.9aCompetencyNotes156
ContentsviiCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

8. CHAPTER9
QuantitativeandQualitativeMeasurement
Instruments.................................................157
9.1Introduction158
9.2GenericGuidelinesforAskingQuestions158
9.2aQuestionsandStatements158
9.2bOpen-EndedandClosed-Ended
Questions158
9.2cMakeItemsClear159
9.2dAvoidDouble-BarreledQuestions159
9.2eRespondentsMustBeCompetentto
Answer159
9.2fRespondentsMustBeWillingto
Answer160
9.2gQuestionsShouldBeRelevant160
9.2hShortItemsAreBest160
9.2iAvoidNegativeItems160
9.2jAvoidBiasedItemsandTerms160
9.2kQuestionsShouldBeCulturally
Sensitive161
9.3CriticallyAppraisingQuantitative
Instruments161
9.3aQuestionnaires161
9.3bScales166
9.4CriticallyAppraisingQualitativeMeasures167
9.5QualitativeInterviewing168
9.5aInformalConversationalInterviews168
9.5bInterviewGuideApproach169
9.5cStandardizedOpen-EndedInterviews171
9.5dIllustrationofaStandardizedOpen-Ended
InterviewSchedule171
9.6AComparisonofQuantitativeandQualitative
ApproachestoAskingPeopleQuestions171
9.7MainPoints171
9.8Practice-RelatedExercises175
9.9InternetExercises175
9.9aCompetencyNotes176
PART5
SamplingandSurveys.....................................177
CHAPTER10
Surveys............................................................179
10.1Introduction180
10.2MailSurveys180
10.2aMailDistributionandReturn181
10.2bCoverLetters181
10.2cFollow-UpMailings182
10.2dResponseRates182
10.2eIncreasingResponseRates184
10.3OnlineSurveys184
10.3aAdvantagesandDisadvantagesofOnline
Surveys185
10.3bUsingSurveyMonkey™185
10.3cTipsforConductingOnlineSurveys185
10.3dEmergingDevelopmentsinOnline
Surveys186
10.4InterviewSurveys188
10.4aTheRoleoftheSurveyInterviewer188
10.4bGeneralGuidelinesforSurvey
Interviewing189
10.4cCoordinationandControl191
10.5TelephoneSurveys191
10.5aComputer-AssistedTelephone
Interviewing193
10.6ComparisonoftheDifferentSurvey
Methods194
10.7StrengthsandWeaknessesofSurvey
Research195
10.8CombiningSurveyResearchMethodsand
QualitativeResearchMethods197
10.9UseofSurveysinNeedsAssessment197
10.9aKeyInformants198
10.9bCommunityForum198
10.9cRatesunderTreatment199
10.9dSocialIndicators199
10.9eSurveysofCommunitiesorTarget
Groups199
10.10MainPoints200
10.11Practice-RelatedExercises201
10.12InternetExercises202
10.12aCompetencyNotes202
CHAPTER11
Sampling:QuantitativeandQualitative
Approaches.................................................203
11.1Introduction204
11.2QuantitativeSamplingMethods204
11.2aPresidentAlfLandon205
11.2bPresidentThomasE.Dewey205
11.2cPresidentJohnKerry206
11.3ProbabilitySampling206
11.3aConsciousandUnconsciousSampling
Bias207
viiiContentsCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

9. 11.3bRepresentativenessandProbabilityof
Selection208
11.3cRandomSelection209
11.3dTheLogicofProbabilitySampling209
11.3ePopulationsandSamplingFrames211
11.3fNon-ResponseBias213
11.3gReviewofPopulationsandSampling
Frames214
11.3hOtherConsiderationsinDetermining
SampleSize214
11.4TypesofProbabilitySamplingDesigns215
11.4aSimpleRandomSampling215
11.4bSystematicSampling215
11.4cStratifiedSampling216
11.4dMultistageClusterSampling219
11.4eProbabilitySamplinginReview220
11.5NonprobabilitySamplinginQuantitativeand
QualitativeResearch220
11.5aRelianceonAvailableSubjects220
11.5bPurposiveorJudgmentalSampling222
11.5cQuotaSampling223
11.5dSnowballSampling223
11.6AdditionalQualitativeSamplingMethods224
11.6aDeviantCaseSampling224
11.6bIntensitySampling224
11.6cMaximumVariationandHomogeneous
Sampling225
11.6dTheoreticalSampling225
11.7MainPoints225
11.8Practice-RelatedExercises226
11.9InternetExercises227
11.9aCompetencyNotes227
PART6
DesignsforEvaluatingProgramsandPractice229
CHAPTER12
ExperimentsandQuasi-Experiments..............231
12.1Introduction232
12.2CriteriaforInferringCausality232
12.3InternalValidity233
12.3aThreatstoInternalValidity233
12.4PreexperimentalDesigns235
12.4aPilotStudies237
12.5ExperimentalDesigns237
12.5aRandomization241
12.5bProvidingServicestoControlGroups243
12.6Quasi-ExperimentalDesigns243
12.6aNonequivalentComparisonGroups
Design244
12.6bTimeSeriesDesigns245
12.7AdditionalThreatstotheValidityofExperimental
andQuasi-ExperimentalFindings247
12.7aMeasurementBias247
12.7bResearchReactivity248
12.7cDiffusionorImitationofTreatments250
12.7dCompensatoryEqualization,Compensatory
Rivalry,orResentfulDemoralization250
12.7eAttrition251
12.8ExternalValidity252
12.9Cross-SectionalStudies253
12.10Case-ControlDesign254
12.11MainPoints255
12.12Practice-RelatedExercises257
12.13InternetExercises257
12.13aCompetencyNotes258
CHAPTER13
Single-CaseEvaluationDesigns.......................259
13.1Introduction260
13.2Single-CaseDesignsinSocialWork262
13.2aUseofSingle-CaseDesignsasPartofSocial
WorkPractice263
13.2bSingle-CaseDesignMethodsinEvidence-
BasedPractice263
13.3MeasurementIssues265
13.3aWhattoMeasure265
13.3bTriangulation266
13.4DataGathering266
13.4aWhoShouldMeasure?266
13.4bSourcesofData266
13.4cReliabilityandValidity267
13.4dDirectBehavioralObservation267
13.4eUnobtrusiveVersusObtrusive
Observation268
13.4fDataQuantificationProcedures269
13.4gTheBaselinePhase269
13.5AlternativeSingle-CaseDesigns272
13.5aAB:TheBasicSingle-CaseDesign272
13.5bABAB:Withdrawal/ReversalDesign272
13.5cMultiple-BaselineDesigns274
13.5dMultiple-ComponentDesigns277
13.5eBorBDesignsinEvidence-Based
Practice278
ContentsixCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

10. 13.6DataAnalysis280
13.7TheRoleofQualitativeResearchMethodsin
Single-CaseEvaluation280
13.8MainPoints281
13.9Practice-RelatedExercises282
13.10InternetExercises282
13.11AdditionalReadings282
13.11aCompetencyNotes282
CHAPTER14
ProgramEvaluation.........................................283
14.1Introduction284
14.2HistoricalOverview284
14.2aAccountability284
14.2bManagedCare285
14.2cEvidence-BasedPractice285
14.3PurposesandTypesofProgramEvaluation286
14.3aSummativeandFormative
Evaluations286
14.3bEvaluatingOutcomeandEfficiency287
14.3cMonitoringProgramImplementation287
14.3dProcessEvaluation288
14.3eEvaluationforProgramPlanning:Needs
Assessment288
14.4PlanninganEvaluation290
14.4aFosteringCooperationandUtilization290
14.4bTheEvaluationReport290
14.4cLogicModels291
14.5ThePoliticsofProgramEvaluation292
14.5aIn-HouseVersusExternalEvaluators293
14.6PracticalPitfallsinCarryingOutExperimentsand
Quasi-ExperimentsinSocialWorkAgencies294
14.6aFidelityoftheIntervention294
14.6bContaminationoftheControl
Condition294
14.6cResistancetotheCaseAssignment
Protocol295
14.6dClientRecruitmentandRetention295
14.7MechanismsforAvoidingorAlleviatingPractical
Pitfalls296
14.7aPilotStudies296
14.7bQualitativeTechniques296
14.8CombiningQuantitativeandQualitativeMethods
inProgramEvaluation297
14.9MainPoints297
14.10Practice-RelatedExercises300
14.11InternetExercise300
14.12AdditionalReading300
14.12aCompetencyNotes300
PART7
AdditionalQualitativeandQuantitativeResearch
Methods......................................................301
CHAPTER15
AdditionalMethodsinQualitativeInquiry....303
15.1Introduction304
15.2Phenomenology304
15.3Ethnography304
15.3aTwoEthnographicStudiesof
Homelessness305
15.4CaseStudies306
15.5LifeHistory306
15.6FeministMethods307
15.7FocusGroups307
15.8ParticipatoryActionResearch309
15.8aAnIllustrationofaParticipatoryAction
ResearchStudyUsingFocusGroupsand
FeministMethods:TheVoicesofBattered
WomeninJapan310
15.9GroundedTheory311
15.10SpecialConsiderationsinQualitative
Observation313
15.10aTheVariousRolesoftheObserver313
15.10bEmicandEticPerspectives314
15.11ConductingQualitativeResearch314
15.11aRecordingObservations315
15.12ComparingtheStrengthsandWeaknessesof
QualitativeandQuantitativeResearch317
15.12aDepthofUnderstanding317
15.12bFlexibility317
15.12cSubjectivity317
15.12dGeneralizability318
15.13StandardsforEvaluatingQualitativeStudies318
15.13aContemporaryPositivistStandards319
15.13bSocialConstructivistStandards321
15.13cEmpowermentStandards321
15.14MainPoints322
15.15Practice-RelatedExercises323
15.16InternetExercises323
xContentsCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

11. 15.17AdditionalReadings324
15.17aCompetencyNotes324
CHAPTER16
AnalyzingAvailableRecords:Quantitativeand
QualitativeMethods...................................325
16.1Introduction326
16.2SecondaryAnalysis326
16.2aAdvantagesofSecondaryAnalysis327
16.2bLimitationsofSecondaryAnalysis329
16.3ContentAnalysis331
16.3aSamplinginContentAnalysis333
16.3bCodinginContentAnalysis334
16.3cManifestandLatentContent334
16.3dQualitativeContentAnalysis335
16.3eAnIllustrationofaQualitativeContent
AnalysisinSocialWorkResearch335
16.3fStrengthsandWeaknessesofContent
Analysis336
16.4HistoricalAnalysis337
16.4aSourcesofHistoricalData337
16.4bAnalyticTechniques339
16.5MainPoints340
16.6Practice-RelatedExercises341
16.7InternetExercises341
16.8AdditionalReadings342
16.8aCompetencyNotes342
PART8
DataAnalysis..................................................343
CHAPTER17
QuantitativeDataAnalysis.............................345
17.1Introduction346
17.2Coding346
17.3DescriptiveUnivariateAnalysis346
17.3aFrequencyDistributions346
17.3bCentralTendency347
17.3cDispersion347
17.3dLevelsofMeasurement349
17.4RelationshipsAmongVariables350
17.4aInterpretingBivariateTables350
17.4bInterpretingMultivariateTables351
17.4cInterpretingMeasuresof
Association352
17.5EffectSize353
17.5aOddsRatiosandRiskRatios354
17.5bStrong,Medium,andWeakEffect
Sizes355
17.6SubstantiveSignificance356
17.7InferentialAnalysis357
17.7aRefutingChance358
17.8MainPoints359
17.9Practice-RelatedExercises360
17.10InternetExercises360
17.11AdditionalReading360
17.11aCompetencyNotes360
CHAPTER18
QualitativeDataAnalysis...............................361
18.1Introduction362
18.2Coding362
18.2aCodingasaPhysicalAct362
18.2bCreatingCodes363
18.2cMemoing365
18.3DiscoveringPatterns366
18.3aGroundedTheoryMethod367
18.3bSemiotics367
18.3cConversationAnalysis368
18.3dConceptMapping369
18.4ComputerProgramsforQualitativeData369
18.5InClosing370
18.6MainPoints370
18.7Practice-RelatedExercises371
18.8InternetExercises371
18.9AdditionalReadings372
18.9aCompetencyNotes372
AppendixAUsingtheLibrary..........................373
ElectronicallyAccessingLibraryMaterials374
ElectronicallyAccessingInternetProfessional
Databases374
ProfessionalJournals377
AppendixBWritingResearchProposals..........381
BeforeYouStartWritingtheProposal381
ResearchProposalComponents381
CoverMaterials382
ContentsxiCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

12. ProblemandObjectives382
WritingtheLiteratureReview382
ConceptualFramework383
Measurement384
StudyParticipants(Sampling)384
DesignandData-CollectionMethods384
DataAnalysis385
Schedule385
Budget385
AdditionalComponents385
AppendixCWritingSocialWorkResearch
Reports...........................................................387
SomeBasicConsiderations387
Audience387
FormandLengthoftheReport388
AimoftheReport388
AvoidingPlagiarism388
OrganizationoftheReport389
Title389
Abstract389
IntroductionandLiteratureReview390
Methods390
Results390
DiscussionandConclusions391
ReferencesandAppendices391
AdditionalConsiderationsWhenWritingQualitative
Reports391
AdditionalReadings392
AppendixDRandomNumbers........................393
AppendixEUsingEffectSizestoBridgetheGap
BetweenResearchandPractice......................396
TheResearchPracticeGap396
UsingWithin-GroupEffectSizestoReducetheGap396
AdvancingEvidence-BasedPractice397
Conclusion398
Glossary399
Bibliography413
Index419
xiiContentsCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

13. Preface
Morethan25yearsagowewrotethetextResearch
MethodsforSocialWork,whichisnowinitseighth
edition.Althoughthattextwasanimmediatesuc-
cessandcontinuestobewidelyadopted,somecol-
leagueswhoreallylikethattextsuggestedthatwe
createalessadvancedversion.Atthesametime,
thesecolleaguesexpresseddissatisfactionwiththe
existinglessadvancedtexts,whichtheycharacter-
izedastoosketchyandsimplistic.Whatthey
wantedwasasortofmiddle-groundtext—one
thatislessadvancedthanourothertextbutthat
stillprovidesessentialresearchmethodscontentin
sufficientdepthandbreadth,withsocialworkillus-
trationsandapplicationsthroughout,andwitha
constantfocusontheutilityofsocialworkresearch
insocialworkpractice.
Wewrotethefirstthreeeditionsofthistext,
EssentialResearchMethodsforSocialWork,to
meetthatneed.Thoseeditionsretainedmostof
thecontentofthemoreadvancedversion,butpre-
senteditinasimplifiedfashionandorganizedinto
fewerandshorterchapters.Thesuccessofthoseedi-
tionssuggeststhatwemettheneedsofinstructors
whodeemedtheoriginalcontenttobetoo
advancedforstudentsattheBSWlevel(andper-
hapssomeattheMSWlevel).
Althoughwepresentedthematerialinamore
simplifiedfashion,weattemptedtomaintainthe
strengthsofthemoreadvancedtext.Forexample,
weintegratedquantitativeandqualitativemethods
andshowedhowusingbothcanenhancearesearch
study.Weattemptedtobalancetheattentionwe
givetobothtypesofinquiryandtotheirrespective
advantagesandlimitations.Attimeswediscussed
thestrengthsandweaknessesofquantitativeand
qualitativemethodsingeneral.Atothertimeswe
discussedthestrengthsandweaknessesof
specifictypesofquantitativeorqualitativemethods.
Weattemptedtodothiswithoutimplyingthat
eitherofthesetwocomplementaryapproachesto
inquiryhasmorestrengthsorweaknessesthanthe
other.
Despitethesuccessofthepreviouseditionsof
thistext,weappreciatedtheexcellentsuggestions
madetoimprovethembycolleagueswhousedor
reviewedthem.Thisfourtheditioncontainsmostof
theirsuggestedimprovementsaswellassomethat
weenvisionedourselves.
EPASCORECOMPETENCIES
Inthiseditionwecontinuetoshowhowitscontents
pertaintothecorecompetenciesdelineatedinthe
CouncilonSocialWorkEducation’s(CSWE)Edu-
cationalPolicyandAccreditationStandards(EPAS).
Eachchapterhasiconsindicatingwhichofthecore
competenciesandrecommendedpracticebehaviors
applytothematerialinthatchapter.Someofthe
iconsmatchaparticularchaptersectionwithits
correspondingcorecompetencyorpracticebehav-
ior.Othersindicatethattheentirechapterpertains
toseveralcompetenciesandpracticebehaviors.
Attheendofeachchapter,weaddedcompe-
tencynotestoelaborateuponthecorecompetencies
andpracticebehaviorsaddressedinthechapter.For
example,Chapter2,onEvidence-BasedPractice,
containsiconspertainingtosevenofthetenEPAS
corecompetencies.Oneofthosesevencompetency
iconsinChapter2pertainstoengagingincareer-
longlearning.Inthecompetencynotesattheend
ofthatchapter,weexplainhowcontentinthat
chapterpertainstoeachcorecompetencyicon.For
theiconpertainingtoengagingincareer-longlearn-
ing,weexplainthatevidence-basedpractitioners
recognizethatpractice-relatedknowledgecan
changeasnewerandbetterresearchemerges,and
thatthereforetheymustengageincareer-longlearn-
ingtostayabreastofthosechangesandincorporate
themintotheirpractice.
xiiiCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

14. MIXEDMETHODS
Oneofthesignificantadditionstoourpreviousedi-
tionwasitsincreasedattentiontomixedmethods
research.Wehaveexpandedthatcoveragein
Chapter3ofthiseditioninseveralways.Wehave
addedacaseexampleboxsummarizingapublished
mixedmethodsstudyregardingengagingchildwel-
fareclientsinworkingrelationships.Weaddeda
majorsectiondescribingCreswell’s(2014)three
basicmixedmethodsdesigns.Eachofthethree
designsisdescribedinsubsectionsthatinclude
examplesofeach.Anothernewsectionsummarizes
Creswell’sthreeadvancedmixedmethodsdesigns.
SIGNIFICANTADDITIONSAND
MODIFICATIONSINOTHER
CHAPTERS
ThephilosophicalsectioninChapter1onobjectiv-
ityandparadigmshasbeenremovedfromthat
chapterinkeepingwithsuggestionsthatitistoo
advancedtoappearsosooninthebook.Content
onthattopicalreadyappearedinChapter4,so
weexpandeditsomewhatinthatchapter.We
addedaboxprovidingacaseexampleofasocial
workerexposingthepseudoscientificaspectsof
thoughtfieldtherapyandhowtheyweakencritical
thinking.WealsoaddedabriefdiscussionofKarl
Popper’sprincipleoffalsifiabilityinscience.
InthesectionofChapter2onformulatingan
evidence-basedpractice(EBP)questionweaddeda
boxthatillustratesexamplesofEBPquestions
abouteffectiveness,predictorsofdesirableand
undesirableconsequences,understandingclient
experiences,andassessmenttools.Wealso
expandedourcoverageofsystematicreviewsand
meta-analysestomakesearchingforevidence
morefeasible.Inanotherboxweexpandedour
listofInternetsitesforreviewsandpractice
guidelines.
InChapter4,inadditiontotheincreasedcover-
ageregardingobjectivityandparadigmswesignifi-
cantlyexpandedourcoverageoflongitudinal
studies,includingmoreattentiontopanelattrition
aswellasanewfigurethatcomparescross-sectional
studiestothethreetypesoflongitudinalstudies.
Inresponsetorequestsfromreviewers,wehave
movedthesectiononethicalandculturalissuesin
socialworkresearchupfromPart7toPart2.
ThoseareasarenowcoveredinChapters5and6.
Thiseditionhasonefewerchapterbecausewe
mergedthechapteronreviewingtheliteratureand
developingresearchquestionswiththechapteron
conceptualization.Themergedchapter(now
Chapter7)istitledProblemFormulation,asitcom-
binesthoseaspectsofproblemformulationthat
werepreviouslycoveredintwoseparatechapters.
Themergerinvolvedmovingthesectiononusing
thelibrarytoanewappendixonthattopic.The
sectiononwritingtheliteraturereviewoverlapped
withcoverageofthatintheappendixesonwriting
researchproposalsandreports,sowemovedthat
coveragetothoseappendixes.
InChapter8onmeasurement(previously
Chapter7)weaddedaboxneartheendofthe
chaptertofurtherillustratethedifferencebetween
reliabilityandvalidity.InChapter10onsurveys
(previouslyChapter9)weaddedanewsectionon
emergingdevelopmentsinonlinesurveystoaddress
varioustechnologicaladvancessuchastheuseof
tabletsandsmartphones.Wealsoreferredreaders
tosourcesforkeepingabreastofthesedevelop-
ments.Alsointhischapterisexpandedattention
toissuesregardingcellphonesintelephone
surveys.
InChapter12(previouslyChapter11)weelab-
oratedthesectiononattritioninexperimentsand
quasi-experimentsbydiscussingtheuseofintent-
to-treatanalysis.Wealsoaddedaboxclarifying
thedifferencebetweenrandomassignmentin
experimentsversusrandomselectioninsurveys.
SignificantrevisionsweremadeinChapter14
onprogramevaluation(previouslyChapter13).
Thechapterhasbeenreorganizedsothatcoverage
ofthepurposesandtypesofprogramevaluation
andhowtoplanonefollowimmediatelyafterthe
historicaloverviewsection.Wethinkthatthiswill
givereadersabettergraspofthebasicsofprogram
evaluationbeforegettingintoissuesregardingits
politicsandpracticalpitfalls.Thehistoricalover-
viewsectionisexpandedtoincludemorecontent
onaccountabilityandtheimportanceofdemon-
stratingthatprogramsareeffectiveandnotharm-
ful,andtheconnectionofaccountabilitytoour
professionalethics.Alsoaddedtothehistorical
xivPrefaceCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

15. coverageisasectiononevidence-basedpracticeand
theutilityofmeta-analysesandeffect-sizestatistics.
Asectionontheutilityofpreexperimentaldesigns
inprogramevaluationthatappearslaterinthe
chapterreturnstothosetwoconceptstoshow
howtheycanenhancethevalueofpreexperimental
designs.Thatlatersectionalsodiscusseswhypreex-
perimentaldesignsarecommonlyusedinprogram
evaluationandwhytheirlimitationsarelessprob-
lematicinaprogramevaluationcontext.Another
significantadditionisasectiononlogicmodels.
Inthequantitativedataanalysischapterwe
expandedthecoverageofeffectsizestoinclude
oddsratiosandriskratiosalongwithCohen’sd.
Wealsoaddedafiguretoillustratehowdistribu-
tionswithdifferentdegreesofdispersioncanhave
thesamecentraltendencyandhowreportsof
descriptivefindingsthatrelyexclusivelyoncentral
tendencycanbeincompleteandpossiblymislead-
ing.Alsoregardingeffectsizes,anewAppendix
(E)hasbeenaddedthatdiscussesanovelapproach
beingadvancedbyoneofus(Rubin)forcalculating
withingroupeffectsizeswhichmightenhancethe
valueofpreexperimentaldesignsinprogramevalu-
ationandreducethegapbetweenresearchand
practiceinawaythataimstoadvanceevidence-
basedpracticetoanewlevel.
Wehopeyou’llfindthattheaboveadditionsand
modificationshaveimprovedtheusefulnessof
thisbook.Wewouldliketoknowwhatyou
thinkofthiseditionandtoreceiveanysuggestions
youmighthaveforimprovingit.Pleasee-mailusat
[email protected].
ANCILLARYPACKAGE
BookCompanionWebsite
Forstudents,theBookCompanionWebsiteat
www.cengagebrain.comofferspracticequizzesand
weblinks.
Instructor’sManual
Also,aswithourothertext,anInstructor’sManual
mirrorstheorganizationofthistext,offeringour
recommendedteachingmethods.Eachchapterof
theonlinemanualprovidesanoutlineofrelevant
discussion,behavioralobjectives,teachingsugges-
tionsandresources,andtestitems.ThisInstructor’s
Manualissetuptoallowinstructorsthefreedom
andflexibilityneededtoteachresearchmethods
courses.
Thetestquestionsforeachchapterinclude
multiple-choiceandtrue–falseitemsandseveral
essayquestionsthatmaybeusedforexamsorto
stimulateclassdiscussion.Pagereferencestothe
textaregivenforthemultiple-choiceandtrue–
falsequestions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Weowespecialthankstothefollowingcolleagues
whoreviewedanearlierdraftofthistextandmade
valuablesuggestionsforimprovingit:MaryBeth
Hyatt,LimestoneCollege;ChrisLloyd,University
ofArkansasatLittleRock;PaulLanier,UNC
ChapelHill;JeannineRowe,Universityof
Wisconsin-Whitewater;YongLi,SUNYPlatts-
burgh;StephanieWarren,LimestoneCollege;Min
Zhan,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign.
Thanksalsotothefollowingstaffmembersat
CengageLearningfortheirhelpinimprovingthis
newedition:GordonLee,ProductManager;Ste-
phenLagos,ProductAssistant;RuthSakataCorley,
ProductionManager;DeannaEttinger,IPAnalyst;
KristinaMose-Libon,ArtDirector;BrendaGinty,
ManagingEditor,Production;JohnChell,Media
Editor;andJudyInoue,ManufacturingPlanner
AllenRubin
EarlBabbie
PrefacexvCopyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

16. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

17. p
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1Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

18. Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

19. chapter
1
WhyStudyResearch?
1.1Introduction
1.2HowDoSocialWorkersKnowThings?
1.3TheScientificMethod
1.4OtherWaysofKnowing
1.4aPersonalExperience
1.4bTradition
1.4cAuthority
1.4dCommonSense
1.4ePopularMedia
1.5RecognizingFlawsinUnscientificSources
ofSocialWorkPracticeKnowledge
1.5aInaccurateObservation
1.5bOvergeneralization
1.5cSelectiveObservation
1.5dExPostFactoHypothesizing
1.5eEgoInvolvementinUnderstanding
1.5fOtherFormsofIllogicalReasoning
1.5gThePrematureClosureofInquiry
1.5hPseudoscience
1.6MainPoints
1.7Practice-RelatedExercises
1.8InternetExercises
1.9AdditionalReadings
3Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

20. 1.1INTRODUCTION
Youmaybewonderingwhysocialworkstudents
arerequiredtotakearesearchcourse.Partofthe
answeristhatsocialworkresearchaimstoprovide
thepracticalknowledgethatsocialworkersneedto
solveeverydaypracticeproblems.
Youarelikelytoencounternumeroussituations
inyourcareerinwhichyou’lluseyourresearch
expertiseandperhapswishyouhadmoreofit.
Forexample,youmayadministerasubstance
abuseprogramwhosecontinuedfundingrequires
youtoconductascientificevaluationofitseffective-
nessinpreventingoralleviatingsubstanceabuse.
Youmayprovidedirectservicesandwanttoevalu-
atescientificallyyourowneffectivenessorthe
effectscertaininterventionsarehavingonyourcli-
ents.Youmaybeinvolvedincommunityorganizing
orplanningandwanttoconductascientificsurvey
toassessacommunity’sgreatestneeds.Youmaybe
engagedinsocialreformeffortsandneedscientific
datatoexposetheharmfuleffectsofcurrentwelfare
policiesandthuspersuadelegislatorstoenactmore
humanitarianwelfarelegislation.
Evenifyouneverdoanyresearch,you’llneedto
understanditanduseittoguideyourpractice.
That’sbecauseourprofessionremainsquiteuncer-
tainaboutwhatreallyworksinmanypracticesitua-
tions.Someagenciesprovideinterventionsthat
researchhasfoundtobeineffective.Somedayyou
mayevenworkinsuchanagencyandmaybe
expectedtoprovidesuchinterventionsyourself.By
understandingresearchandthenreadingstudies
thatprovidenewevidenceonwhatisandisnot
effective,youcanincreaseyourownpracticeeffec-
tiveness.Bydoingso,youwillhavetakenamajor
steptowardestablishinganevidence-basedpractice.
Theevidence-basedpracticeprocess(whichwe
willexamineindepthinChapter2)involvesusing
thebestscientificevidenceavailableindecidinghow
tointervenewithindividuals,families,groups,or
communities.Despiterecentadvancesinidentifying
evidence-basedinterventions,socialworkerstoday
continuetousesomeinterventionsandprocedures
thathavenotyetreceivedadequatetesting.Infact,
newinterventionscontinuallyemergeandarepro-
motedwithoutadequatescientificevidenceasto
theireffectiveness.Somewillhavereceivednoscien-
tifictestingwhatsoever.Otherswillhavebeen
“tested”inascientificallyunsoundmannerin
whichtheresearchdesignormeasurementproce-
dureswerebiasedtoproducedesiredresults.Some
willhavebeentestedwithcertainethnicgroupsbut
notwithothers.Professionalsocialworkersare
oftenbombardedwithflierspromotingexpensive
continuingeducationtrainingworkshopsfornew
interventions.Theseinterventions,ofcourse,are
toutedasbeingeffective,butsuchclaimsmaynot
bewarranted.Inthefaceofthisreality,understand-
ingscientificinquiryandresearchmethodsbecomes
practiceknowledge,too.Learninghowtocritically
appraisewhetheradequatescientificevidencesup-
portsparticularinterventionsincertainpractice
situationsbecomesatleastasimportantaslearning
howtoapplyinterventionsingeneral.
Whycan’twejustlettheresearchersproducethe
neededstudiesandthentellpractitionersthe
results?Firstofall,thereisavastrangeinthequal-
ityofthesocialworkresearchproducedandpub-
lished.Someofitisexcellent,andsomeofit
probablyshouldneverhavebeenpublished.Itis
nothardtofindstudiesthatviolatesomeofthe
fundamentalprinciplesthatyouwilllearninthis
book.Ifsocialworkpractitionersaregoingtorely
onthefindingsofsocialworkresearchstudiesfor
guidance,thentheymustunderstandsocialwork
researchmethodswellenoughtodistinguishstrong
studiesfromweakones.Moreover,thequalityof
socialworkresearchultimatelydependsnotjust
ontheresearchers’methodologicalexpertisebut
alsoontheirpracticeknowledgeandthepracti-
tioners’researchknowledge.Withoutapartnership
betweenpractice-orientedresearchersandmethodo-
logicallyinformedpractitioners,thereisnotlikely
tobeaclimateofsupportinagenciesforthetype
ofresearchourfielddesperatelyneeds—research
thatisresponsivetotherealneedsofagencypracti-
tionersunderconditionsthatpermitanadequate
levelofmethodologicalrigor.Evenifyouneverpro-
duceanyresearch,anunderstandingofresearch
methodswillhelpyoucriticallyappraiseanduse
researchproducedbyothers,communicatewith
researcherstohelpensurethattheirworkisrespon-
sivetotheneedsofpractice,andultimatelyhelp
fosteranagencyenvironmentconducivetocarrying
outcogent,relevantstudies.
Beingprofessionalinvolvesstrivingtomakesure
weprovideourclientswiththemosteffective
4Chapter1Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

21. servicesavailable.Howdowedothat?Dowejust
askoursupervisorswhattheythinkisbest?Sucha
tacticmaybeastartingpoint,butpractitionerswho
conformonlytoongoingpracticeswithoutkeeping
abreastofthelatestresearchintheirfieldsarenot
doingeverythingtheycantoprovideclientswiththe
bestpossibleservice.
Givenhowfrequentlysocialworkserviceshave
beenfoundtobeineffective,andtherecentemer-
genceofstudiesidentifyingnewandapparently
effectiveinterventions,failuretokeepabreastof
theresearchinthefieldisaseriousshortcoming.
Wecannotjustifydisregardingresearchwiththe
rationalizationthatwearetoobusyhelpingpeople.
Ifourserviceshavenotbeentestedfortheireffects
onclients,thenchancesarewearenotreallyhelp-
inganyone.Inthatcase,whobenefitsfromour
blindfaithinconventionalbutuntestedpractice
wisdom?Notourclients.Notthosewhopayfor
ourservices.Notsociety.Dowe?Inonesense,per-
haps.Itislessworkforusifweunquestioningly
perpetuateongoingpractices.Thatway,wedonot
makewaves.Wedonothavetothinkasmuch.
Thereisonelesstask—readingresearchreports—
inourdailygrind.Inthelongrun,however,practi-
tionerswhokeepupontheresearchandknowthey
aredoingalltheycantoprovidethebestpossible
servicestotheirclientsmightexperiencemorejob
satisfactionandbelessvulnerabletoburnout.
Themainreasontouseresearch,however,is
compassionforourclients.Wecareabouthelping
them;thusweseekscientificevidenceaboutthe
effectsoftheservicesweareprovidingandofalter-
nativeservicesthatmighthelpthemmore.Ifthe
servicesweprovidearenoteffectiveandothers
are,thenweareharmingourclientsbyperpetuating
ourcurrentservices.Wearewastingtheirtime(and
perhapsmoney)byallowingtheirproblemstogo
onwithoutthebestpossibletreatment.Becausewe
areinattentivetotheliterature,wedenyourclients
aserviceopportunitythatmightbetterhelpthem.
Thus,understandingresearchmethodsandusing
researchdiscriminatelyhavemuchtodowithbasic
socialworkvaluessuchascaringandcompassion.
Thepractitionerwhounderstandsandusesresearch
showsmoreconcernforthewelfareofhisorher
clients,andultimatelyismorehelpfultothem,
thantheonewhodoesnottakethattrouble,per-
hapsmisguidedbyerroneousassumptionsabout
research.
However,studiesontheeffectsofsocialwork
interventionsarejustoneprominentexampleof
usefulsocialworkresearch.Alonglistofother
examplesofcompletedresearchstudieswouldalso
conveythevalueofresearchtosocialwork,and
whystudentspreparingtobecomepractitioners
shouldknowresearchmethodssotheycanuse
andcontributetosuchresearch.Manyofthese
studieswillbecitedasillustrationsofthemethodo-
logicalconceptsaddressedthroughoutthistext.
Wealsocouldcitecountlessexamplesofaddi-
tionaltopicsonwhichyoumightsomedaywantto
seeresearchfindings.Onlyafewwillbecitedhere.
Forexample,whydosomanyofyouragency’scli-
entsterminatetreatmentprematurely?Whattypesof
clientsstaywithordropoutoftreatment?Whatrea-
sonsdotheygive?Whatservicesdidtheyreceive?
Howsatisfiedweretheywiththoseservices?In
whatpartofyourtargetcommunityorregionshould
youlocateyouroutreachefforts?Whereareyou
mostlikelytoengagehard-to-reachindividualssuch
asthehomelessorrecentimmigrants?Whatpropor-
tionofyourtargetpopulationdoesnotunderstand
English?Whyaresofewethnicminoritiesbeing
servedbyyouragency?Whatdoesyouragency
meantothem?Whatistheagencyatmospherelike
fromtheirviewpoint?Wecouldgoonandon,but
yougettheidea:Thepossibilitiesareendless.
Ethicsisoneofthemostimportant
concernsofsocialworkersastheycon-
siderresearchandappearsasarecur-
ringtopicofdiscussionthroughoutthis
book.TheCodeofEthicsofthe
NationalAssociationofSocialWork-
ersspecificallyrequiressocialworkerstokeepcur-
rentwithandcriticallyappraisepractice-related
researchintheprofessionalliterature,andtoinclude
evidence-basedknowledgeaspartoftheknowledge
basefortheirpractice.Whenweuseresearchdis-
criminatingly,weupholdandadvancethevalues
andmissionoftheprofession,andthusaremore
ethicalinourpractice.Still,socialworkstudents
quitecommonlyapproachresearchmethodology
withskepticismabouttheethicsofmanyresearch
studies.Wewilladdressthoseethicalconcernsin
variouschaptersofthebook,notjustinthechapter
devotedtoethics.Wehopethatbythetimeyou
finishreadingthisbook,youwillhaveabetter
understandingnotonlyoftheethicaldilemmas
involvedinsocialworkresearch,butalsoofthe
EP2.1.2b
WhyStudyResearch?5Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

22. reasonswhyourprofessionalcodeofethicscomes
tobearonourresponsibilitytounderstand,use,and
contributetoresearch.
Perhapsmorethaneverbefore,socialwork
researchoffersallsocialworkersanopportunity
tomakeadifferenceintheproblemstheyconfront.
Whetheryoubecomeadirectservicepractitioner
seekingtomaximizetheeffectivenessofyourser-
vices,orasocialactivistseekingtopromotemore
humanesocialwelfarelegislation(orperhapsboth),
thesuccessofyoureffortstohelppeoplewilllikely
beenhancedbyyouruseofscientificinquiryand
research.Inthehopethatthisintroductionhas
whettedyourappetiteforwhatyouareaboutto
learninthisbook,let’snowexaminethevarious
wayssocialworkersseektoknowthings.
1.2HOWDOSOCIALWORKERS
KNOWTHINGS?
Socialworkstudentsstudyvarioustheoriesabout
humanbehaviorandalternativeperspectiveson
socialwelfarepoliciesandsocialworkintervention.
Sometimesthesetheoriesandperspectivesseem
compatible.Sometimestheydonot.Howwillyou
decidewhichofthemshouldguideyourfutureprac-
tice?Willyoubaseyourdecisiononwhichauthor
orprofessorismostesteemed?Willyoujusttake
yourfieldsupervisor’swordforthings,oraccept
withoutquestionlong-standingagencytraditions?
Towhatextentwillyourelyonyourowndirect
socialworkexperienceasthebasisofyourpractice
wisdom?Thisbookaimstohelpyoudevelopasci-
entificapproachforansweringquestionslikethese
nowandthroughoutyourcareerasasocialworker.
Let’sbeginbyexaminingafewthingsyouprob-
ablyknowalready.Youknowthattheworldis
roundandthatpeoplespeakJapaneseinJapan.
Youprobablyalsoknowit’scoldontheplanet
Mars.Howdoyouknow?Unlessyou’vebeento
Marslately,youknowit’scoldtherebecausesome-
bodytoldyou,andyoubelievedwhatyouwere
told.Perhapsyourphysicsorastronomyinstructor
toldyouitwascoldonMars,ormaybeyoureadit
inNewsweek.YoumayhavereadinNationalGeo-
graphicthatpeoplespeakJapaneseinJapan,and
thatmadesensetoyou,soyoudidn’tquestionit.
Someofthethingsyouknowseemabsolutely
obvioustoyou.Ifsomeoneaskedhowyouknow
theworldisround,you’dprobablysay,“Everybody
knowsthat.”Therearealotofthingseverybody
knows.Ofcourse,atonetime,everyone“knew”
theworldwasflat.
Mostofwhatweknowisamatterofagreement
andbelief.Butwealsocanknowthingsthrough
directexperienceandobservation.Ifyousleepout-
sidelikeahomelesspersononacoldwinternight,
youwon’tneedanyonetotellyouit’scold—you
noticethatallbyyourself.Whenyourexperience
conflictswithwhateveryoneelseknows,though,
there’sagoodchanceyouwillsurrenderyourexpe-
rienceinfavoroftheagreement.
Let’stakeanexampletoillustratethis:Imagine
you’reataparty.It’sahigh-classaffair,andthe
drinksandfoodareexcellent.Youareparticularly
takenbyonetypeofappetizerthehostbrings
aroundonatray.It’sbreaded,deep-fried,and
especiallytasty.Youhaveacouple,andtheyare
delicious!Youhavemore.Soonyouaresubtly
movingaroundtheroomtobewhereverthehost
arriveswithatrayofthesenibblies.Finally,you
can’tcontainyourselfanymore.“Whatarethey?”
youask.“HowcanIgettherecipe?”Thehostlets
youinonthesecret:“You’vebeeneatingbreaded,
deep-friedworms!”Yourresponseisdramatic:
Yourstomachrebels,andyoupromptlythrowup
alloverthelivingroomrug.Awful!Whataterrible
thingtoserveguests!
Thepointofthestoryisthatbothfeelingsabout
theappetizerwouldbereal.Yourinitiallikingfor
them,basedonyourowndirectexperience,wascer-
tainlyreal,butsowasthefeelingofdisgustyouhad
whenyoufoundoutthatyouhadbeeneating
worms.Itshouldbeevident,however,thatthefeel-
ingofdisgustwasstrictlyaproductoftheagree-
mentsyouhavewiththosearoundyouthat
wormsaren’tfittoeat.That’sanagreementyou
enteredintothefirsttimeyourparentsfoundyou
sittinginapileofdirtwithhalfawrigglingworm
danglingfromyourlips.Whentheypriedyour
mouthopenandreacheddownyourthroattofind
theotherhalf,youlearnedthatwormsarenot
acceptablefoodinoursociety.
Asidefromtheagreementswehave,what’s
wrongwithworms?They’reprobablyhighinpro-
teinandlowincalories.Bite-sizedandeasilypack-
aged,they’readistributor’sdream.Theyarealsoa
delicacyforsomepeoplewholiveinsocietiesthat
lackouragreementthatwormsaredisgusting.
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23. Otherpeoplemightlovethewormsbutbeturned
offbythedeep-friedbreadcrumbcrust.
Reality,then,isatrickybusiness.Youprobably
alreadysuspectthatsomeofthethingsyou“know”
maynotbetrue,buthowcanyoureallyknow
what’sreal?Peoplehavegrappledwiththatques-
tionforthousandsofyears.Scienceisoneofthe
strategiesthathasarisenfromthatgrappling.
1.3THESCIENTIFICMETHOD
Scienceoffersanapproachtobothagreementreal-
ityandexperientialreality.Thatapproachiscalled
thescientificmethod.Onekeyfeatureofthescien-
tificmethodisthateverythingisopentoquestion.
Thatmeansthatinourquesttounderstandthings,
weshouldstrivetokeepanopenmindaboutevery-
thingwethinkweknoworthatwewanttobelieve.
Inotherwords,weshouldconsiderthethingswe
call“knowledge”tobetentativeandsubjecttoref-
utation.Thisfeaturehasnoexceptions.Nomatter
howlongaparticulartraditionhasbeenpracticed,
nomatterhowmuchpoweroresteemaparticular
authorityfiguremayhave,nomatterhownoblea
causemaybe,wecanquestionanybelief—nomat-
terhowcherisheditmaybe.
Anotherkeyfeatureofthescientificmethodis
thesearchforevidencebasedonobservationas
thebasisforknowledge.Thetermempiricalrefers
tothisvaluingofobservation-basedevidence.Aswe
willseelater,onecanbeempiricalindifferentways,
dependingonthenatureoftheevidenceandthe
waywesearchforandobserveit.Fornow,remem-
berthatthescientificmethodseekstruththrough
Welearnsomethingsbyexperience,othersbyagreement.Thisyoungmanseemstobeintopersonalexperience.
SOURCE:AllenRubin
scientificmethodAnapproachtoinquirythat
attemptstosafeguardagainsterrorscommonly
madeincasualhumaninquiry.Chieffeatures
includeviewingallknowledgeasprovisionaland
subjecttorefutation,searchingforevidencebasedon
systematicandcomprehensiveobservation,pursuing
objectivityinobservation,andreplicatingstudies.
WhyStudyResearch?7Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

24. observedevidence—notthroughauthority,tradi-
tion,ordogma—nomatterhowmuchsocialpres-
sureorpoliticalcorrectnessmaybeconnectedto
particularbeliefs,andnomatterhowmanypeople
embracethosebeliefsorhowlongtheyhavebeen
proclaimedtobetrue.Ittookcouragelongagoto
questionfiercelyheldbeliefsthattheearthisflat.
Scientificallymindedsocialworkerstodayshould
findthesamecouragetoaskwhetheradequateevi-
dencesupportsinterventionsorpoliciesthatthey
havebeentoldortaughttobelievein.
Theyshouldalsoexaminethenatureofthatevi-
dence.Tobetrulyscientific,theobservationsthat
haveaccumulatedthatevidenceshouldhavebeen
orderlyandcomprehensive.Thesampleofobserva-
tionsshouldhavebeenlargeanddiverse.Theobser-
vationalproceduresshouldbespecifiedsothatwe
canseethebasisfortheconclusionsthatwere
reached,andbeabletojudgewhethertheconclu-
sionsareindeedwarrantedinlightoftheevidence
andthewaysinwhichitwasobserved.
Thespecifiedproceduresshouldalsobescruti-
nizedforpotentialbias.Thescientificmethod
recognizesthatweallhavebiasesthatcandistort
howwelookfororperceiveevidence.Ittherefore
emphasizesthepursuitofobjectivityinthewaywe
seekandobserveevidence.Noneofusmayeverbe
purelyobjective,nomatterhowstronglycommitted
wearetothescientificmethod.Nomatterhowsci-
entificallypuretheirresearchmaybe,researchers
wanttodiscoversomethingimportant—thatis,to
havefindingsthatwillmakeasignificantcontribu-
tiontoimprovinghumanwell-beingor(lessnobly)
enhancingtheirprofessionalstature.Thescientific
methoddoesnotrequirethatresearchersdeceive
themselvesintothinkingtheylackthesebiases.
Instead,recognizingthattheymayhavethese
biases,theymustfindwaystogatherobservations
thatarenotinfluencedbytheirbiases.
Suppose,forexample,youdeviseanewinter-
ventiontopreventchildabuse.Naturally,youwill
bebiasedinwantingyourinterventiontobeeffec-
tive.It’sokaytohavethatbiasandstillscientifically
inquirewhetheryourinterventionreallydoespre-
ventchildabuse.Youwouldnotwanttobase
yourinquirysolelyonyourownsubjectiveclinical
impressions.Thatapproachwouldengenderagreat
dealofskepticismabouttheobjectivityofyour
judgmentswithregardtotheintervention’seffects.
Thus,insteadofrelyingexclusivelyonyourclinical
impressions,youwoulddeviseanobservationpro-
cedurethatwasnotinfluencedbyyourownbiases.
Perhapsyouwouldseeiftheparentsreceivingyour
interventionhadfewerchildabuseincidents
reportedtothechildwelfaredepartmentthan
parentswhoreceivedadifferentintervention.Or
perhapsyouwouldadministeranexistingpaper-
and-penciltestthatsocialscientistsregardasa
validmeasureofparentalchild-raisingknowledge
andattitudes.Althoughneitheralternativecan
guaranteecompleteobjectivity,eachwouldbe
morescientificthanyoursubjectivejudgments,
reflectingyourefforttopursueobjectivity.
Becausetherearenofoolproof
waysforsocialsciencetoguarantee
thatevidenceispurelyobjective,accu-
rate,andgeneralizable,thescientific
methodalsocallsforthereplication
ofstudies.Thisisinkeepingwiththe
notionthatallknowledgeistentativeandrefutable.
KeyFeaturesoftheScientificMethod
Amnemonicforrememberingsomeofthekeyfeaturesofthescientificmethodisthewordtrout.Thinkofcatchingor
eatingadelicioustrout,*anditwillhelpyourememberthefollowingkeyfeatures:
T Tentative: Everythingwethinkweknowtodayisopentoquestionandsubjecttoreassessment,modifica-
tion,orrefutation.
R Replication: Eventhebeststudiesareopentoquestionandneedtobereplicated.
O Observation:Knowledgeisgroundedinorderlyandcomprehensiveobservations.
U Unbiased: Observationsshouldbeunbiased.
T Transparent:Allproceduraldetailsareopenlyspecifiedforreviewandevaluationandtoshowthebasisof
conclusionsthatwerereached.
*Ifyouareavegetarian,youmightwanttojustpicturehowbeautifulthesefishareandimaginehowmanyoftheirlivesyouaresaving.
EP2.1.6b
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25. Replicationmeansduplicatingastudytoseeifthe
sameevidenceandconclusionsareproduced.Italso
referstomodifiedreplicationsinwhichtheproce-
duresarechangedincertainwaysthatimproveon
previousstudies,ordetermineiffindingsholdup
withdifferenttargetpopulationsorunderdifferent
circumstances.Theneedtoreplicateimpliesthat
scientificallymindedsocialworkersshouldhave
thecouragetoquestionnotonlycherishedbeliefs
thatwerenotderivedfromscientificevidencebut
alsotheconclusionsofscientificstudiesandthe
waythosestudieswerecarriedout.Thebox“Key
FeaturesoftheScientificMethod”summarizesthese
featuresandprovidesahandymnemonicfor
rememberingthem.
1.4OTHERWAYSOFKNOWING
Thescientificmethodisnottheonlywaytolearn
abouttheworld.Wealsocanlearnfrompersonal
experience,tradition,authority,commonsense,and
thepopularmedia.Let’snowexamineeachofthese
waysofacquiringknowledgeandcomparethemto
thescientificmethod.Asyouwillsee,someofthe
thingspeoplebelievefromthesealternativesources
oflearningmaynotbetrue.Whenthinkingcriti-
callyandwithascientificorientation,people
wouldwanttoconsiderobservationsthatmight
contradictordisprovesomeofthethingsthey
“learn”fromtheseotherwaysof“knowing.”
Someconclusionspeoplereachfromtheseother
sourcesmaywellbetrue,butnomatterhowmuch
theycherishabelief,unlessitispossibletostate
observationsthatwouldcontradictordisprove,it
noconclusioncanbeconsideredtobe“scientific.”
KarlPopper(1934)describedthisastheprincipleof
falsifiabilityinscience.Thisiswhatdistinguishes
scientificconclusionsfromreligious,political,or
philosophicalbeliefs.
1.4aPersonalExperience
Asmentionedearlier,wealldiscoverthingsthrough
ourpersonalexperiencesfrombirthon,andfrom
theagreed-onknowledgethatothersgiveus.Some-
timesthisknowledgecanprofoundlyinfluenceour
lives.Welearnthatgettinganeducationwillaffect
howmuchmoneyweearnlaterinlifeandthat
studyinghardwillresultinbetterexamination
grades.Thetermpracticewisdom,alsoasnoted
earlier,referstosocialworkerslearningthings
aboutsocialworkpracticeviatheirpersonalprac-
ticeexperience.Despitethevalueofsuchexperi-
ence,itisimportanttorecognizeitslimitations
andthewaysinwhichthescientificmethodcan
augmentitandsafeguardagainstsomecommon
errors.Sometimesinformationthatwebelieveto
beknowledgeacquiredthroughourpracticeexperi-
enceactuallycomesfromobservationsthatare
casualandunsystematicorinfluencedbyourpredi-
lections.Wewillexaminetheseerrorsmoreclosely
laterinthischapter.Fornow,youshouldremember
thatthescientificmethodsafeguardsagainstthese
errorsthroughobservationsthataresystematic,
comprehensive,andunbiased.
1.4bTradition
Oneimportantsecondhandwaytoattempttolearn
thingsisthroughtradition.Eachofusinheritsacul-
turemadeupinpartoffirmlyacceptedknowledge
abouttheworkingsoftheworld.Wemaylearn
fromothersthatplantingcorninthespringwill
gainthegreatestassistancefromthegods,that
sugarfromtoomuchcandywillcausetooth
decay,orthatthecircumferenceofacircleis
approximatelytwenty-twoseventhsofitsdiameter.
Wemaytestafewofthese“truths”onourown,
butwesimplyacceptthegreatmajorityofthem.
Thesearethethingsthat“everybodyknows.”
Tradition,inthissenseoftheterm,hassomeclear
advantagesforhumaninquiry.Byacceptingwhat
everybodyknows,youaresparedtheoverwhelming
taskofstartingfromscratchinyoursearchforregu-
laritiesandunderstanding.Atthesametime,tradi-
tionmaybedetrimentaltohumaninquiry.Ifyou
seekafreshanddifferentunderstandingofsome-
thingthateverybodyalreadyunderstandsandhas
alwaysunderstood,youmaybeseenasafool.
Moretothepoint,itwillprobablyneveroccurto
youtoseekadifferentunderstandingofsomething
thatisalreadyunderstoodandobvious.
Whenyouenteryourfirstjobasaprofessional
socialworker,youmaylearnaboutyouragency’s
preferredinterventionapproaches.Chancesareyou
willfeelgoodaboutreceivinginstructionsabout
“howwedothingsinthisagency.”Youmaybe
anxiousaboutbeginningtoworkwithrealcases
andrelievedthatyouwon’thavetochoosebetween
competingtheoriestoguidewhatyoudowith
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26. clients.Inconformingtoagencytraditions,youmay
feelthatyouhaveaheadstart,benefitingfromthe
accumulated“practicewisdom”ofpreviousgenera-
tionsofpractitionersinyournewworksetting.
Indeedyoudo.Afterall,howmanyrecentlygradu-
atedsocialworkersareinabetterpositionthan
experiencedagencystafftodeterminethebestinter-
ventionapproachesintheiragency?
Butthedownsideofconformingtotraditional
practicewisdomisthatyoucanbecometoocomfort-
abledoingit.Youmayneverthinktolookforevi-
dencethatthetraditionalapproachesare(orarenot)
aseffectiveaseveryonebelieves,orforevidencecon-
cerningwhetheralternativeapproachesaremore
effective.Andifyoudoseekandfindsuchevidence,
youmayfindthatagencytraditionsmakeyourcol-
leaguesunreceptivetothenewinformation.
1.4cAuthority
Despitethepoweroftradition,newknowledge
appearseveryday.Asidefromyourpersonalinqui-
ries,youwillbenefitfromothers’newdiscoveries
andunderstandingsthroughoutyourlife.Often,
acceptanceofthesenewacquisitionswilldepend
onthestatusofthediscoverer.You’remorelikely,
forexample,tobelieveaphysicianwhosaysthat
thecommoncoldcanbetransmittedthroughkis-
singthantobelieveyourlandlordwhosaysthe
samething.
Liketradition,authoritycanbothassistandhin-
derhumaninquiry.Inquiryishinderedwhenwe
dependontheauthorityofexpertsspeakingoutside
theirrealmofexpertise.Theadvertisingindustry
playsheavilyonthismisuseofauthoritybyhaving
popularathletesdiscussthenutritionalvalueof
breakfastcerealsormovieactorsevaluatetheper-
formanceofautomobiles,amongsimilartactics.Itis
bettertotrustthejudgmentofthepersonwhohas
specialtraining,expertise,andcredentialsinthe
matter,especiallyinthefaceofcontradictoryposi-
tionsonagivenquestion.Atthesametime,inquiry
canbegreatlyhinderedbythelegitimateauthority
whoerrswithinhisorherownspecialprovince.
Biologists,afterall,cananddomakemistakesin
thefieldofbiology.Biologicalknowledgechanges
overtime;sodoessocialworkknowledge.
Severaldecadesago,authoritiesinpsychoanaly-
sisandfamilytherapyblamedfaultyparentingasa
primecauseofschizophrenia.Theycommonly
portrayedthemothersofindividualswhobecame
afflictedwithschizophreniaas“schizophrenigenic
mothers”withcold,domineering,andoverprotec-
tivebehaviorthatdidnotpermittheirchildrento
developindividualidentities.Nocompelling
researchevidencesupportedtheseconcepts,but
theywerenonethelesswidelyacceptedbymental
healthpractitioners.Asaresult,socialworkers
andothermentalhealthprofessionalsoftendealt
withthefamilyasacauseoftheproblemrather
thandevelopingtreatmentallianceswiththem.
Manyparentsconsequentlyreportedfeelingsof
self-recriminationfortheillnessesoftheiroffspring.
Asyoucanimagine,thiswaspainfulformanypar-
ents.Currentscientificevidence,however,indicates
thattreatingschizophreniaasaresultofbadparent-
ingcanbeharmfulbothforfamilymembersand
fortheirillrelative.Consequently,mentalhealth
professionalshavedesignednewtreatment
approaches—usuallycalledpsychoeducational
approaches—thatseektobuildallianceswithfami-
liesandbemoresupportiveofthem.
Ourpointisthatknowledgeacceptedonthe
authorityoflegitimateandhighlyregardedexperts
canbeincorrect,evenharmful.Itisthereforeimpor-
tantforsocialworkpractitionerstobeopentonew
discoveriesthatmightchallengethecherished
beliefsoftheirrespectedsupervisorsorfavoritethe-
orists.Theymustalsokeepanopenmindaboutthe
newknowledgethatdisplacestheold.It,too,may
beflawed,nomatterhowprestigiousitsfounders.
Bothtraditionandauthority,then,aretwo-
edgedswordsinthesearchforknowledgeabout
theworld.Theyprovideuswithastartingpoint
forourowninquiry,buttheyalsomayleadusto
startatthewrongpointorpushusinthewrong
direction.
1.4dCommonSense
Commonsenseisoftencitedasanotherwayto
knowabouttheworld,suchaswhenwereason
thatitmakesnosensetothinkthatrainbows
causerainfall,becauserainbowsappearonlyafter
therainstartsfallingandonlywhenthesunshines
duringthestorm.However,sometimeswhatwe
thinkofasbeing“commonsense”isactually
receivedwisdom,knowledgethatbecauseofits
associationwithtraditionorauthorityhascometo
beacceptedasself-evidentandcommonsensical.
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27. Theproblemwiththissortofcommonsenseisthat
what“everyoneknows”canbewrong.Longago
everyone“knew”thattheearthwasflat.Itwas
justplaincommonsense,becauseyoucouldseeno
curvaturetotheearth’ssurface,andbecausehell
wasbelowthesurface.Atonepointinourhistory,
agreatmanypeoplethoughtthatslaverymade
commonsense.Terroriststhinkterrorismmakes
commonsense.Manypeoplethinkthatlaws
againstgaysandlesbiansmarryingorallowing
themtoraisechildrenmakecommonsense.Most
socialworkersthinksuchlawsmakenosensewhat-
soever.Althoughcommonsensecanberationaland
accurate,itisaninsufficientandhighlyriskyalter-
nativetoscienceasasourceofknowledge.
1.4ePopularMedia
Muchofwhatweknowabouttheworldwelearn
fromarticlesandreportsinnewspapersandmaga-
zines,ontelevision,andontheInternet.Weall
knowaboutthe9/11attackontheWorldTrade
Centerfromwatchingcoverageofthattragicevent
ontelevisionandreadingaboutitinnewspapers,in
magazines,andontheInternet.Thesamesources
informedusofthevictimsandheroesinNew
YorkCity,Pennsylvania,andWashington,D.C.
Theyprovidedinformationontheperpetratorsof
theattack,andmanyrelatedissuesandevents.We
didnothavetoconductascientificstudytoknow
abouttheattackorhavestrongfeelingsaboutit.
Neitherdidweneedtraditionorauthority.Wedid
nothavetoexperiencetheattackfirsthand
(althoughwereallydidexperienceit—andprobably
wereatleastsomewhattraumatizedbyit—through
whatwesawandheardonourtelevisionsets).
Althoughwecanlearnalotfromthepopular
media,wecanalsobemisledbythem.Witness,
forexample,disagreementsbetweencablenewsnet-
workssuchasCNN,MSNBC,andthemorepoliti-
callyconservativeFOXastowhichnewsnetworkis
reallymoretrustworthy,fair,andbalanced.
Althoughmostjournalistsmightstriveforaccuracy
andobjectivity,somemaybeinfluencedbytheir
ownpoliticalbiases.Somemightalsoseekoutthe
mostsensationalistaspectsofeventsandthenreport
theminabiasedmanner,togarnerreaderinterest
ortoappealtotheirprejudices.(Mediaratings
affectcorporateprofits.)Inaddition,thereare
somejournalistswhosejobistodelivereditorials
andopinionpieces,nottoreportstoriesfactually.
Whatwelearnfromthemiscoloredbytheir
viewpoints.
Evenwhenjournalistsstriveforaccuracyintheir
reportage,thenatureoftheirbusinesscanimpede
theirefforts.Forexample,theyhavedeadlinesto
meetandwordlimitsonhowmuchtheycan
write.Thus,whencoveringtestimonyatcityhall
byresidentsofanAfricanAmericanneighborhood,
someofwhomsupportaproposedplanforeco-
nomicdevelopmentintheirneighborhoodand
someofwhomopposeit,journalistsmightnotbe
influencedbyagroupsuchasthemajorityofresi-
dents,whomaynotbeoutspoken.Instead,journal-
istsmightunintentionallyrelyontheleast
representative,butmostoutspokenanddemonstra-
tive,supportersoropponentsoftheproposed
development.
Thepopularmediaalsoincludefictionalmovies
andtelevisionshowsthatcaninfluencewhatwe
thinkweknowabouttheworld.Somefictional
accountsofhistoryareindeededucational;perhaps
informingusforthefirsttimeaboutAfricanAmer-
icanswhofoughtfortheUnionduringtheAmeri-
canCivilWarorsensitizingustothehorrorsofthe
Holocaustorofslavery.Others,however,canbe
misleading,suchaswhenmostmentallyillpeople
areportrayedasviolentorwhenmostwelfarereci-
pientsareportrayedasAfricanAmericans.
Moreandmorethesedays,manyfolks—
especiallycollegestudentsandotheryoung
adults—getmuchoftheirinformationfromthe
Internet.DespitethewondersoftheInternetand
theimmediateavailabilityofatremendousarray
ofusefulinformationtherein,informationavailable
onunscientificsitesisnotrisk-free.Perhapsmost
noteworthyinthisregardistheWikipediawebsite.
Wikipediaisafreeonlineencyclopediathatanyone
canedit.Ahumorousillustrationoftherisksinher-
entinallowinganyonetoedittheinformationavail-
ableatthatsitewasreportedbyEveFairbanks
(2008,p.5).InFebruary2008,duringtheheatof
thebattlebetweenHillaryClintonandBarack
ObamafortheDemocraticParty’spresidential
nomination,somebodyaccessedHillary’sWikipe-
diapageandreplacedherphotowithapictureof
awalrus.Perhapsinretaliation,thenextmontha
HillarysupporteralteredBarack’sbiosothatit
calledhim“aKenyan-Americanpolitician.”Also
thatmonth,somebodyreplacedHillary’swhole
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28. pagewith“IthasbeenreportedthatHillaryRod-
hamClintonhascontractedgenitalherpesdueto
sexualintercoursewithanorangutan.”
Obviously,theaboveWikipedia
exampleisextreme,andunlessreaders
despisedHillaryorwereimbibing
somethingpeculiarwhenaccessing
theabovewebsite,theywouldnot
believethatthewalruswasreallyHil-
laryorthatshe’dhadintercoursewithanorangu-
tan.Butitdoesillustratethatdespitethetremendous
valueoftheInternet,andthefactthatwecanlearn
manyvaluablethingsfrompopularmedia,theydo
notprovideanadequatealternativetoscientific
sourcesofknowledge.
1.5RECOGNIZINGFLAWSIN
UNSCIENTIFICSOURCESOFSOCIAL
WORKPRACTICEKNOWLEDGE
Asdiscussedpreviously,scientificinquiryhelpssafe-
guardagainstthedangersofrelyingexclusivelyon
tradition,authority,commonsense,andpopular
mediaasthesourcesofknowledgetoguidesocial
workpractice.Italsohelpssafeguardagainsterrors
wemightmakeinattemptingtobuildwisdompri-
marilythroughourownpracticeexperiencesand
unsystematicobservations.Scientificinquiryalso
involvescriticalthinkingsothatwecanspotfalla-
ciesinwhatothersmaytellusabouttheirpractice
wisdomortheinterventionstheyaretouting.Let’s
nowlookatsomecommonerrorsandfallaciesyou
shouldwatchoutfor,andsomeofthewaysthat
scienceguardsagainstthosemistakes.
1.5aInaccurateObservation
Imaginethatyouareprovidingplaytherapytoa
groupofeighthyperactivechildrenwithvarious
emotionalandbehavioralproblems.Attheendof
eachone-hourgroupsession,youwriteupyour
progressnotes.Itisunlikelythatyouwillhave
observedeveryclinicallymeaningfulthingthattran-
spiredforeachchildinthesession.Evenifyoudid
noticesomethingmeaningfulinonechild,youmay
nothaverealizeditwasmeaningfulatthetime,
especiallyifithappenedjustastwochildrenacross
theroomwentoutofcontrolandbeganfighting.
Moreover,youmaynotremembercertainobserva-
tionslaterwhenitistimetorecordyourprogress
notes—especiallyifsomethinghappensthatkeeps
youfromrecordingyourobservationsuntillater
thatday.Recall,forexample,thelastpersonyou
talkedtotoday.Whatkindofshoeswasthatperson
wearing?Areyouevencertainthepersonwaswear-
ingshoes?Onthewhole,weareprettycasualin
observingthings;asaresult,wemakemistakes.
Wefailtoobservethingsrightinfrontofus,and
mistakenlyobservethingsthatarenotso.
Incontrasttocasualhumaninquiry,scientific
observationisaconsciousactivity.Simplymaking
observationmoredeliberatehelpstoreduceerror.
Youprobablydon’trecall,forexample,whatyour
instructorwaswearingthefirstdayofthisclass.If
youhadtoguessnow,you’dprobablymakeamis-
take.Butifyouhadgonetothefirstclassmeeting
withaconsciousplantoobserveandrecordwhat
yourinstructorwaswearing,thenyouwouldbe
moreaccurate.
Bothsimpleandcomplexmeasurementdevices
helpguardagainstinaccurateobservations.More-
over,theyaddadegreeofprecisionthatiswell
beyondthecapacityoftheunassistedhumansenses.
Suppose,forexample,thatyouhadtakencolor
photographsofyourinstructorthatfirstday.If
youconsultedthatphotographwhenrecalling
yourinstructor’sclothes,you’dbehard-pressedto
makeamistake!
1.5bOvergeneralization
Whenwelookforpatternsamongthespecific
thingsweobservearoundus,weoftenassumethat
afewsimilareventsareevidenceofageneralpat-
tern.Thetermforthisisovergeneralization.Imag-
ineyouareacommunityorganizerandyoujust
foundoutthatariothasstartedinyourcommunity.
Youhaveameetingintwohoursthatyoucannot
miss,andyouneedtoletothersatthemeeting
knowwhycitizensarerioting.Rushingtothe
scene,youstartinterviewingrioters,askingthem
abouttheirmotivations.Ifthefirsttworioterstell
youtheyaredoingitjusttolootsomestores,you
wouldprobablybewronginassumingthatthe
other300areriotingonlyforthatreason.
Scientistsguardagainstovergeneralizationby
committingthemselvesinadvancetoasufficiently
largesampleofobservations(seeChapter10).The
EP2.1.3a
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29. replicationofinquiryprovidesanothersafeguard.
Aswementionedearlier,replicationbasically
meansrepeatingastudyandcheckingtoseeifthe
sameresultsareproducedeachtime.Thenthestudy
mayberepeatedunderslightlyvariedconditions.
Thus,whenasocialworkresearcherdiscoversthat
aparticularprogramofserviceinaparticularset-
tingiseffective,thatconclusionisonlythebegin-
ning.Istheprogramequallyeffectiveforalltypes
ofclients?Forbothmenandwomen?Forbothold
andyoung?Amongallethnicgroups?Woulditbe
justaseffectiveinotheragencysettings?Thisexten-
sionoftheinquiryseekstofindthebreadthandthe
limitsofthegeneralizationabouttheprogram’s
effectiveness.
Independentreplicationsbyotherresearchers
extendthesafeguards.Supposeyoureadastudy
thatshowsaninterventiontobeeffective.Later,
youmightconductyourownstudyofdifferentcli-
ents,perhapsmeasuringeffectivenesssomewhatdif-
ferently.Ifyourindependentstudyproducedexactly
thesameconclusionastheoneyoufirstread,then
youwouldfeelmoreconfidentinthegeneralizabil-
ityofthefindings.Ifyouobtainedsomewhatdiffer-
entresultsorfoundasubgroupofclientsamong
whomthefindingsdidn’tholdatall,youwould
havehelpedtosaveusfromovergeneralizing.
1.5cSelectiveObservation
Onedangerofovergeneralizationisthatitmay
leadtoselectiveobservation.Onceyouhavecon-
cludedthataparticularpatternexistsanddevel-
opedageneralunderstandingofwhy,thenyou
willbetemptedtopayattentiontofutureevents
andsituationsthatcorrespondwiththepattern.
Youwillmostlikelyignorethosethatdon’tcorre-
spond.Figure1.1illustratesthecircularfashionin
whichovergeneralizationcanleadtoselective
observation,andselectiveobservationcanleadto
overgeneralization.
Racialandethnicprejudicesdependheavilyon
selectiveobservationfortheirpersistence.However,
selectiveobservationoccursamongallofus,not
justpeoplewithdistastefulprejudices.Socialwork
practitionerswhohavegreatcompassionfortheir
clientsandwhodothebesttheycantohelptheir
clients,forexample,commonlyengageinselective
observationinwaysthatmaylimittheireffective-
ness.Thepractitionertrainedtointerpretproblems
intermsoffamilycommunicationdynamicsisapt
tolookvigilantlyforsignsofpotentialcommunica-
tionproblems,andthenmagnifytherolethosepro-
blemsplayinexplainingthepresentingproblem.At
FIGURE1.1AnIllustrationofOvergeneralizationand
SelectiveObservation
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30. thesametime,thatpractitionerislikelytooverlook
otherdynamics,orperhapstounderestimatetheir
impact.
Usually,aresearchdesignwillspecifyinadvance
thenumberandkindofobservationstobemadeas
abasisforreachingaconclusion.Ifwewantedto
learnwhetherwomenweremorelikelythanmento
supportthepro-choicepositiononabortion,we
wouldcommitourselvestomakingaspecifiednum-
berofobservationsonthatquestioninaresearch
project.Wemightdecidetointerviewathousand
peopleontheissue.Evenifthefirst10womensup-
portedthepro-choicepositionandthefirst10men
opposedit,wewouldintervieweveryoneselected
forthestudyandrecognizeandrecordeachobser-
vation.Thenwewouldbaseourconclusiononan
analysisofalltheobservations.
1.5dExPostFactoHypothesizing
Supposeyourunanoutreachprogramforbattered
womenstilllivingwiththebatterer,andyouhave
theideathatifyourprogramissuccessful,soon
afterenteringtreatmentthebatteredwomenshould
startfeelingmorepositiveaboutthemselvesasindi-
vidualsandabouttheircapacitytobelessdepen-
dentonthebatterer.Youmighttesttheprogram’s
effectivenessbyconductingabriefstructuredinter-
viewwithclientsseveraltimesbeforeandafterthey
entertreatment.Intheinterview,youwouldfind
out(1)howgoodtheyfeelaboutthemselves,and
(2)howcapabletheyfeeltheyareoflivingindepen-
dentlyawayfromthebatterer.Youwouldthen
examinewhethertheyfeelbetterormorecapable
afterenteringtreatmentthanbeforeenteringit.
Butsupposetheiranswersaretheoppositeof
whatyouexpected—thatis,supposetheyexpress
worsefeelingsafterenteringtreatmentthanbefore.
Whatadisappointment.“Aha!”youmightsay.
“Thereasonforthenegativefindingsisthatbefore
enteringtreatmentthewomenwereunconsciously
protectingthemselveswiththepsychological
defensemechanismofdenial.Theyexpressedbetter
feelingsbeforetreatmentbecausetheywererefusing
tofacethedangerousanddeplorablesituationthey
werein.Ourtreatmenthelpedovercomesomeof
thisdenial,andhelpedthemgetmoreintouch
withanunpleasantrealitytheyneedtofacein
ordertobegintryingtochange.Therefore,the
more‘negative’responsesrecordedafterentering
treatmentarereallymore‘positive’!Itisgoodthat
theyarebeginningtorecognizewhatbadshape
theywerein;that’sthefirststepintryingto
improveit.”
Theexamplewehavejustdescribedissometimes
calledexpostfactohypothesizing,anditisperfectly
acceptableinscienceifitdoesn’tstopthere.The
argumentyouproposedclearlysuggeststhatyou
needtotestyourhypothesisabouttheprogram’s
effectivenessinnewwaysandamongabroader
spectrumofpeople.Thelineofreasoningdoesn’t
proveyourhypothesisiscorrect,onlythatthere’s
stillsomehopeforit.Laterobservationsmay
proveitsaccuracy.Thus,scientistsoftenengagein
deducinginformation,andtheyfollowupontheir
deductionsbylookingatthefactsagain.
1.5eEgoInvolvementinUnderstanding
Thesearchforknowledgeisnotatrivialintellectual
exercise:Itcanaffectourpersonallivesandhave
psychologicalsignificancetous.Ifyouloseyour
joborfailtogetapromotion,youmaybetempted
toconcludethatyourbosswantstogetyououtof
thewaytopromoteapersonalfriend.Thatexpla-
nationwouldsaveyoufromexaminingyourown
abilitiesandworth.Consequently,anychallenge
tothatexplanationisalsoachallengetoyourabili-
tiesandworth.
Incountlessways,welinkourunderstandingsof
howthingsaretotheimageofourselveswepresent
toothers.Becauseofthislinkage,anydisproofof
theseunderstandingstendstomakeusfeelstupid,
gullible,andgenerallynotokay.Sowecommitour-
selvesallthemoreunshakablytoourunderstanding
ofhowthingsare,andcreateaformidablebarrier
tofurtherinquiryandmoreaccurateunderstanding.
Thisegoinvolvementinunderstandingiscommonly
encounteredinsocialworkpractice.Naturally,
practitionersseeitinsomeoftheirclients,who
mayblameothersorexternalcircumstancesbeyond
theircontrolfortheirdifficulties,ratherthan
acceptingresponsibilityandfacinguptotheway
theirownbehaviorcontributestotheirproblems.
Practitionersarelesslikelytoseethewaytheir
ownegoinvolvementmayimpedepractice.Rather
thanscientificallyreexaminingtheeffectivenessof
ourapproachestopractice(whichwemaylike
becauseweareusedtothemandhavespecialexper-
tiseinthem),wemaytenaciouslyengageinselective
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31. observation,expostfactohypothesizing,andother
effortstoexplainawayevidencethatsuggestsour
approachesmaybeineffective.
Socialworkerswhoconductevaluationresearch
frequentlyconfrontthisformofegoinvolvement
whentheirevaluationsfailtosupporttheeffective-
nessoftheprogramstheyareevaluating.Thesame
peoplewhoinitiallyexpressdisinterestandlackof
expertiseinevaluationcanbecomefanaticalcritics
andchallengethemethodologyofanystudywhose
findingsquestiontheefficacyoftheirprogram,no
matterhowrigorousthatstudymightbe.Influenced
bytheiregoinvolvementandvestedinterestsinthe
programunderfire,administratorsandpracti-
tionersmaygraspatanystrawormagnifyanytriv-
ialmethodologicalimperfectioninastudyinorder
tounderminethestudy’smethodologicalcredibility.
Similarly,theymaynotnoticeevenglaringmethod-
ologicalimperfectionsinstudieswhoseresultsthey
like;theyareapttotoutthosestudiesasprovingthe
valueoftheirprograms.(Chapter14,which
explainsprogramevaluation,willexaminethisphe-
nomenoninmoredepth.)
Administratorsandpractitionersaren’ttheonly
socialworkerswhoarevulnerabletoegoinvolve-
mentinunderstanding.Programevaluatorsand
othersocialworkresearchersarejustashuman.
Theyalsoruntheriskofbecomingpersonally
involvedinandcommittedtotheconclusionsthey
reachinscientificinquiry.Sometimesit’sworsethan
innonscientificlife.Imagine,forexample,thatyou
havediscoveredanapparentcureforcancerand
havebeenawardedtheNobelPrize.Howdoyou
supposeyou’dfeelwhensomebodyelsepublished
anarticlethatarguedyourcuredidn’treally
work?Youmightnotbetotallyobjective.
1.5fOtherFormsofIllogicalReasoning
Socialworkersneedtousecriticalthinkingandbe
vigilantinexaminingthereasoningofindividuals
whoseegoinvolvementorvestedinterestslead
themtomakefallaciousclaimsorarguments.
GibbsandGambrill(1999)haveidentifiedsome
commonfallaciesthatyouarelikelytoencounter,
inadditiontotheoneswe’vealreadymentioned.
Oneiscalledthestrawpersonargument,inwhich
someoneattacksaparticularpositionbydistortingit
inawaythatmakesiteasiertoattack.Forexample,
opponentsofproposedhealthcarereforms—suchas
nationalhealthinsuranceorapatients’billofrights
withmanaged-carecompanies—mightexaggerate
theextenttowhichtheproposedreformscontain
featuresthatwillinflatecostsorincreasedelaysin
obtainingmedicalcare.
Anotherfallacyistheadhominemattack,which
triestodiscreditthepersonmakinganargument
ratherthanaddressingtheargumentitself.Ina
debatebetweentwopsychologistswhohadvested
interestsincompetingformsofpsychotherapy,for
example,oneridiculedthelegitimacyoftheschool
fromwhichtheotherhadobtainedherprofessional
degree.
Sometimesnewinterventionsarepromoted
basedmerelyontheirnewnessorpromise.Arelated
fallacyisthebandwagonappeal,inwhicharela-
tivelynewinterventionistoutedonthebasisofits
growingpopularity.Theimplicitassumptionisthat
thesheerweightofthenumberofyourprofessional
colleaguesjumpingonthebandwagonmustmean
thattheinterventioniseffective.Whenyouencoun-
tercolleaguespromotinganinterventioninthis
way,youmightwanttoremindthemthatalobot-
omywasonceconsideredtobeanewandpromis-
ingtreatmentformentalillness.
Wedonotwishtoimplythatinterventionsorpoli-
ciesthatarepromotedwithfallaciousappealsarenec-
essarilyineffectiveorundesirable.Somemight
eventuallybesupported,ormayhavealreadybeen
supported,bysoundscientificstudies,despitethe
unfortunatewaystheirproponentshavechosentopro-
motethem.Thepointisnottobeswayedonewayor
theotherbyappealsbasedonillogicalreasoning.
Instead,youshouldlookforandcriticallyappraise
thescientificevidenceforthem(andthisbookaimsto
giveyouthetoolsyou’llneedtodothat).
1.5gThePrematureClosureofInquiry
Overgeneralization,selectiveobservation,andthe
defensiveuseofillogicalreasoningallconspireto
closeinquiryprematurely.Thisdiscussionbegan
withourdesiretounderstandtheworldaround
us,andthevariouserrorswehavedetailedoften
leadustostopinquirytoosoon.Thebigotwho
says,“IalreadyunderstandMexicans,sodon’tcon-
fusemewithfacts,”hasachievedapersonalclosure
onthesubject.Sometimesthisclosureofinquiryisa
socialratherthanindividualact.Forexample,the
privatefoundationorgovernmentagencythat
WhyStudyResearch?15Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

32. refusestosupportfurtherresearchonan“already
understood”topiceffectsclosureasasocialact,as
doesthedenominationalcollegethatprohibits
scholarshipandresearchthatmightchallengetradi-
tionalreligiousbeliefs.Socialworkersmaydothis
byrefusingtoconsiderevidencethattheirfavored
interventions,programs,orpoliciesarenotaseffec-
tiveastheybelievetheyare.Thedangerofprema-
tureclosureofinquiryisobvious.Ithaltsattempts
tounderstandthingsbeforeunderstandingiscom-
plete.Ifyoureviewthehistoryofhumanknowl-
edge,youwillreachastartlingconclusion:We
keepchangingthethingsweknow—eventhethings
weknowforcertain.Inanimportantsense,then,
anyclosureofinquiryispremature.
Atitsbase,scienceisanopen-endedenterprisein
whichconclusionsareconstantlybeingmodified—
thatisanexplicitnormofscience.Experienced
scientistsacceptitasafactoflife,andexpectestab-
lishedtheoriestobeoverturnedeventually.Evenif
onescientistconsidersalineofinquirytobecom-
pletedforever,otherswillnot.Evenifawholegen-
erationofscientistsclosesinquiryonagiventopic,
alatergenerationislikelytosetabouttestingthe
oldideasandchangingmanyofthem.Inpart,the
rewardstructureofsciencesupportsthisopenness.
Althoughyoumayhavetoovercomeagreatdealof
initialresistanceanddisparagement,imaginehow
famousyouwouldbeifyoucoulddemonstrate
persuasivelythatsomethingpeoplehavealways
believedsimplyisn’ttrue.Whatifyoucouldprove
thatcarbonmonoxidewasreallygoodforpeople?
Thepotentialrewardsforastoundingdiscoveries
keepeverythingfairgameforinquiryinscience.
1.5hPseudoscience
Inyoursocialworkcareer,youwill
probablylearnaboutsomepractice
methodsorinterventionsthatare
basedonthesolidfoundationofarep-
licatedstringofstrongresearchstud-
ies.Butyou’llprobablyalsoencounter
manyclaimsaboutthewondersofotherinterven-
tionsbasedonsloppyandbiasedresearchstudies,or
onunscientificsourcesofknowledge.Someofthese
claimswillbeexpressedintheformoffliersadver-
tisingexpensivecontinuingeducationtraining
workshopsinsome“miraclecure.”Sometimes
theseclaimswillseemtocontainsomeofthe
elementsofscientificinquiryandthushavethesur-
faceappearanceofbeingscientific,butuponcareful
inspectionwillbeseentoviolateoneormoreprin-
ciplesofthescientificmethodorcontainfallacies
againstwhichthescientificmethodattemptsto
guard.Suchclaimsarepseudoscientific.
Theprefix“pseudo-”means“fake”;thus,pseu-
doscienceisfakescience.Somefigureheadsmay
espouseaninterventionbasedonpseudoscience
becausetheyhaveavestedinterestinthe
intervention—perhapsgainingfameandfortune
frommarketingbooksandworkshopsonit.
Chancesare,theyreallybelieveinwhattheyare
touting.Theirfollowersmightalsobetruebelievers,
andmightbesoego-investedintheintervention
theyswearbythattheywon’tletfactsgetinthe
wayoftheircherishedbeliefs.
It’snothardtorecognizesomepurveyorsof
pseudoscience,suchasthosepeddlingmiracle
curesforobesityorotherwoesonlate-nightTV
infomercialsbasedonthetestimonialsofafewindi-
viduals,someofwhommightbecelebrities.But
otherpseudoscientificclaimscanbehardertorec-
ognize,especiallywhentheyarebasedonsome
weakstudiesthatmanagedtoslipbyreviewers
andgetprintedinprofessionaljournals.Figure1.2
displayssomecommonwarningsignsthatshould
arouseyoursuspicionsastowhetheraninterven-
tionmightbebasedmoreonpseudosciencethan
onscience.Mostofthesignspertaintoflawed
waysofknowingthathavebeendiscussedearlier
inthischapter.Thepresenceofoneormoreof
thesesignsdoesnotnecessarilymeanthataninter-
ventionisbasedonpseudoscience.Theflawsmight
beintheinappropriatewaysomearetoutingthe
intervention,notinthequalityoftheresearch
beingcited.Forexample,solidscientificresearch
mightfindaninterventiontobemoderatelyeffec-
tivewithcertainproblemsundercertainconditions,
whilepurveyorsoftheinterventionmakeitsound
likeamoreuniversalcure-all.Still,ifyourecognize
thesesigns,youshouldatleastbeawareofthepos-
sibilitythatpseudoscienceisinplay,andthemore
warningsignsyoudetect,themoreskepticalyou
shouldbecome.AtthebottomofFigure1.2arefea-
turesofthescientificmethodthatwediscussedear-
lierandthatcontrastwithpseudoscience.
Althoughitisimportanttorecognizepurveyors
ofpseudoscience,noteverythingthatsomepeople
callpseudoscienceisfakeorwithoutvalue.Likewise,
EP2.1.3
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33. justbecausepurveyorsofanewinterventionhavea
vestedinterestinit,thatdoesnotnecessarilymean
thatthenewinterventionisworthlessorharmful—
eveniftheresearchtheyreportorciteisshoddyand
biased.Moreover,asnotedabove,somepseudosci-
enceinvolvesinterventionsthathavevalueandare
basedonsolidscientificresearchbuthavetheir
effectsexaggeratedbypurveyorsofpseudoscience
whohavevestedinterestsinthem.Somethingsthat
arenowseenasscientificallyacceptablewere
portrayedaspseudoscientificwhenfirstintroduced.
Eyemovementdesensitizationandreprocessing
(EMDR),forexample,wasoncedecriedaspseudo-
sciencebyitsvariouscritics,whocitedtheweak-
nessesinitsearlyresearchandsomeofthe
pseudoscientificwaysthatitsproponentsweretout-
ingit.However,afteritseffectivenesswasreplicated
bymanystudieswithscientificallyrigorousdesigns,
itbecamewidelyacceptedamongscientificallyori-
entedexpertsonpsychotherapyresearchasoneof
FIGURE1.2CommonWarningSignsforDetectingthePossibilityofPseudoscience
Pseudoscientificproponentsofaninterventionwill:
Makeextremeclaimsaboutitswonders
Overgeneralizeregardingwhomitbenefits
Concoctunusual,speculativeexplanationsforitseffectiveness
Concoctpretentiousjargonforaspectsoftheirinterventionthatsoundsscientificbutreallyisnot
Basetheirclaimson:
Testimonialsandanecdotes
Authoritiesorgurus
Tradition
Sloppyorbiasedresearch
Thepopularityoftheirintervention
Selectiveobservationofafewcases
Portrayalsoftheirinterventioninpopularmedia(suchasmoviesorTVshows)
Reacttodisconfirmingevidenceby:
Ignoringit,citingonlythosesourcesthatsupporttheirintervention
Explainingitawaythroughexpostfactohypothesizing
Engaginginadhominemattacksonthosewhocitethedisconfirmingevidence
Exaggeratingtheimportanceofminorflawsinthesourceofthedisconfirmingevidence
Exaggeratingtherigorandsuperiorityofthestudiesthatsupporttheirintervention
Engaginginastrawpersonargumentinwhichtheydistorttheargumentsofthosewhoquestionthemsoasto
makethoseargumentseasiertoattack
Citingahistoricalscientist(suchasGalileoorFreud)whosecontemporarieswerewronginquestioningthem(thus
implicitlycomparingthemselvestothehistoricalluminary)
Attributingittothevestedinterestsofthosewhoarethreatenedbytheirinterventionandthusengagedinacon-
spiracytodiscreditit
Pursueaprematureclosureofinquirybypressuringtheirfollowerstorefrainfrom:
Subjectingtheirclaimstorigorous,unbiasedresearch
Publishingstudiesthatproducedisconfirmingfindings(pointingoutflawsinthestudiesorarguingthatpublication
willpreventthoseinneedoftheirinterventionfrombenefitingfromit)
Incontrast,thoseemployingthescientificmethodwill:
Encourageandwelcomethepursuitofdisconfirmingevidencebecauseallknowledgeisprovisionalandsubjectto
refutation
Becautiousinmakingclaims
Avoidovergeneralization
Basetheirconclusionson:
Observationsthatarecomprehensive,systematic,andunbiased
Rigorousstudies
Replication,notignoringordismissingdisconfirmingevidenceproducedbysoundresearch
WhyStudyResearch?17Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

34. Other documents randomly have
different content

35. “Only a matter of weeks,” Aunt Lucinda said, dislodging Solomon
from the piece of muslin, where he had suddenly elected to take a
nap.
Blue Bonnet’s face sobered even more; if only they wouldn’t care
so much. “Uncle Cliff thinks Chula had better go out to Darrel’s for
the summer,” she went on. “And, oh, Grandmother! He’s going to
give me a week in New York before we go West!”
“That will be fine!” Mrs. Clyde said, her thoughts going back to the
Spring afternoon when the other Elizabeth had sat there on that
same lounge telling of certain plans, a letter from Texas in her hand.
“I think, Blue Bonnet,” Aunt Lucinda suggested, “that Mrs. Morrow
will be wondering where you are.”
“You’d think she give that up by now, wouldn’t you?” Blue Bonnet
remarked. “But she always looks just as surprised as if it was the
first time I’d kept her waiting. Come on, Solomon, you may go, too,
—but you are not to chase the cat, remember.”
The “We are Seven’s” received the news of Mr. Ashe’s expected
arrival with mingled pleasure and regret. “It isn’t that we mind his
coming, if it didn’t mean your going,” Kitty explained, linking her arm
through Blue Bonnet’s.
“I suppose,” Ruth said, “that if you asked him your prettiest, he
would let you stay on through the summer.”
“That’s one of the things you’re not likely to find out,” Blue Bonnet
laughed.
The seven were out in full force to welcome Mr. Ashe. “May I have
her this time?” he asked Kitty.
“I reckon we’ll have to lend her to you—for the summer,” Kitty
answered; “but you’ll have to promise first to get her back before

36. school opens.”
“Woodford appears to agree with you, Honey,” Mr. Ashe said, as
the club left them at the gate. He stood a moment before opening it.
It was over five months since he had seen her. She had grown taller
in the five months; taller, and a bit older. “I suppose one of these
trips I shall come back and find you quite grown up,” he said.
Blue Bonnet’s laugh was reassuring. “Not as long as I can help it!
Tell me about everything, Uncle Cliff! It doesn’t seem believable that
in just a little while now I’ll be going back. They’ll be glad to see me,
won’t they?”
“Uncle Joe intimated pretty plainly that if I came back without you
this time he wouldn’t hold himself responsible for anything that
might happen.”
“One thing, there won’t be anything changed!”
Uncle Cliff’s eyes twinkled.
“And please, Uncle Cliff, you’ll ask Grandmother the first thing? I
want that settled. There she is in the garden; Aunt Lucinda’s out.”
“Haven’t you asked her, Honey?”
“I waited till you came; I didn’t want to give her too much time for
thinking it over in.”
“It is really very good of you to be glad to see me,” Mr. Ashe said,
as Grandmother came forward to meet him, “considering that this
time I do not ‘go back alone.’”
“I have been telling myself that turn and turn about is only fair
play,” Mrs. Clyde answered; “and that the fall is not so far off.”

37. “Please, Grandmother,” Blue Bonnet’s tone was most insinuating,
“it won’t take you very long to get ready?”
“‘To get ready’?” Mrs. Clyde repeated.
“Why, to go with us. Uncle Cliff and I have been hoping and
planning for that this ever so long; but I didn’t tell you before,
because I didn’t want you to have time to think up objections in.
There aren’t any really, you know.”
Grandmother sat down on one of the garden benches, looking
from Blue Bonnet to Mr. Ashe in a surprise too great for words.
“It would be so lovely,” Blue Bonnet sat down beside her; “for us,
I mean, and we would try to make it as pleasant as possible for you.
You see, I never knew, until I came East, how much I needed a
grandmother.”
“The need was mutual,” Grandmother said softly.
“And you could keep me from slipping back into the old spoilt
ways; you could see that I did my mending and practising, and only
took coffee at Sunday morning breakfast—”
Mrs. Clyde smiled. “At least, I should be on hand to bring you back
with me in the fall;” and suddenly, Texas did not seem as far away
as it had. Lucinda wanted to go abroad this summer—the only
drawback had been leaving her mother alone. She would like to see
the Blue Bonnet Ranch, where the other Elizabeth had been so
happy during those few years of her married life. And it would mean
too the not parting with Blue Bonnet for the summer.
“I will think it over,” she said.
“But that is just what I didn’t want you to do,” Blue Bonnet
protested. “Please, couldn’t you promise first?”

38. “Couldn’t you?” Mr. Ashe said. “Blue Bonnet and I have certainly
set our hearts on this; and I have a rooted objection to having our
young lady disappointed—unnecessarily.”
“There comes Aunt Lucinda, I hear Solomon’s bark!” Blue Bonnet
jumped up. “May I go and tell her it’s all settled, Grandmother?”
“You may go and tell her what it is we are trying to settle,” Mrs.
Clyde laughed.
Miss Lucinda approved of the plan thoroughly. “I think it would be
a delightful trip for you, Mother,” she said.
“And next year, maybe you won’t be wanting to go abroad, Aunt
Lucinda,” Blue Bonnet said; “then you and Grandmother can both
come out to the ranch.”
“Perhaps.” Miss Lucinda agreed.
After supper, Blue Bonnet and her uncle went for a ride. “Chula’ll
miss me,” Blue Bonnet said, patting the glossy neck; “she’s the
dearest horse.”
“And Firefly will be mighty glad to see you. Listen, Honey, I’ve
been cogitating. Don’t you want to take one or two of those girls
along with you for the summer? You must be sort of used to having
girls to run with by now.”
“Uncle Cliff! Oh, I would love that!”
“Kitty, I suppose—who else?”
“Kitty would be most fun. And Sarah’s been—you don’t know how
good Sarah Blake was to me a while back, Uncle Cliff!”
“How about telling me, Honey?”

39. Mr. Ashe listened to the rather sketchy story she told him, filling in
the outlines from his knowledge of her. When she finished, he
leaned nearer, laying a hand over hers. “Sarah’s going out to the
ranch with us if I have to kidnap her.”
The thought of Sarah being kidnapped sent Blue Bonnet off into a
fit of laughter. “But,” she said presently, “it wouldn’t do, really, to
pick and choose like that. The others would feel ever so hurt.
They’re ‘We are Seven’s’ too.”
“Then we’ll corral the whole bunch. There’s room enough for them
on the ranch, and if there isn’t, the one adjoining is in the market.”
“I wish we could! They’ve all been so nice to me, and we’ve had
such good times together. But I’m afraid it’s impossible.”
“I thought it was a copy-book maxim that nothing was
impossible.”
“You haven’t lived ten months in Woodford, Uncle Cliff.”
“The first thing is—whether you really want them all to go?”
“Indeed I do!”
“Then the next thing to do is to see how your grandmother feels
about it. It may strike her as a pretty big proposition.”
“Grandmother won’t mind—she likes young people about. And if
she says yes, I suppose you will allow their fathers and mothers
some voice in the matter?”
“As a matter of courtesy, it might be as well to,” Mr. Ashe laughed.
“How about your neighbor; I thought it was settled that he was to
have a taste of ranch life?”

40. “Alec! Oh, he would like that. It would do him a lot of good. His
cousin is going abroad for the summer, to stay with his people.”
It was Aunt Lucinda who looked dubious when this latter plan was
explained. “Wouldn’t it mean too much responsibility for you,
Mother?” she asked.
“But please,” Blue Bonnet exclaimed, “we’d try not to trouble
Grandmother one bit; she wouldn’t have to do anything for us; and
we’d be as good as gold. Why, most of the time, she wouldn’t know
we were on earth.”
“My dear—” Aunt Lucinda began.
“That would hardly be a very satisfactory state of mind to be in,”
Mrs. Clyde said; she smiled down into Blue Bonnet’s eager face. “I
should hate to be the one to deprive any of the young people of
such a summer’s outing. And the fact that I am going may make it
the easier for you to secure their parents’ consents.”
“Thank you so much!” Blue Bonnet said joyously; and Aunt
Lucinda reflected that it was very improbable they would all be
allowed to go.
“The first one who makes you a bit of trouble you send to me,
ma’am,” Mr. Ashe said.
“They would hate that so!” Blue Bonnet laughed. “But none of us
would dream of bothering Grandmother. And it’s all settled
beautifully! We’ll look like a party of Raymond’s Tourists, won’t we?
And now I can tackle those dreadful exams with a clear mind. They
begin to-morrow.”
Blue Bonnet found Alec in his garden the next morning before
breakfast. “Uncle Cliff’s coming over to see General Trent by and by,”
she said. “Guess what for?”

41. Alec’s gray eyes lightened, as if before them he already saw the
wide open sweep of the prairie. “Oh, I say!” he cried.
“Grandmother’s going!”
“Good!”
“And—Uncle Cliff says that it is only fair to prepare you—all the
girls, if we can manage it.”
Alec stood the shock bravely. “It’ll prove an eye opener for Sarah.”
“It’ll be like having seven sisters, won’t it—for you?”
“I’ve always understood,” Alec laughed, “that the only boy in a
large family of girls got a lot of waiting on and spoiling.”
“You think your grandfather will say yes?”
“I’m not much afraid of his saying no,” Alec answered.
The six girls were the next to be told. “This isn’t the official
invitation,” Blue Bonnet explained, as they sat in a little group under
a tree in the school yard—she had started for school good and early
that morning; “Uncle Cliff and I are going visiting this afternoon, but
I wanted you to be prepared—so you wouldn’t say no instead of yes
when your mothers asked if you would like to go.”
The wonder of it was holding even Kitty speechless.
“If we could—” Ruth sighed at last.
“Do you want us to go—very, very much, Blue Bonnet?” Debby
asked.
“I do.”

42. “Then,” Debby nodded confidently at the others, “it’s as good as
settled. Blue Bonnet always gets what she wants—if she wants it
hard enough.”
And, to everybody’s surprise except Blue Bonnet’s and her uncle’s,
Debby’s word proved true. Fathers and mothers shook their heads
doubtfully, uncles and aunts indulged in grave forebodings, big
brothers and sisters offered advice, but after not too much delay all
the invitations were accepted.
Sarah went about with a look of continual astonishment in her
light blue eyes; to be going to Texas, to be breaking away from all
the old routine of home duties and simple village amusements for a
whole vacation—Sarah and her sense of duty underwent daily
conflict.
“But your father and mother want you to go!” Blue Bonnet argued.
“You’re bound to obey your parents, Sarah.”
“Sure!” Kitty added. “And don’t you worry, Sallykins, you’re bound
to run across a few things now and then which only your strong
sense of duty will enable you to go through with. Wait until you’re
face to face with your first tamale.”
School was to close on the twenty-second. The following week,
Mr. Ashe and Blue Bonnet were to spend in New York, giving the
fellow travelers time to make their final preparations,—the whole
party leaving Woodford for Texas on the first of July.
The ease and rapidity with which Mr. Ashe detailed these
arrangements, took the six club members’ breaths away.
“We might be simply running in to Boston for a day’s shopping,”
Susy commented.
“The more time the more worry,” Blue Bonnet said.

43. There were three all-engrossing topics of conversation during
those days; the Texas trip, the hoped-for promotion, and the
Sargent.
“Two of which you’ve a share in, and one of which you haven’t!”
Kitty said to Blue Bonnet, now, after enumerating them.
“Did you know,” Debby asked, “that Boyd Trent had withdrawn his
paper?”
“Withdrawn his paper!” five voices echoed excitedly. “Why didn’t
you tell us before?”
“I was waiting for a clear field,” Debby laughed. “He told me so
himself this morning.”
“But why?” Kitty asked.
“He didn’t tell me that.”
“Perhaps he thought it wasn’t good enough,” Ruth suggested.
“I’m sure I sometimes wish I could withdraw mine,” Amanda
sighed.
“It wouldn’t have made any difference; he’d never have got a
prize,” Kitty declared.
As she went on up the street after leaving the girls, Blue Bonnet
told herself that she knew why Boyd had withdrawn his paper.
Perhaps he had told Debby, knowing Debby would tell her among
the others. She had scarcely seen him since the night of Amanda’s
birthday; to all intents and purposes, he was devoting himself to
baseball during most of his out-of-school time.
That relations continued strained between the two cousins it was
easy to see; a mere outward semblance of friendliness being kept up

44. on the General’s account.
“Solomon,” Blue Bonnet said, as he came to meet her, “should I
have said what I did that night, or shouldn’t I? Maybe it was more or
less of a rushing-in business? But it didn’t seem fair not to let him
know why one couldn’t dance with him, or be friends. And it was
true!”
Solomon appeared perfectly willing to take her word for it.
“What’s the trouble, Honey?” Uncle Cliff asked, as she came
across the lawn to the bench where he sat, busy over some papers
Uncle Joe had forwarded him.
“Just some school business,” she hadn’t any right to tell even such
a close confidant as Uncle Cliff about it. “You don’t get much chance
to lead the Simple Life going to school.”
“The twenty-second’s coming nearer every day, Honey.”
“At least, the exams will be over soon; the Sargent winners aren’t
given out until the very last day, at closing exercises.”
“Why didn’t you try? Afraid of cutting out all the others?” Mr. Ashe
laughed.
“I did think of it—then I changed my mind.”
She had fallen into their ways and customs pretty well, Mr. Ashe
thought; she couldn’t have been expected to go in for them all.
Blue Bonnet broke off a spray of white roses, brushing them
lightly across her face. She was sorry on Grandmother’s and Aunt
Lucinda’s account; they were disappointed, though they had said
nothing. She would like them to know the rights of it, and to be able
to show Grandmother the little bundle of papers thrust into one of
the pigeonholes of her desk.

45. “By the way,” her uncle asked, “how about the present financial
condition?”
“I’m getting on,” Blue Bonnet laughed; “last month I actually
saved a whole ten-cent piece. Aunt Lucinda thinks I’m almost ready
for an advance. She’s giving me a camera as a reward of merit.”
Nor had the little brick house on the mantelpiece been neglected;
its contents were to go to the Floating Hospital. She had not made
that promised visit to Aunt Lucinda’s crippled girls—that was one of
the things that must wait over until fall now; next year she meant
not to have so many wait-overs.
“I had a wire this morning from Maldon,” Mr. Ashe said; “he places
The Wanderer at our disposal for the trip West; she happens to be
lying idle in Boston.”
“How perfectly lovely! I must go tell Grandmother; and now—”
Blue Bonnet’s face was radiant, “now, Solomon needn’t travel in the
baggage-car.”
“Maldon will be relieved when he learns that,” Mr. Ashe observed.
The six received this latest piece of news wide-eyed. “Travel all
the way to Texas in a private car!” Amanda exclaimed.
“Blue Bonnet Ashe!” Kitty declared solemnly. “It was a lucky day
for us when you came East!”
The Boston relatives arrived on the twenty-first for a short visit;
Cousin Honoria and Cousin Augusta looked upon Cousin Elizabeth’s
proposed Western trip in mingled amazement and dismay; a little
kindly advice, a little gentle persuasion, were the least they could
offer.

46. What would she do on a ranch—where there were cowboys and
Mexicans and—Cousin Honoria glanced appealingly at her sister.
“Mustangs!” Cousin Augusta felt that she had added the final
touch.
Blue Bonnet left the room with a haste that Grandmother could
only envy. “But I do not intend to ride the mustangs,” she said; “and
I have always wanted to see a real cowboy; and Benita is a Mexican.
Elizabeth was very fond of Benita; so is Blue Bonnet.”
“I think Mother will enjoy her summer very much,” Miss Lucinda
said, patting Solomon; Solomon had been more than ever attached
to Miss Lucinda lately. Solomon couldn’t understand just what was
about to happen, but he had an instinctive feeling that in an
emergency Miss Lucinda was likely to prove a veritable tower of
defence.
It was that afternoon that Blue Bonnet came home jubilant, as she
had that Friday before Christmas. “I’ve passed!” she announced.
“That’s twice running! Looks like I was getting the habit! And I
needn’t have worked so hard, after all; it wasn’t such a close thing.
Alec’s passed too,” she went on hurriedly, seeing reproof in her
aunt’s eye; “and the girls—Amanda’s conditioned. She’ll have to
study this summer. I did think there wouldn’t be a single school book
along.”
“A little regular study on the part of each one of you girls every
day—” Miss Lucinda began.
“But,” Blue Bonnet broke in, “nothing is too regular out there, not
even the meals; that’s the delightful part of it.”
And Grandmother laughed at the sudden look in Cousin Honoria’s
and Cousin Augusta’s eyes.

47. At last, the twenty-second really came; Blue Bonnet, standing
before the glass, while Aunt Lucinda buttoned the long line of tiny
buttons down the back of the new white gown, decided that going
to school has its attractions, Closing Day being one of them. And
later, sitting in her place in the big assembly-room, sharing the
common thrill of eager excitement in the air, she was sure of it.
The graduation exercises were to take place that night. Blue
Bonnet was not much interested in those; she was waiting for the
great moment of the morning—the announcing of the names of the
winners of the Sargent prizes.
It came at last, the tall boy who had taken her in to supper the
night of her dance leading the list; Blue Bonnet thought his subject
sounded very dull, like himself. If only Mr. Hunt would hurry along to
Alec’s class! Would Alec—
“‘Remember the Alamo,’” Mr. Hunt read presently, “Alexander
Morton Trent.”
It was General Trent who led the applause that time.
“Now our room!” Kitty whispered. “It’ll be Hester—for the girls!”
But it was not Hester.
“‘The Sargents of the Future,’” Mr. Hunt announced, “Katherine
Benton Clark,” and no one was more surprised than Kitty herself.
“To think,” she whispered to Blue Bonnet, as she came back to her
place, “to think how dreadfully near I came to not being allowed to
try!”
After the general exercises were various gatherings in the different
classrooms, congratulations to be made and received, good-byes to
be said.

48. “And so,” Mr. Hunt said, meeting Blue Bonnet on the stairs, “you
did not let your class go on without you?”
“Not either time,” she answered happily.
“I understand that you are off to Texas before long, taking a good
portion of the school with you?”
“To make sure that they do not go on without me,” she laughed
back. “Good-bye,” she added, holding out her hand, “and—thank
you so much.” He had been mighty kind, she told herself,—what a
perfectly delightful tutor he would have made!
It was towards late afternoon when she reached home, tired and
happy. The General was there, looking very proud.
“For the second time,” he was saying, for rather more than the
second time. “He really is a clever boy—they both are, for that
matter; it seems that Boyd withdrew his paper almost at the last—
for some reason or other I couldn’t quite make out—or we might
have had a tie between them.” He turned to Blue Bonnet. “Alec tells
me that it is really you, my dear, whom I have to thank—for
supplying him with such an uncommonly good subject.”
Cousin Tracy looked interested. “So that’s what you did with it,
Señorita?”
“I passed it on into the right hands, you see,” Blue Bonnet said,
and presently she slipped away to her room.
The big trunk which Benita had packed with such loving care for
the journey East stood open, and partly filled, and on the lounge lay
her suit case ready for the morrow.
Blue Bonnet sat down near it, Solomon beside her, thinking of that
last afternoon at home, and the hopes and fears filling her heart
then; thinking of a good many other things besides.

49. It was going to be a different going back from the one she had so
insisted on that November morning; very “decently and in order,” for
—Blue Bonnet’s eyes danced—was not Aunt Lucinda superintending
the packing?
How many things had happened in this room; she had had her
good moments and her bad, but the former had predominated; and
when next fall came it would be almost like coming home.
“And if I haven’t learned anything else, Solomon,” she observed, “I
have learned to make a bed beautifully; Aunt Lucinda said as much
this morning.”
“Will you be wanting any help, Miss?” Delia asked, from the open
door, and Blue Bonnet relinquished most willingly the task of
unbuttoning that long row of buttons.
“Katie and me ain’t liking to think of to-morrow,” Delia said. “’Tis
the dull house this’ll be the summer long.”
“You’ll be dusting the parlor every Saturday morning now,” Blue
Bonnet laughed; “not just when I’ve forgotten it.” It was awfully
good of everybody to be nice about not wanting her to go.
She was sitting on the porch in the twilight, thinking contentedly
of the long twilights to come on the ranch veranda, with
Grandmother sitting close by, and all the “We are Seven’s” and Alec
there, too, when Mrs. Clyde said slowly, “Blue Bonnet, why—when
Cousin Tracy gave you such excellent material to work with—didn’t
you try for the Sargent? Why, at one time, we thought you were
going to,—your aunt and I.”
Blue Bonnet looked out across the shadowy lawn; she believed
she would tell Grandmother; it should be their secret between them.
“I have got a reason, truly,” she said; “but it takes in such a
number of other people. It began one afternoon when Boyd Trent

50. met me out riding, and—”
“When in doubt, always confide in your grandmother,” Mrs. Clyde
advised, as Blue Bonnet hesitated; “that’s one of the things
grandmothers were made for.”
“All right,” Blue Bonnet answered.
“Please,” she asked, as she finished her story, “was it very dreadful
—what I said to Boyd that night?”
“I think, taking everything into consideration, that it was very—
pardonable,” Grandmother said.
“And you won’t mind, now that you know I really did mean to try?
And Alec won a prize. I don’t believe I should have done that; and if
I had, Kitty couldn’t’ve.”
“How should I mind, dear?—now that I understand your reason
for not trying.”
Blue Bonnet drew a deep breath of relief. “Then I haven’t a single
worry left on my mind. I didn’t like you and Aunt Lucinda thinking I
was being—just horrid.”
“I am very glad you have told me this, Blue Bonnet. You must let
me tell your aunt.”
From the stile came the sound of Alec’s whistling—“All the Blue
Bonnets are over the border;” and from the open windows of Mr.
Ashe’s room came the same tune, as he bent over the packing of his
valise.
“They will be over pretty soon now,” Blue Bonnet laughed.
“Blue Bonnet,” Miss Clyde said from the doorway, “Cousin Honoria
is hoping that you are not too tired to sing one of your Spanish

51. songs for them?”
“Of course I’m not!” Blue Bonnet answered. “Grave or gay?” she
asked, as Mr. Winthrop opened the piano for her.
“Both,” he replied.
She gave them both, choosing, in closing, the little song Benita
had crooned over her work during those final days at home last year,
with its soft Spanish words of farewell.
Cousin Honoria and Cousin Augusta suddenly found themselves
envying Cousin Elizabeth. It was wonderful how a young person
brightened up a house.
When she came back to the veranda, Blue Bonnet found a small
detachment of the “We are Seven’s” there, with Alec and
Grandmother.
“We only came to say,” Debby explained, “that we are so glad we
haven’t got to say a really good-bye; and that we will be down at
the station in the morning.”
“And mind,” Kitty pointed a warning forefinger, “mind you and Mr.
Ashe don’t forget to come back for us!”
“As if—” Blue Bonnet laughed.
Just before going to bed, Blue Bonnet, in dressing gown and
slippers, came to her aunt’s room.
Miss Clyde was sitting by one of the open windows, looking out at
the soft, summer starlight, filled with the scent of the yellow and
white honeysuckle covering the veranda below. She was thinking of

52. the past ten months, wondering how deeply their teachings had
taken root with Blue Bonnet.
“May I come in—for just a few moments?” Blue Bonnet asked. “I
want to—talk;” and apparently forgetting that Miss Lucinda did not
approve of her sitting on the floor, she dropped down beside her
aunt’s chair, resting an arm on her lap, quite as though Aunt Lucinda
were Grandmother. “I can talk so much better this way,” she said.
“Please, Aunt Lucinda, I’m afraid I’ve been a lot of trouble to you—
all these months. But it hasn’t had to be ‘Elizabeth!’ so very often
lately, has it? You do think I’ve improved some?”
Miss Lucinda smiled. “I do not think that you have ever meant to
be ‘a lot of trouble,’—the words are yours, not mine, my dear; and it
has been a great comfort to both your grandmother and myself,
having you with us.”
“And when I come back next fall, you’ll see—” Blue Bonnet said
earnestly. “You’ve been ever so good to me, Aunt Lucinda—even if I
didn’t—exactly think so—at the time. And I thought—maybe—we’d
make this our real good-bye; because when Uncle Cliff and I get
back from New York, it won’t be for much more than a stopping
over.”
“But it is not to be good-bye,” Miss Lucinda laid a hand over Blue
Bonnet’s—“only, until we meet again.”
“And,” Blue Bonnet added softly, as her aunt bent to kiss her, “‘Va
Usted con Dios!’”
THE END.

53. The
Blue Bonnet Series
By
Lela Horn Richards
and
Caroline E. Jacobs
Each, one vol., large 12mo, illustrated, $2.00

54. A TEXAS BLUE BONNET
BLUE BONNET’S RANCH PARTY
BLUE BONNET IN BOSTON
BLUE BONNET KEEPS HOUSE
BLUE BONNET—DÉBUTANTE
BLUE BONNET OF THE SEVEN STARS
BLUE BONNET’S FAMILY

55. THE COSY CORNER SERIES
By Caroline E. Jacobs
Each, one vol., large 12mo, illustrated, $0.75
BAB’S CHRISTMAS AT STANHOPE
THE CHRISTMAS SURPRISE PARTY
A CHRISTMAS PROMISE
L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
53 Beacon Street : Boston, Mass.

56. Selections from
L. C. Page & Company’s
Books for Girls
THE BLUE BONNET SERIES
Each large 12mo, cloth decorative, illustrated, per volume$ 2.00
The seven volumes, boxed as a set 14.00
A TEXAS BLUE BONNET
By CarolinÉ E. Jacobs.
BLUE BONNET’S RANCH PARTY
By CarolinÉ E. Jacobs and Edyth EllÉrbÉck RÉad.
BLUE BONNET IN BOSTON
By CarolinÉ E. Jacobs and LÉla Horn Richards .
BLUE BONNET KEEPS HOUSE
By CarolinÉ E. Jacobs and LÉla Horn Richards .
BLUE BONNET—DÉBUTANTE
By LÉla Horn Richards .

57. BLUE BONNET OF THE SEVEN STARS
By LÉla Horn Richards .
BLUE BONNET’S FAMILY
By LÉla Horn Richards .
“Blue Bonnet has the very finest kind of wholesome, honest,
lively girlishness and cannot but make friends with every one who
meets her through these books about her.”—Chicago Inter-Ocean.
“Blue Bonnet and her companions are real girls, the kind that one
would like to have in one’s home.”—New York Sun.

58. THE LITTLE COLONEL BOOKS
(Trade Mark)
By Annie Fellows Johnston
Each large 12mo, cloth, illustrated, per volume$2.00
THE LITTLE COLONEL STORIES
(Trade Mark)
Being three “Little Colonel” stories in the Cosy Corner Series,
“The Little Colonel,” “Two Little Knights of Kentucky,” and “The
Giant Scissors,” in a single volume.
THE LITTLE COLONEL STORIES: Second Series
(Trade Mark)
Tales about characters that appear in the Little Colonel Series.
—“Ole Mammy’s Torment,” “The Three Tremonts,” and “The Little
Colonel in Switzerland.”
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S HOUSE PARTY
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S HOLIDAYS
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S HERO

59. (Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL AT BOARDING SCHOOL
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL IN ARIZONA
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S CHRISTMAS VACATION
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL, MAID OF HONOR
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S KNIGHT COMES RIDING
(Trade Mark)
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S CHUM, MARY WARE
(Trade Mark)
MARY WARE IN TEXAS
MARY WARE’S PROMISED LAND
These thirteen volumes, boxed as a set, $26.00

60. FOR PIERRE’S SAKE AND OTHER STORIES
Cloth, 12mo, illustrated by Billie Chapman$1.75
“‘For Pierre’s Sake,’ who works so hard to scrape together the
pennies necessary for a wreath for his brother’s grave, ‘The Rain
Maker,’ who tries to bring rain to the drought stricken fields—these
and many others will take their places in The Children’s Hall of
Fame, which exists in the heart of childhood.”—Portsmouth (N. H.)
Herald.
THE ROAD OF THE LOVING HEART
Cloth decorated, with special designs and illustrations$1.25
This story of a little princess and her faithful pet bear, who finally
do discover “The Road of the Loving Heart,” is a masterpiece of
sympathy and understanding and beautiful thought.

61. THE JOHNSTON JEWEL SERIES
Each small 16mo, decorative boards, per volume$0.75
IN THE DESERT OF WAITING:
The Legend of Camelback Mountain.
THE THREE WEAVERS:
A Fairy Tale for Fathers and Mothers as Well as for Their
Daughters .
KEEPING TRYST:
A Tale of King Arthur’s Time.
THE LEGEND OF THE BLEEDING HEART
THE RESCUE OF PRINCESS WINSOME:
A Fairy Play for Old and Young.
THE JESTER’S SWORD
THE LITTLE COLONEL’S GOOD TIMES BOOK
Uniform in size with the Little Colonel Series$2.50
Bound in white kid (morocco) and gold6.00

62. Cover design and decorations by Peter Verberg.
“A mighty attractive volume in which the owner may record the
good times she has on decorated pages, and under the directions
as it were of Annie Fellows Johnston.”—Buffalo Express.

63. HILDEGARDE-MARGARET SERIES
By Laura E. Richards
Eleven Volumes
The Hildegarde-Margaret Series, beginning with “Queen
Hildegarde” and ending with “The Merryweathers,” make one of the
best and most popular series of books for girls ever written.
Each large 12mo, cloth decorative, illustrated, per
volume
$1.75
The eleven volumes boxed as a set $19.25
LIST OF TITLES
QUEEN HILDEGARDE
HILDEGARDE’S HOLIDAY
HILDEGARDE’S HOME
HILDEGARDE’S NEIGHBORS
HILDEGARDE’S HARVEST
THREE MARGARETS
MARGARET MONTFORT

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