Environmental-Law-Notes.ppt

It is about Ethiopian Environmental Law

1. Environmental Law Notes
Chapter One: Introduction to Environmental Law 1.1
Meaning of Environment
Q. Why definition?
>Todelineatethescopeofthesubject
>Toidentifyapplicationoflegalrules,
> Io establish the extent of liability when harm occurs Q . What is meant by
Environment?
❖ThewordenvironmentisderivedfromanancientFrenchwordenvironner,meaningto
encircle
❖dictionariesdefine‘environment’as‘theobjectsortheregionsurroundinganything’
❖Bybroadlyapplyingtosurroundings,environmentcanincludetheaggregateofnatural,
socialandculturalconditionsthatinfluencethelifeofanindividualorcommunity.
❖Accordingly,thetermencompassesboththefeaturesandtheproductsofthenatural
worldandthoseofhumancivilisation.Onthisdefinition,theenvironmentisbroaderthan,
butincludes,‘nature’,whichisconcernedonlywithfeaturesoftheworlditself.
❖ Caldwellremarks‘itisatermthateveryoneunderstandsandnooneisableto
define’.
1
Whydoyouthink?
❖ Manytreaties,declarations,codeofconduct,andguidelinesdonotspecifically
definewhatismeantbyenvironment.Ifitisdefined,itismostlyrelatedwiththesubject
matterthetreaties...wanttoaddress.
❖Stockholmdeclaration—‘bothaspectsofman’senvironment,thenaturalandmanmade,
areessentialforhiswell-beingandenjoymentofbasichumanrights
❖ WorldCommissiononEnvironmentanddevelopment(WCED)-theenvironmentis
wherewelive’
❖EnvironmentalprotectionorganestablishmentproclamationNo.9/1995defines:
'Caldwell, International environmental Policy and Law (1
st
edn. Durham, NC, 1980), 170.

2. Thetotalityofallmaterialswhetherintheirnaturalstateormodifiedorchangedby
human,theirexternalspacesandinteractionswhichaffectedtheirqualityorquantity
andthewelfareofhumanorotherlivingbeings,includingbutnotrestrictedto,land,
atmosphere,weatherandclimate,water,livingthings,sound,odor,taste,social
factors,andaesthetics.
Thesameisenshrinedunderenvironmentalpollutioncontrolproc.No.300/2002
What is International Environmental Law?
^ Is Environmental Law a self contained discipline with its own source and
methods of law making from principles peculiar to environmental law? Or
^ Is it part and parcel of IL?
^ No consensus among scholars. Some argue that there is no distinct environmental
law. Rather it originates from the application of general principles of international
law.
❖Thus international environmental law is nothing more, or less, than the
application of international law to environmental problems.
> Some on the other hand do not agree on this argument that gives over emphasis
on the international law.
> For them though international environmental law borrows some aspects of
public, private int. law and national law, it has also its own unique features.
❖In sum, most legal scholars don’t attempt to define IEL as a body of law that
exclusively deals with environmental matters.
❖Rather most agree that IEL shares some aspect of public, private IL and domestic
law and has also its own unique features.
FactorsthatGaveRisetoEnvironmentalLaw:NationalandInternational
Perspective
L_Theexistenceofextraterritorialenvironmentalproblems.
Eg.Pollution(atmospheric,maritime),globalwarmingandozonedepletion,the
dangerof
nuclearandotherhazardoussubstance.Theeffectofsuchproblemsismostofthe
timeextraterritorial.Eg.Acidicrain.Suchproblemsnecessitatedcooperationamong
states.

3. > The fact is that these environmental problems cannot be resolved by states acting
individually.Accordingly,co-operationbetweenthepollutingandpollutedstateis
necessitated.
II.Thequestionoftherelationshipbetweentheprotectionoftheenvironmentandtheneed
foreconomicdevelopmentisanotherfactorunderpinningtheevolutionofenvironmentallaw
Historical Development of IEL
Thoughhistoricallyonecanseeearlydomesticenvironmentallegislation,IELisrelativelya
youngfield
• the current form and structure of the subject has become recognisableonly since the
mid-1980s
• International environmental law has evolved over at least four distinct periods From
Early Fisheries Conventions to the creation Of the United Nations
>Ismarkedbybilateralfisheriestreatiesinthenineteenthcentury,andconcluded
with
thecreationofthenewinternationalorganisationsin1945
>Wasdominatedbyconservationofwildlife(fisheries,birdsandseals)and,toa
limitedextent,ontheprotectionofriversandseas
>Industrializationandoverutilizationofmineralresourceswasamajorderiving
forceforthecomingintopictureofearlyenvironmentallegislationatthenational
level
>Theadoptionoftreatieswasadhoc(doneforaparticularpurpose),
sporadic(irregular)andlimitedinscope
>Foreg.ConventionfortheProtectionofBirdsUsefultoAgriculture(1902),signed
by
12Europeangovernments.
>theConventionforthePreservationandProtectionofFurSeals(1911),concluded
by
theUnitedStates,Japan,Russia,andtheUnitedKingdom;
>TheConventionfortheProtectionofMigratoryBirds(1916),adoptedbythe
United
StatesandtheUnitedKingdom(onbehalfofCanada)andlaterextendedtoMexico
in1936.
>The1909WaterBoundariesTreatybetweentheUnitedStatesandCanadawasthe
firsttocommititspartiestopreventingpollution.

4. >Developmentsrelatingtothecreationofinternationalenvironmentalorganisations
werelimited
>Arbitralawards-PacificFurSealArbitration,thedisputebetweentheUnited
StatesandGreatBritainover-exploitationoffursealsinareasbeyondnational
jurisdictionwasentertainedinthisperiod.
>TheTrailSmeltercasearoseoutofadisputebetweentheUnitedStatesandCanada
overtheemissionofsulphurfumesfromasmeltersituatedinCanadawhich
causeddamageinthestateofWashington.
II.FromthecreationoftheUnitedNationstoStockholm:1945-1972
>BeginwiththecomingofUNin1945
>UNcharterdidnotincludeanyprovisionsontheprotectionortheconservationof
naturalresource.
> Noenvironmentalornatureconservationbodywasestablishedamongthe
specialised
agencies
>HoweverpurposeofUN:-internationalcooperationforinternationalsocialand
economicproblem.
>FAO,UNESCO,GATTenvisageenvironmentalprovisions.
>1948InternationalUnionfortheProtectionofNature(IUPN)wasestablishedby
governmentsandnon-governmentalactors.Itplayedanimportantroleindeveloping
treatiestoprotectwildlifeandconservenaturalresource.
> the1949UnitedNationsConferenceontheConservationandUtilisationof
Resources
(UNCCURwasorganizedbytheUNECOSOC
>Theresolutionreflectedanawarenessoftheneedforinternationalactiontoestablish
abalancedapproachtothemanagementandconservationofnaturalresources.
>In1954,theGeneralAssemblyconvenedamajorConferenceontheConservationof
theLivingResourcesoftheSea.Themajornewdevelopmentwastheattention
givenbytheGeneralAssemblytotheeffectsofatmosphericnucleartestsandoil
pollution
>1957LacLanouxarbitrationonsharedrivers;-righttouseandlimitationeg
cooperation.ThiscasewasarisedbetweenFrance&Spainontheutilizationofrives
CaroleonwhichFrenchbuildHydraelectricdam'

5. Inearly1972,shortlybeforetheStockholmConference,theOsloDumpingConvention
becamethefirsttreatytoprohibitthedumpingofawiderangeofhazardoussubstancesat
sea
>ThisperiodwascharacterizedbyDevelopmentofenvironmentallegislationsat
piecemealfashion,lackcoordination,noparticularinternationalorganization
wasgivenresponsibility.
The1972UnitedNationsConferenceontheHumanEnvironment
>HeldinSweden,Stockholm,from5-16June1972underthechairmanshipof
MauriceStrong(thefirstExecutiveDirectorofUNEP,)
> Attendedby114statesandalargenumberofinternationalinstitutionsand
nongovernmentalob-servers.
>Theconferencewasmainlyforrationaluseandconservationofnaturalresources
>Italsoconsideredtheimpactofhumanactivitiesontheenvironmentairandwater
pollution,deforestation,drainageofwetland
>TheconferenceproducedtheStockholmDeclarationontheHumanEnvironment
with26principles
>Stockholmenlargedandfacilitatedmeanstowardinternationalactionpreviously
limitedbyinadequateperceptionofenvironmentalissuesandbyrestrictiveconcepts
ofnationalsovereignty.
> themostrelevantprovisionsarePrinciples24(whichcalledforinternational
cooperation‘toeffectivelycontrol,prevent,reduceandeliminateadverse
environmentaleffects,)
>principle21(righttousenaturalresources)responsibilityofstatestoensurethat
activitieswithintheirjurisdictionorcontroldonotcausedamageinanotherstateor
beyondnationaljurisdiction,suchasinouterspaceoronthehighseas
> Principle22(requiredstatestoco-operateindevelopinginternational
environmentallaw)
> Principles8-15addressedissueswhichreflectedtherelationshipbetween
developmentandtheenvironment:theyrecognisedtherelationshipbetween
economicandsocialdevelopmentandenvironmentalquality.

6. > TheStockholmPrinciplesareweakontechniquesforimplementing
environmentalstandards,suchasenvironmentalimpactassessment,accessto
environmentalinformationandtheavailabilityofadministrativeandjudicial
remedies
III. From Stockholm to Rio: 1972-1992 This period was marked by;
> Theperiodwasmarkedby:aproliferationofinternationalandregional
Environmentalorganisations
>Greatereffortsbyexistinginstitutionstoaddressenvironmentalissues;
>Thedevelopmentofnewsourcesofinternationalenvironmentalobligationsfromacts
ofsuchorganisations;
>Newenvironmentalnormsestablishedbytreaty;
>Thedevelopmentofnewtechniquesforimplementingenvironmentalstandards,
includingenvironmentalimpactassessmentandaccesstoinformation;and
>Theformalintegrationofenvironmentanddevelopment,particularlyinrelationto
internationaltradeanddevelopmentassistance.
AdecadeaftertheadoptionoftheStockholmDeclaration,theWorldCharterfor
NaturewasadoptedbytheGeneralAssembly
>TheGeneralPrinciplesprovidethatnaturemustberespectedandthatthehabitat
andlifeformsmustbesafeguardedtoensuretheirsurvival
>TheCharterrecommendscontrolsoneconomicdevelopmentandconsiderationfor
thelong-termcapacityofecosystemstosupporthumanuse
AnotherimportantdevelopmentthatpavedthewaytotheRioSummitwasthe
publicationof“OurCommonFuture”(BrundtlandReport)in1987bytheWorld
Commission(createdbyungeneralassemblyin1983
>providesacomprehensiveoverviewofvariousglobalissues.Suchissuesinclude
> sustainabledevelopment,theinternationaleconomy,thedebtcrisis,food
security,species,ecosystems,industry,theurbanchallenge,peaceandthearms
race,climatechange,andozonedepletion.

7. >TheStockholmConferencesetthesceneforinternationalactivitiesattheregionaland
globallevel,andinfluencedlegalandinstitutionaldevelopmentsuptoandbeyond
UNCED.
UNCED ( RIO DECLARATION)
♦♦♦TheUNConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(orEarthSummit)was
heldinRiodeJaneirobetweenJune3-14June1992,withtheparticipationofan
unprecedentednumberofNGOsand176states
♦ Itproducedanumberofinstrumentsthathaveshapedthedevelopmentof
internationalenvironmentallawuntiltoday-theRioDeclarationonEnvironment
andDevelopment,Agenda21,theNon-BindingPrinciplesontheSustainable
DevelopmentofallTypesofForest,theTreatyonBiologicalDiversity,andthe
TreatyonClimateChange
♦♦♦ThenegotiationhistoryofRiodemonstratedivergingviewsbetweendeveloped
anddevelopingcountriesaboutthepurposeofenvironmentallawmaking
♦♦♦Developedstates--wantedtheRioSummittoconcludewithan“EarthCharter”that
wouldconcentratestrictlyonenvironmentalissues.
♦♦♦Developingstate(G-77andChina)rejectedearthcharterasitpropagates
environmentalprotectionattheexpenseofdevelopment
♦♦♦Developingcountriesweresucceededinincluding-therighttodevelopment,
sustainabledevelopment,eradicationofpoverty,specialneedsofdevelopingcountries
inthedocument.
♦♦♦Developedcountries,—insistedandsucceededintheinclusionof;-participationof
citizensinthehandlingofenvironmentalissuesandtherighttoaccessto
informationspeciallywithregardtohazardousactivities.
♦Generally,Riodeclarationhas27principles.
♦♦♦Itisanonbindingdeclaration.Butsomeprinciplesattainedcustomaryint.law
status,othersemergingandothersprovideguidanceastofuturelegal
developments
♦♦♦Principle1.Humanbeingsareatthecentreofconcernsforsustainabledevelopment
(anthropocentricapproach)

8. ❖Principle2isarearticulationofPrinciple21oftheStockholmDeclarationthat
reaffirmsthesovereigntyofstatesovertheirnaturalresources.Developmentand
environment.
❖Principle3and4developmentandenvironment
❖Principleofcommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibilityprinci.,.7
❖Polluterpaysprinciple-princ.16
❖SomearguethatRioisastepbackfromStockholm.Thedisappointmenthadtodo
withthefactthatthedeclarationfailedtodealwithenvironmentalconcernsina
clearfashionandbecameinfused,instead,withdisparateprovisionshardtohold
togetherinacohesivetext.Othershaveappraisedthedeclarationmorepositively
IV.BeyondUNCED
^SinceUNCED,anumberofimportantnewinstrumentshavebeenadoptedandthe
negotiationofotherscontinues.Thereisnosignthattherateoflegislativeactivityis
droppingoff.Eg.Biosaftyprotocol,Kyotoprotocol,AarhusConvention(onrightto
participation)
❖ TheJohannesburgsummitorWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment
(WSSD)washeldin2002,tenyearsaftertheEarthSummitinJohannesburg
❖Itdidnotadoptanyconventionsorastatementofprinciples,andwasgenerally
focusedontheeradicationofpoverty
❖TheJohannesburgDeclarationonSustainableDevelopmentnotesthattheglobal
environmentcontinuestosuffer,butproposesnospecificactionsbeyondageneral
commitmenttosustainabledevelopment
❖ Triggereddisappointmentforenvironmentalistswhowouldhavelikedthe
adoptionofnewmorestringentstandardsandtimetablesfortheaccomplishmentof
environmentalobjectives.
❖TheWSSDPlanofImplementationislongongeneralcommitmentsandaspiration,
butshortonspecificactionstobetakeneg.
❖halve,by2015,theproportionoftheworld’speoplewhoseincomeislessthanUS$1
adayandtheproportionofpeoplewhosufferfromhunger;
❖halve,by2015,theproportionofpeoplewithoutaccesstosafedrinkingwater;
❖halve,by2015,theproportionofpeoplewhodonothaveaccesstobasicsanitation;

9. •Internationalenvironmentallawisnolongerexclusivelyconcernedwiththe
adoptionofnormativestandardstoguidebehaviour,butincreasinglyaddresses
techniquesofimplementationwhicharepractical,effective,equitableand
acceptabletomostmembersoftheinternationalcommunity
1.2.5. BriefHistorical Development of Environmental Law Legislation in
Ethiopia
A.EnvironmentalLegislationBeforeemperormenelik
❖ThefirstlegislationtobementionedinthisregardisFethaNegest
❖Itenvisagesprovisionssomehowrelatedwithpollutionofsmokeand
wateramongneighbors
❖Forexample,thosewhodwellupstairsmaynotdropwaterorthrowdirt
whichmayharmthosewhodwelldownstairs...”(FethaNegest,Paulos
Tzadwa,1970)
B.EmperorMenelik’sRegime
•EmperorMenelikpromulgatedanumberofdecreesonthewildlifeandprotectionof
forests
One of the decrees of Menelik II stated that:
•“...Coniferoustreesshouldbeutilizedonlyforbuildinghouses,notforother
purposes.
•ThosetreeswithflowersandmedicaltreessuchasHageniaAbyssinica(Koso)should
behandledwiththeutmostcare...Anyonewhoviolatestheserulesshallbe
apprehendedandpresentedbeforetheEmperor...”
•EmperorMenelikalsoorderedthepeoplenottokillanyanimal,excepthyenas,
unlessotherwisepermissionwasgivenbyaconcernedgovernmentofficial.
>EthiopiaalsoaccededtotheWildlife,BirdsandFishProtectionAgreementofEurope
byMenelik’sImperialletterof08December1902.

10. >AfterthistheEmperorpromulgatedadecree/proclamationwith9articleson15Oct.
1908thatregulateshuntingofElephants
>Forexample,Article2ofthisProclamationorderedanyhuntertoobtainlicense.
Moreover,ahuntermustdepositfiftyBirrtoensurethathewouldnotkillanelephant
whosetusksarelessthantheweightofabout17kg.
C.EmperorHaileSelassieRegime
>DuringtheeraofEmperorHaileSelassie,therewereanumberoflawsaroundnatural
resourcesandtheenvironment.Amongthese,theprominentoneswerewildlifeand
forestlaws.
Wildlife laws
>ThefirstProclamationwasentitled:“AProclamationforPreservationofGameand
Fishes.”Proclaimedaround1930’s
>Ittotallyprohibitedhuntingofsomespeciessuchaselephants,giraffes,wildass,
WalyaIbex,Nyala,ostrich,andpelicanforfiveyearsfromthedateofissuanceof
theProclamation.
>Theproclamationalsospecifiedtheareaswherehuntingwasprohibited.These
include:FromNechsaruptotheEthio-Kenyaboarder;
>TheProclamationallowedthosepeoplewhohuntanimalsforfood.Suchpeople,if
theyhadfoodproblems,werenotrequiredtoholdlicense.Theycouldhuntbyjust
informingthesituationtotheconcernedpublicofficials.
> Theproclamationalsoallowedindividualstokillananimalasameansof
selfdefense.
>TheProclamationimposedpenalties(fine),whichrangedfrom10Birrupto500Birr,
dependingontheoffencecommitted.
>Anotherproclamationwaspromulgatedin1944asProclamation61of1944.
>Italsoregulatehuntingactivities

11. Forest Laws
>Threeconsequentproclamationswereenactedin1965.Thesewere:
>StateForestProclamation(ProclamationN°225of1965);Allforestswhichwere
notownedorpossessedbyanypersonweredesignatedbytheProclamationasthe
Stateforest.(Article4).
>PrivateForestsConservationProclamation(ProclamationN°226of1965);and
>ProtectiveForestsProclamation(ProclamationN°227of1965)
>TheProclamationstatedeconomicaswellasecologicalusesofforestsasitspurpose
todevelopforestresources.Italsorecognizedtherightsofthesucceedinggenerations
toutilizeforestproducts^Intergenerationalequity.
>Penaltyclauseswerealsoenvisaged.
D.TheSocialistRegimeLaws
>Proclamation192of1980-Thiswasaforestandwildlifelaw.
>TheProclamationestablishedForestandWildlifeConservationandDevelopment
Authority.
>TheProclamationchangedthepreviouslyexistedtypesofforestownershipand
introducedanewsystemofownership.
>AccordingtoArticle5oftheProclamation,thereweretwotypesofforestownership-
--StateForestsandPeasantAssociationForests.
>Eachpeasantassociationwasobliged,bytheProclamation,todevelopandconserve
itsownforestbyplantingtreeswithinitslocalityinareastobedesignatedbythe
Authority.
>TheAuthorityhadgreatpowersontheforestsofpeasantassociation(orKebele
forests).
ThePDREConstitution(1987to1991)

12. >ThisConstitutionprovidedfordutiesofcitizensandthestatetowardthe
environment.
Article55(3)statedthat:
“Ethiopianshavethedutytoprotectandconservenatureandnaturalresources,
especiallytodevelopforestsandtoprotectandcareforsoilandwaterresources.”
E.TheCurrentRegime
+InthecontextofthepresentEthiopianlegalsystem,Nationalenvironmental
lawincludestheprovisionsconcerningtheenvironmentinthe1995FDRE
constitution;differentenvironmentaltreatiesratifiedbytheHouseof
RepresentativesaccordingtoArt.9(4)ofourconstitutionandalllaws(federal
andregional)concernedwiththeenvironment(Forestry,Land,Wateruseand
othersectorallaws).
The FDRE Constitution
> ThisConstitutionprovidesforprincipleswhicharerelevantforenvironmental
concerns.Someprinciplesaredirectlyrelatedwithenvironmentandotherprinciples
arerelatedwithenvironmentalprotectionindirectly.
A) The right to live in a clean & healthy environment (Article 44(1))
>Allpersonshavetherighttoliveinacleanandhealthyenvironment..
Article 92 of the Constitution
>EnvisagesGovernmentandcitizensobligationtowardstheenvironment
> ItalsoenvisagesEIAandtheneedtoparticipatethepublicwithregardto
environmentalissuesthataffectthemdirectly?Whataboutindirectly?
The1997EnvironmentalPolicyofEthiopia(EPE)
>TheEnvironmentalPolicyofEthiopia(EPE)istakenfromVol.IIoftheConservation
StrategyofEthiopia(CSE)andissoughttoguideallenvironmentalrelatedactivities
thatareundertakenormustbeundertakenbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAuthority
andothersectors.

13. > EPE took 10 years to develop. It was approved by the Council of Ministers of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on April 2, 1997.
>ItwasexternallydrivenbytheWorldBank
>Ithaspolicygoal,objectiveandguidingprinciples
>+Theoverallpolicygoalis:
ToimproveandenhancethehealthandqualityoflifeofallEthiopiansandtopromote
sustainablesocialandeconomicdevelopmentthroughthesoundmanagementanduseof
natural,human-madeandculturalresourcesandtheenvironmentasawholesoastomeet
theneedsofthepresentgenerationwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationsto
meettheirownneeds.(FDRENationalPolicyonnaturalresourcesandthe
Environment,at23).
Some Current Ethiopian environmental legislations
•Proclamationontheestablishmentofenvironmentalprotectionorganno.295/2000
•Environmentalimpactassessmentproclamationno.299/2002
•EnvironmentalpollutioncontrolproclamationNo.300/2002
• Access to genetic resource and community knowledge, and community rights
proclamation no. 482/2006
•Developmentconservationandutilizationofwildlifeproclamationno.541/2007
• Forest conservation, development and utilization of wildlife proclamation no.
541/2007
• Ethiopian wildlife development and conservation authority establishment proclamation
no.575/2008
•Biosafetyproclamationno.655/2009
There are also other laws which have been ratified by Ethiopia
•Eg.Theconventiononbiologicaldiversity
• The Basel convention on the control of Transboundary Movment of Hazardous Waste
and their disposal
•Theconventiononinternationaltradeinendangeredspeciesofwildfunaandflora
• The United Nations framework convention on climate change and its Kyoto protocol...

14. The Sources of International Environmental Laws
Q) What are the sources of international law?
❖Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice: the Court, whose
function is to decide in accordance with international law shall apply:
1.Internationalconventions,whethergeneralorparticular,establishingrulesexpressly
recognizedbythecontestingstates;
2.Internationalcustom,asevidenceofgeneralpracticeacceptedaslaw;
3.Thegeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbycivilizednations;
4.Judicialdecisionsandtheteachingsofthemosthighlyqualifiedpublicistsofthe
variousnationsassubsidiaryforthedeterminationoftherulesoflaw.
A.Treaties
❖Areoftendescribedasconventions,agreements,protocols,covenants,pacts...and
could be bilateral or multilateral. Q) What do we mean by the two?
❖Are written agreements between two or more states, governed by international law,
creating or restating legal rights and duties.
❖There are over 200 multilateral treaties and agreements and countless bilateral
instruments
❖AretheprincipalsourcesofIEL.Mainlybecause,
i)Thisismainlyduetothenatureofenvironmentalproblems.Theproblems
demand-continuousobservationandmonitoringaswellasquicklegal
actionandimplementationinresponsetooutgoingandrapidchangein
scientificknowledgeandconclusion.Treatiesthusarerelativelysuitable
totacklesuchkindsofproblems
ii)Treatiesallowflexibilityoflawmaking,machineryforinducingcompliance
andnon-complianceanddisputeresolutionmechanisms
iii)Treatiesarealsoreducedintowritingandaremoreaccessibleandapplicable
❖TheViennaConventionontheLawoftheTreatiesisthedocumentused
frequentlytointerpretthetextofmanyinternationaltreaties
❖Statesarefreetomakereservationstospecificarticlesofaconvention.Whatdo
we
meanbyreservation?Whydoyouthinkisreservationallowed?

15. ❖Afteraconventionissigned,itentersintoaprocessofratificationbyparliament.if
nottheconventiondoesnothavebindingeffectsonthatstate(providedthattherules
includedintheconventionhavenotbecomearuleofcustomarylaw).
❖Aconventionspecifiesinoneofitsarticlesthenumberofstatesthatarerequiredfor
ratification.
❖TheLawoftheSeaConvention(UNCLOS),whichisconsideredtheconstitutive
instrumentofthelawoftheseas,requiredsixtyratifications
❖Manyinternationalenvironmentaltreatiesareumbrellaframeworktreaties-
settingtheparametersofinternationalenvironmentalaction-followedbyprotocols
definingthespecificstandardsofstatebehaviour.ForexamplesuchmodelHasbeen
adoptedunderozonedepletion,acidrain,andClimatechangeagreements
B. Custom
Q)Whatdowemeanbyinternationalcustomarylaw?Whendoesitissaidto
exist?
^Customaryinternationallawiscreatedbythefusionofanobjectiveelement,practice,
andasubjectiveelement,opinionjuris
^Referslargelytounwrittenlawinferredfromtheconductofthestates,(whichis
consistentanduniform)undertakeninthebeliefthattheywereboundtodosoby
law(opinionjuris)
^ Customary law rules have played a secondary role in international environmental
law,although they can establish binding obligations for states and other members of
the international community and may be relied upon in the codificationof obligations
in treaties and other binding acts Q) How does practice of states known?
^InIEL,Practiceofstatesmaybeinferredfrom-nationallegislation,diplomatic
notesandcorrespondence,statementsandvotesofthegovernmentunderint.
forums,ratificationoftreaties,opinionoflegaladvisors...
Thereareanumberofprinciplesthataspiretothestatusofcustomaryinternational
law,buthavenotattainedthatdesignationEg.Theprohibitionagainsttransboundary
harm......

16. C.GeneralPrincipleofLaw
> General principle of law recognized by the civilized nations is related with municipal
laws
>TheICJrarelyrecognizesandappliesit.
>Eg.Theprincipleofgoodfaith
>theobligationtomakereparationforthebreachofanengagement
> the principle that a person may not plead his or her own wrong; the principle that no
one may be a judge in his or her own suit
> The abuse of rights doctrine is also considered to provide the basis for the rule that a
state must not interfere with the flow of a river to the detriment of other riparian states
D.OtherSources
i.Judicialdecisions
o It is subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law
Q)IsthedecisionofICJbindingonotherstateswiththesamedispute?
It is binding only for that particular case and parties under dispute o But,
judicial decision plays an important role in any system of customary law by
restating, codifying and clarifying laws o Judicial decision in fact influences
many decision that involves environmental matters
ii)Teachingofscholars
• The work of scholars is influential in further shaping the development of
international law. This is especially the case with new evolving concepts of
internationalenvironmentallaw,suchasthepolluterpaysprincipleorthe
precautionaryprinciple,whichrequirefurtherclarificationfortheirsuccessful
application
iii)Softlawinstruments
Q) What do we mean by soft laws?
Do soft laws bind states?
If not, what is thus the importance of soft laws?
■include decisions, recommendations, declarations, and resolutions of various
institutions that have been established under international law.
Thisiswhathasbeencalledinsomecircles“softlaw,”which,incontrastto

17. “hardlaw”(e.g.,treaties,custom),doesnothaveabindingcharacteronstate
behaviour.
■Despiteitsnonbindingcharacter,softlawhasthecapabilityofcreating
expectationsthatshapethefuturedirectionofinternationallaw.
■Solidifyexpectationsandgenerateimpetusforconsistentfuturebehaviourof
statesandotherinternationalactors.
■ Itisnotrareforanorm,articulatedinasoftlawinstrument,tobe
incorporatedintoatreatylaterand,thus,tobecomeastateobligation.
■Thetransformationofsoftlawinstrumentsintobindingrequirementsispartof
thenormcreationininternationallaw.Softlawinstrumentsinconjunction
withasetofinternationalnorms(suchastreaties)
Sourcesofenvironmentallawatnationallevel
Constitution;morethan100countriesreferstotherighttoliveinacleanandhealth
environment,adequatestandardoflivingandthelike
Environmentalpolicy
Environmentallegislation
Why we protect the environment?
^isverydifficulttoanswer
anthropocentricv.ecocentricapproach
Q) Is the responsibility of humanity to protect the environment for the purpose of
promoting the human interest or for the sake of the environment?
>Principle1oftheRioDeclarationstatesthat:
“Humanbeingsareatthecentreofconcernsforsustainabledevelopment.”
>Theverybasisfortherighttoacleanandhealthyenvironmentdependsonthenotion
thattheenvironmentisameregoodorvaluetobeaddedtothelistofindividual
demands.
>Unlessthereasonfortheprotectionoftheenvironmentis,atleast,balancedbetween
anthropocentricandecocentricrationalepeoplemaynothavesufficientmoralground
forprotectingtheenvironment

18. >E.g.,ifthereisamachinethatproducesmeatandmilkafterfeedingonfodder,isthere
anyreasonforhumanitytokeepcattle?
Chapter Two
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW
❖Thischapterdescribesthegeneralprinciplesandrulesofinternational
environmentallawasreflectedin:treaties,bindingactsofinternational
organisations,statepractice,andsoftlawcommitments.
Q) What distinguish principle from rules?
❖Theseprinciplesaregeneralinthesensethattheyarepotentiallyapplicabletoall
membersoftheinternationalcommunityacrosstherangeofactivitieswhichthey
carryoutorauthoriseandinrespectoftheprotectionofallaspectsofthe
environment.
❖ Fromthelargebodyofinternationalagreementsandotheracts,itispossibleto
discerngeneralrulesandprincipleswhichhavebroad,ifnotnecessarilyuniversal,
supportandarefrequentlyendorsedinpractice.
❖N.B--Ithastobealsonotedthatitintheabsenceofjudicialauthorityandinviewof
conflictinginterpretationunderstatepracticeitisfrequentlydifficulttoestablishthe
parametersorthepreciseinternationallegalstatusofeachgeneralprincipleorrule.
❖Theapplicationofeachprincipleinrelationtoaparticularactivityorincident,and
itsconsequences,mustbeconsideredonthefactsandcircumstancesofeachcase,
havingregardtoseveralfactorsincluding:thesourceoftheprinciple;itstextual
contentandlanguage;theparticularactivityatissue;theenvironmentaland
otherconsequencesoftheactivity;andthecircumstancesinwhichitoccurs
❖ Forexample,whilesomeprinciplesreflectcustomarylaw,othersmayreflect
emerginglegalobligationwithlessdevelopedstatus.
These Principles are;
A) Sovereignty over Natural Resources and the responsibility not to cause damage to
theenvironmentofotherstates
Sovereignty over Natural Resources

19. oBefore1970’sthisprinciplewascalledaprincipleofpermanentSoverenity
overnaturalresources.Thishasbeenenvisagedunderthe1933London
conventionwhichsates,allanimaltrophieswere‘thepropertyoftheGovernment
oftheterritoryconcerned
o The 1971 Ramsar Convention Article 2(3) emphasised that the inclusion of
national wetland sites in its List of Wetlands did ‘not prejudice the exclusive
sovereign rights of . . . the party in whose territory the wetland is situated o
The 1983 International Tropical Timber Agreement Art. 1 recalled ‘the
sovereignty of producing members over their natural resources o states have
oArticle15(1)ofbiodiversityconventionrecognizessovereignrights...overtheir
naturalresources’,andthat‘theauthoritytodetermineaccesstogenetic
resourcesrestswiththenationalgovernmentsandissubjecttonational
legislation
o Eg. of cases the 1893 Fur Seals Arbitration Responsibility not to cause
environmental damage
>reflectstheviewofstatesthattheyaresubjecttoenvironmentallimitsinthe
exerciseoftheirrightsundertheprincipleofpermanentsovereigntyover
naturalresources
>UnderArticle193ofUNCLOS,stateshavethesovereignrighttoexploittheir
naturalresourcespursuanttotheirenvironmentalpoliciesandinaccordance
withtheirdutytoprotectandpreservethemarineenvironment.
>Article194(2)ofthesameconventionstatethatstateshalltakeallmeasures
necessarytoensurethatactivitiesundertheirjurisdictionorcontrolareso
conductedasnottocausedamagebypollutiontootherstatesandtheir
environment
>The1963NuclearTestBanTreatyprohibitsnucleartestsiftheexplosionwould
causeradioactivedebris‘tobepresentoutsidetheterritoriallimitsofthestate
underwhosejurisdictionorcontrolsuchexplosionisconducted
>Itcanbesaidthattheresponsibilitynottocausedamagetotheenvironmentof
otherstatesorofareasbeyondnationaljurisdictionhasbeenacceptedasan
obligationbyallstates
>Somescholarsarguethatithasattainedinternationalcustomarylawstatus.
Cases

20. Trialsmeltercase
Undertheprinciplesofinternationallaw...nostatehastherighttouseor
permittheuseofterritoryinsuchamannerastocauseinjurybyfumesinor
totheterritoryofanotherofthepropertiesorpersonstherein,whenthecase
isofseriousconsequenceandtheinjuryisestablishedbyclearandconvincing
evidence.
LacLanouxArbitration
France[theupstreamstate]isentitledtoexerciseherrights;shecannot
ignoretheSpanishinterests.Spain[thedownstreamstate]isentitledto
demandthatherrightsberespectedandthatherinterestsbetakeninto
consideration
>ICJinitsadvisoryopiniononthelegalityofthethreatoruseofnuclearweapon
statedthatTheexistenceofthegeneralobligationofStatestoensurethat
activitieswithintheirjurisdictionandcontrolrespecttheenvironmentof
otherStatesorofareasbeyondnationalcontrolisnowpartofthecorpusof
internationallawrelatingtotheenvironment.
Q.whatdoyouthinkaboutthelegalstatusofthis
principle?Hasitattainedcustomaryinternationallaw
principle?
B)PrincipleofPreventiveAction
❖Itmainlyrequirethepreventionofdamagetotheenvironment,andotherwise
toreduce,limitorcontrolactivitieswhichmightcauseorrisksuchdamage
❖Experienceandscientificexpertisedemonstratethatitmustbethegoldenrulefor
environmentalprotectionforecologicalandeconomicreasons.
❖Itisalsocalledpreventionprinciple
❖Thepreventiveprinciplerequiresactiontobetakenatanearlystageand,if
possible,beforedamagehasactuallyoccurred.
❖Itisnolongerprimarilyaquestionofrepairingdamageafterithasoccurred

21. ❖itprohibitsactivitywhichcausesormaycausedamagetotheenvironmentin
violationofthestandardsestablishedundertherulesofinternationallaw
❖ issupportedbyanextensivebodyofdomesticenvironmentalprotection
legislationsuchas;accesstoenvironmentalinformation,andtheneedtocarry
outEIAinrelationtotheconductofcertainproposedactivities
❖ itisalsodirectlyorindirectlyendorsedbymanyinternationalinstruments
including,StockholmDeclaration,the1982WorldCharter,the1992Rio
Declaration(principle11),undermanyconventionssoastoprevent,
❖theextinctionofspeciesoffloraandfauna;
❖theintroductionandspreadofpestsanddiseases;
❖pollutionoftheseasbyoil,radioactivewaste,
❖hazardouswasteandsubstances,
airpollution,riverpollution;radioactivepollutionoftheatmospherecases......
❖ Thepreventiveprincipleisimplicitlysupportedinrelationtotransboundary
resourcesbytheawardsintheTrailSmeltercaseandtheLacLanoux
Arbitration.
❖IntheGabcikovo-Nagymaroscase,theICJnotedthatitwas‘mindfulthat,inthe
fieldofenvironmentalprotection,vigilanceandpreventionarerequiredon
accountoftheoftenirreversiblecharacterofdamagetotheenvironmentandof
thelimitationsinherentintheverymechanismofreparationofthistypeofdamage
C)ThePrincipleofCo-operation
•theprincipleisreflectedinmanytreatiesandotherinternationalacts,andis
supportedalsobystatepractice,particularlyinrelationtohazardous
activitiesandemergencies
•SeePrinciple24ofStockholmDeclarationandPrinciple27ofRiodeclaration
•Eg.‘Statesandpeopleshallco-operateingoodfaithandinaspiritof
partnershipinthefulfilmentoftheprinciplesembodiedinthisDeclaration
•Theobligationtoco-operateisaffirmedinvirtuallyallinternational
environmentalagreementsofbilateralandregionalapplication,andglobal
instruments

22. D)ThePrincipleofSustainableDevelopment
❖Statepracticesuggestthatithasbeeninpracticesince1893whentheUnited
Statesassertedarighttoensurethelegitimateandproperuseofsealsandto
protectthem,forthebenefitofmankind,fromwantondestruction
❖TheoriginalarticulationoftheprincipleisfoundintheBrundtlandReport,
whichstatedthatsustainabledevelopmentmeansdevelopmentthatsatisfies
theneedsofpresentgenerationswithoutjeopardizingtheabilityoffuture
generationstomeettheirownneeds
❖IntheWSSD,sustainabledevelopmentwasfurtherarticulatedashavingthree
pillars,namely:economicdevelopment,socialdevelopment,and
environmentalprotection.
❖Controversialprinciple--developedcountriesandtheirNGOshaveusedthe
principletounderlinetheimportanceofenvironmentalvalues,whereas
developingcountrieshaveusedtheprincipletobuttresstheirrightto
development.
❖However,theprinciplehasassistedinreconcilinginonephrasewhatbefore
seemedirreconcilable-namely,environmentalprotectionanddevelopment
Fourrecurringelementsappeartocomprisethelegalelementsoftheconceptof‘sustainable
development’,asreflectedininternationalagreements:
> The principle of intergenerational equity -the need to preserve natural resources for
the benefit of future generations
the responsibility of the current generation towards the future generation is well sated
in many conventions, declarations, resolutions. Eg;
-Principle1ofStockholmDeclaration
-Principle4ofRio
-UNGeneralAssemblyResolution35/8of1980
ICJ decisions
'in its Advisory Opinion on The Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, the
ICJ recognized that ‘the environment is not an abstraction but represents the
living space, the quality of life and the very health of human beings, including
generations unborn’

23. >theprincipleofsustainableuse
^theaimofexploitingnaturalresourcesinamannerwhichis‘sustainable’,or
‘prudent’,or‘rational’,or‘wise’or‘appropriate’
^isverysignificanceinthatitrecogniseslimitsplacedbyinternationallawonthe
rateofuseormannerofexploitationofnaturalresources,includingthose
whicharesharedorareinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction.
^focusesontheadoptionofstandardsgoverningtherateofuseorexploitationof
specificnaturalresourcesratherthanontheirpreservationforfuture
generations
^Mainlyinvoked(butnotlimited)inmarinelivingresourcessuchas;tuna,fur
seal,salmonhighseafish,allnaturalresources
^Itisenvisagedin
■ The1968AfricanNatureConventionstatedthatthethe
utilisationofallnaturalresources‘mustaimatsatisfyingthe
needsofmanaccordingtothecarryingcapacityofthe
environment
■SstocholmDeclarationPrinciple13and14
■ClimateChangeConventionArt.3(4)
■ The1992BiodiversityConventionpreamble,article1,8,
12,16..
■Biosafetyprotocolart.1
>Theprincipleofequitableuse,orintragenerationalequity
SItimpliesthatusebyonestatemusttakeaccountoftheneedsofotherstates
SHowtoallocatefutureresponsibilitiesforenvironmentalprotectionbetween
stateswhichareatdifferentlevelsofeconomicdevelopment,whichhave
contributedindifferentdegreestoparticularproblems,andwhichhave
differentenvironmentalanddevelopmentalneedsandpriorities.
It is stated under;
SRIOdeclarationprinciple3
SClimateChangeConvention

24. SBiodiversityconventionincludethe‘fairandequitable’sharingofthe
benefitsarisingoutoftheuseofgeneticresource
>ThePrincipleofintegration
^Theneedtoensurethatenvironmentalconsiderationsareintegratedinto
economicandotherdevelopmentplans,programmesandprojects,andthat
developmentneedsaretakenintoaccountinapplyingenvironmental
objectives
^Thiselementisthemostimportantandthemostlegalistic
^itsformalapplicationrequiresthecollectionanddisseminationof
environmentalinformation,andtheconductofEIA
^itisonlysinceUNCEDthattherelationshipbetweenenvironmentalprotection
andeconomicdevelopmenthasbeenmorefullyrecognisedbythe
internationalcommunity
^Readprincipleof3RioDeclaration,withwhichPrinciple4mustbereadtobe
fullyunderstood,ispartofthebargainstruckbetweendevelopedand
developingcountries,whichisalsoevidentintheconvolutedlanguageof
Article3(4)oftheClimateChangeConvention.
^but,seealsoprinciple13ofStockholmdeclaration
❖ Thesefourelementsarecloselyrelatedandoftenusedincombination(and
frequentlyinterchangeably),whichsuggeststhattheydonotyethaveawell-
established,oragreed,legaldefinitionorstatus.
Some remarks about the status of sustainable development
❖ thePreambletotheWTOAgreementexplicitlyacknowledges‘theobjectiveof
sustainabledevelopment’,andcharacterisesitasaconceptwhich‘hasbeen
generallyacceptedasintegratingeconomicandsocialdevelopmentand
environmen-talprotection’
❖In the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros case,( Slovakia and Hungary the ICJ invoked
'Theriskofmankindforpresentandfuturegenerationandspecifically
addressedtheconceptandstatedthat;Thisneedtoreconcileeconomic
developmentwithprotectionoftheenvironmentisaptlyexpressedinthe
conceptofsustainabledevelopment.’

25. E)PrecautionaryPrinciple
•Begantoreappearininternationallegalinstrumentsinthemid-1980s
althoughpriortothenithadfeaturedasaprincipleindomesticlegal
systems,mostnotablythatofWestGermany
•Mainlyprovideguidancewherethereisscientificuncertainty
•isbasedonthepremisethatactiononenvironmentalmattersshouldbetaken
evenifthereisalackoftotalscientificcertainty,oftenreversingthe
burdenofproofandplacingitonthosewhoclaimthatanactivityisnot
damaging
•Someactionisbetterthaninaction.Whenthereisdoubtaboutscientific
certaintyJUSTERRONTHESIDEOFTHEENVIRONMENT’
•Earliertraditionalenvironmentalagreementsobligepartiestotakeaction
onlywherethereisscientificevidencethatsignificantenvironmental
damageisoccurring,andthatintheabsenceofsuchevidencenoaction
wouldberequiredegthe1974ParisConventionofMaritime
Environment
•Theprincipleiscontroversialbecauseitadvocatesactiondespitethelackof
scientificcertainty.Takingactionundersuchconditionscouldbecostlyor,
evenworse,couldbeprovenwrong
•Principle15oftheRioDeclaration,whichprovidesthat:
'Wheretherearethreatsofseriousorirreversibledamage,lackoffull
scientificcertaintyshallnotbeusedasareasonforpostponingcost-effective
measurestopreventenvironmentaldegradation’
Some remarks about its status
• Somecommentatorsviewtheprincipleasaguidingprincipleof
internationalenvironmentallaw,butothersadoptamorecautionary
attitude
•TheUnitedStateshastakenaskepticalapproachtowardtheprecautionary
principleviewingitalmostasaprotectionistprinciple-anewnontariff
barriertotrade
•TheEuropeanUnion,attheotherextreme,hastransformedtheprinciple
intoaconstitutionalprinciple,favouringastrongversionoftheprinciple
asattainingcustomaryinternationallaw.

26. •Internationalcourtsandtribunalshavebeenreluctanttoacceptexplicitly
thattheprinciplehasacustomaryinternationallawstatus,
notwithstandingthepreponderanceofsupportinfavourofthatview,and
diminishingoppositiontoit.
F)Polluter-paysprinciple
OThe“polluterpays”principlewasoriginallyenunciatedbythe
OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
(OECD)torestrainnationalpublicauthoritiesfromsubsidizing
thepollutioncontrolcostsofprivatefirms
OItestablishestherequirementthatthecostsofpollutionshouldbe
bornebythepersonresponsibleforcausingthepollution.
OTheprinciplebasicallydemandsforthepersonwhoisinchargeof
pollutingactivitiestobefinanciallyresponsibleforthedamage
s/hecauses
OThemeaningandapplicationoftheprincipletoparticularcase
andsituationremainsopentointerpretation.
OItwasenunciatedclearlyintheinternationalarenaintheRio
Declaration
OSomecommentatorshaveunderlinedthattheprinciplehasmerely
arhetoricvaluebecause
Omostpolluterswillbeabletopassthecostsofpollutiononto
consumers.Also,inmostcases,itisdifficulttoidentifythe
polluter
OItisdoubtfulwhetherithasachievedthestatusofagenerallyapplicable
ruleofcustomaryinternationallaw.
OSomecountriesobjectthefurtherapplicationoftheprincipleduetothe
factthatitismoreapplicableunderdomesticlaw
OTheconventionsoncivilliabilityfornucleardamage,
Othe1960ParisConventionandthe1963IAEALiabilityConvention
wereinfluencedbythedesiretochannel

27. compensationfromthoseresponsiblefortheactivitycausing
damagetothevictims
G)Principleofcommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibility
Arises out of ; --the application of equity in international law
--Special need of developing countries to develop O Read
Principle 7 of Rio
O Article 3(1) the1992 Climate Change Convention O Is made of
two element; Common responsibility of states to protect the
environment and Different responsibility due to the degree of
contribution and the ability to prevent, reduce and control threat
ONaturalresourcescouldbeofasinglestate,sharedorno
states.Inwhichrespectdoyouthinkcommonresponsibilityis
likelytoapply?
O Eg. Outer space and moon -common province of mankind O
The resources of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil are ‘the
common heritage of mankind Different responsibility
SIswidelyacceptedundermanydeclaration,treatyandpractice
ofstates
SIsbasedonspecialneeds(eradicatingpovertyand
circumstances,futureeconomicdevelopmentofdeveloping
countries,andhistoriccontributionstocausinganenvironmental
problem
See -Principle 23 of stocholm Principle 11 of Rio
Article 11 of The 1972 London
convention

28. S The principle of differentiated responsibility has also
been applied to treaties and other legal instruments
applying to developed countries S The different
techniques available to apply it include ‘grace’ periods
delaying implementation, and less stringent
commitments eg. Climate change convention and the
1997 Kyoto Protocol

29. ♦
> «*
►
«*
►
Chapter Three
ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS
Atinternationalleveltheterm"environmentalrights"isfrequentlyused
todenotethoseproceduralrightsthatarefoundininternationalhumanrights
instruments(whichhavefoundtheirwayintointernationalenvironmental
instrumentsaswell)andarebeingappliedtoseekredressforenvironmental
issues.Eg.Therighttoinformation,publicparticipation,accesstojustice.
Suchapplicationinfactdoesnotrecognizeseparatesubstantive
righttoclean/decent/environment
Thismaybethecase,whatisthentheplaceoftheserights
(procedural)underinternationalIHR,IELandnationallaws?
1)TheRighttoInformation
VIsaprerequisitetoeffectivenationalandinternational
environmentalmanagement,protectionandcooperation
V The availability of, and access to, information allows
preventative and mitigation measures to be taken
Vtheneedforinformationarisesatalllevels,fromsenior
decisionmakersatinternationallevelstothegrassrootsand
individuallevel
VItIsalsoaprerequisitetoeffectivepublicparticipationin
decisionmaking
VThisrightisrecognizedinmostdomesticjurisdiction
V Somecountriesevenobligecompaniestoreleaseand
transferinformationthatspecifytoxicemissionand
discharge

30. SItisalsorecognizedbyinternationalhumanrightinstruments
suchas,UDHR(art.19),ICCPR(art.19(2),AfricanCharteron
theRightsandDutiesofPeoples(Art.9)...
SEnvironmentallegislation,Rio(art.10),Aarhusconvention(convention
ontherighttoaccesstoinformation,publicparticipationindecision
makingandaccesstojustice),ETC
2)RighttoPublicparticipation
❖IswellrecognizedunderbothIHRandIELinstruments
and
domesticlawsofthecountry
❖Itallowsthepublictohaveasayinanydevelopmentplan
thatmayaffectthem
❖EIA,forexampleopensanavenueforallstakeholders
includingthepublic,indigenouspeople,NGO’s,other
states..
❖UnderIEL,ReadPrinciple10ofRio,agenda21,CCC
(Art.41(i),BDC(Art.14(1)(a),Aarhusconventionof1998
❖UnderIHRinstruments,UDHR(Art.21),theAfrican
charter(Art.13),ICCPR(Art.25)
❖Ethiopia,seeFDREconstitutionarticle8,43(2),92,EIA,
Article6
3)AccesstoJustice
S Gives avenue to the public to seek redress from judicial and
administrative remedies when rights are infringed S For example
under the Aarhus convention when the request
forinformationhasbeenrefused,ignoredorwhennotadequately
answeredthepublicisgivenarighttohaveaccesstoacourtoran
independentandimpartialbody

31. STheprocedureprovidedformustbefreeofchargeor
inexpensive
SAccesstojusticeshouldprovideadequateandeffective
remedies-includinginjunctiverelief-thatmustbeequitableand
timely.
S Is also recognized under both IEL and IHR instruments S Eg, ICCPR
(Art.14), European Convention on HR(Art.13)
S See Principle 10 of Rio, Agenda 21, UNCLOS (Art. 235(2) Who has
standing to bring access to information complaints?
Eg Aarhus convention stated those with vested interest and those whose
right is infringed. Including NGO’s
Rightbasedapproachtotheenvironment/Substantive
environmentalright
OAshasbeendiscussedabove,BothIHRandIELlaw
instrumentsproperlyaddressproceduralright.
ODespitethelinkbetweenenvironmentaldeprivationsandhuman
rightviolations,noglobalhumanrightstreatyproclaimsarightto
environmentalquality
OOntheregionallevel,the1981AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples
Rightswasthefirstinternationalhumanrightsinstrumenttocontainanexplicit
guaranteeofenvironmentalquality.Article24recognizedthat“allpeopleshall
havetherighttogeneralsatisfactoryenvironmentfavourablefortheir
development.”
OThenextistheProtocolonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightstotheAmerican
ConventiononHumanRightsincludedtherightofeveryonetoliveinahealthy
environment(Art.11).
OCurrently,afterthe1970’smanycountrieshavebegunenvisagingthisrightintheir
constitution.Developingcountries
OIELdeclarationandresolutionhasalsobegunenvisagingsuchright,

32. ^ See principle 1 of Stockholm declaration that state “man has the fundamental right
to freedom, equality, and adequate conditions of life in an environment of quality
that permits life of dignity and well-being.
^ThisprinciplewasalsointensifiedbytheUNResolutionNo.45/94that
stateallindividualsareentitledtoliveinanenvironmentadequatefortheir
healthandwellbeing
^Thishasalsoleadtothecomingofthenotionofrightbasedapproach
to environmental protections
^Nevertheless,thisnewparadigm,thatis,rightbasedapproachto
environmental protection, is not uniform across the world ^ Generally, in line with
this, the practice followed in different countries can be grouped under three main
versions.
i)Enforcingenvironmentaldeprivationsthroughexistinghuman
rights
SEnvironmentaldeprivationcanbeenforcedthroughinternationally
guaranteedfundamentalhumanrightssuchastherighttolife,health,
housing,food....
S It is a western approach
S It consider environmental protection as a means to an end for
realization of human right
A Procedural Human Right Approach such procedural
human rights are recognized under both international human
and environmental conventions, declarations
itpropagatesthatenvironmentalprotectioncanbepursuedthrough
proceduralhumanrightssuchastherighttoinformation,therighttoaccessto
justiceandtherighttoparticipation
Thusincaseofenvironmentaldeprivationsorpollutionscitizenscan
claimtheirrightthroughsuchproceduralrights
Pure or Substantive Environmental Right Approach > Considers
environmental deprivations as deprivations of fundamental human right
ii)
S
S
S
iii)

33. > it calls for the recognition of right to adequate/clean environment for
health and well-being as fundamental human right
> it differs from the above two in that it takes environmental right as a
substantive human right
Here the vital question is, is having a separate substantive human
right to clean, adequate, decent environment necessary? What will you say?
There is no consensus Argument against
i)Righttocleanenvironmentcanbeenforcedthroughotherclassicalhumanrightsand
thereforethereisnoneedforadditionalrighttoenvironment
ii)Courtscaninterprettheexistinghumanrightinstrumentsforsuchclaims
• there are practical linkage between the cause for environmental protection and human
right protections
• environmental harms are the causes of human right violations,such as violations of the
right to health, life etc
Argumentfor
i)Fromtheverybeginningclassicalhumanrightsarenotaimedforenvironmental
violation.Thus,interpretiveextensionsofclassicalhumanrightinstruments
couldnotalwaysservetheeveryenvironmentalviolationsandevendoingso
maybedifficult
ii)suchextensiveinterpretationsneedsjudicialactivismwhichinfactishardto
implementincivillawcountries
iii)Ifwethinkthatclassicalhumanrightcanbeinterpretedforenvironmentalendsso
whatisproblemifwerecognizeseparateindividualhumanrighttoenvironment
forhishealthandwellbeing.
iv)Takinghumanrightapproachforenvironmentalprotectionisnothingbutgiving
environmentalprotectionitsrightplace.Because,humanitycannot

34. surviveinpollutedenvironmentandassuchenvironmentalprotectionshouldbe
takenasfundamentalhumanrightissue.
IsaConstitutionalEnvironmentalRightNecessary?
ThereisadebateparticularlyundertheEUperspective(donotadoptaseparate
substantiveenvironmentalhumanright)
The rational for constitutional approach for environmental protection
i)Constitutionisasupremelawwithrelativepermanence.soitisa
betterplacetoinsulateenvironmentalissuesfrompoliticalmanipulation
ii) it gives environmental protection better place in the minds of the general public
iii) it fosters cooperation among different statesas the constitution in one country
inspires the constitutions of other country
Isamererecognitionofenvironmentalrightssufficesforitsprotection?
❖NB.No.Becausemanycountriesputenvironmentalprovisionsatthe
generalpolicypartthanonthepartthatspecificallyobligedstatesandthattobe
claimedbyindividualandtobeadjudicatedbycourts.
Fromthediscussionwemadesofarwhatkindofenvironmentalrightsenvisaged
underEthiopianconstitution?
Isenvironmentalrightahumanrightthatallhumanbeingsentitledby
virtueofbeingahuman?Doesarticle10includearticle44?
SGrowingtrends.Eg.Africancharteronpropelsright,interAmerican
protocolonhumanright,Stockholmprinciple1

35. Senvironmentaldeprivationsviolatemanyoftheexistinghumanrights.
Eg think of the chernovil incident,
Do u think the right is enforceable? Why?
SYouneedtoseewhereitisenvisaged.ForexampleHuman
right/democratic right?
SIsthereanydifferencebetweenarticle44and92?Withwhatrespect?
See their title, chapter three, article 44(2)
SArticle37
WhatchallengesdoyouseeintheimplementationoftherightbasedApproachin
Ethiopia?
i)Howfarclean,andhowfarhealthytheenvironmentoughttobeisthe
issue difficult to determine
SMostIElawsdonotdirectlyusesuchterminologies,egAfricancharter
onhumanrightreadsasgeneralsatisfactoryenvironmentfavorable
fortheirdevelopment.Seealsopriniciple1ofStockholm
SIsEthiopiaeconomicallyinapositiontoimplementthisconstitutional
provision?

36. Chapter four
Common Legal Mechanisms of Environmental Protection Can you list some
basic legal mechanisms of environmental protection?
EIA, Permit or licensing regimes eg (quotas, bans on the use of certain substances).
i) Prohibiting and Restricting Activities and Substances
>Restrictionorbanningonhazardeousproduct,processoractivities
>regulatehunting,captureandfishing,andtoprohibitcertainmeansofhuntingand
fishing.Africanconventionontheconservationofnature
>Eg.The1973ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFauna
andFlora(CITES),forexample,usestraderestrictionandtradebansasameansof
protectingthreatenedandendangeredspecies
Product and Process Standards
>Standardsmaybesetforproductionprocesses,emissionlevels,productcharacteristics
andambientqualitystandardsforagivenenvironmentalmilieu.
Process Standard
>Specifydesignrequirementsoroperatingprocedurestofixedinstallationssuchas
factoriesormaydesignatepermissiblemeansandmethodsofactivitieslikehuntingorfishing

37. >Areusedtoregulatetheoperationsofhazardousactivitiesposingariskof
accidentsorotherdangers.
>Insomesystems,forexample,alltypesofoperationsarerequiredtoinstallbest
availablepollutioncontroltechnology(BACT)aspartoftheirprocesses
Product Standards
SAreusedforitemsthatarecreatedormanufacturedforsaleor
distribution.Suchstandardsmayregulate:
SThephysicalorchemicalcompositionofitemssuchas
pharmaceuticalsordetergentsegsulphurcontentinfuels,mercuryin
pesticides
SThehandling,presentationandpackagingofproducts
SLabellingrequirementsusedtoensurethatconsumersareawareofthe
contentsandthepermissibleusesofproducts.Labellingrequirementgreen”or
“ecolabel
Emission Standards
•Specifythequantityorconcentrationofpollutantsthatcanbeemittedin
dischargesfromaspecificsourcetofixedinstallations,suchasfactoriesor
homes;mobilesourcesofpollution
•capacityoftheenvironmenttoaccommodatesubstance-Certainlevelsofsome
contaminantswillnotproduceanyundesirableeffect
Prior Licensing and Permits
oMandategovernmentofficialstoauthorizecertifyorissuepermitsor
licensestoactivitiesorestablishmentsorthatposesthreatstotheenvironmentorthat
usenaturalresources.
Prior Informed Consent
SIsaproceduralmechanismutilizedinadvanceofactivitiesinordertoavoid
potentialconflictandreducetherisksofenvironmentalorsocialharm.
SInternationally,priorinformedconsentrequiresobtaininganddisseminatingthe
decisionsofimportingcountriesonwhethertheywishto

38. receiveshipmentsofrestrictedorbannedproductsaftertheyhavebeenfully
informedaboutthehazardsposedbytheproducts.
SSomenationallawsrequirethepriorinformedconsentofindigenousand
local communities before their resources can be accessed S Ethiopia Proc. No.
513/2007 see article 6(between regions)
Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring
S ) is ‘a procedure for evaluating the likely impact of a proposed activity on the
environment.
S Its main objective is to provide decision makers with the information about the
possible effect of a certain project on the env.t
S Was adopted in national law in the US in 1969
S It provides an opportunity to public participation, informed decision at an
international level
S It alerts governments and international organizations to the likelihood of
transboundary harm.
S Important for the implementation of SD, Precautionary P.
S EIA is used across this range of jurisdiction
S N.B. It is not used in any proposed activity but only for those that may be or
are likely to cause a stated level of harm to the environment
S The threshold differs in the many treaty references to EIA, with some referring to
“measurable” effects, others “appreciable” or “significant” harm
S Is well established in national practices and may be regarded as General principle
of law or even Customary int. law
S See principle 17 of Rio
S Is required also by World Bank since 1989
S See Ethiopian EIA proc. Art. 2(3)

39. Chapter Five
THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROCEEDING
5.1 Different Facets of Legal Personalityand Standingin Relation to Environmental
Proceeding
SShouldtheenvironmentbevestedalegalpersonality?
STherearedifferentenvironmentaltheories
Anthropocentric theory
^Viewenvironmentasaninstrument/contingentoraccessoryto
human need/ a means to an end
^environmentisvaluableonlytotheextenttowhichtheycanbeused
and exploited by human beings
^Considershumansandnatureasseparate,andplaceshumanbeingsat
the centre/core
^theenvironmentbeinginstrumentaltotheinterestofman,legal
personality can be bestowed only to human beings where their interest is at stake
^Theenvironmenthasnolegalpersonality
Ecocentric theory

40. SIsjustifiedbydeontologicalargument(moralitycannotbeamatterof
self interest)
SThewell-beingandflourishingofalllifeformsonearthhavevaluein
themselves.
SManhasnorighttoreducethediversityandrichnessofnature
which has an intrinsic value
SItrejectshumanbeingsareatthecenterofnature-manispartof
natural environment
S Acknowledges the conferring of legal personality to each distinct part of the
environment to exercise their own right at their own behest.
Ethiopian perspective
•ReadArticle44isitanthropocentricorecocentric?
•EnvironmentalpolicyofEthiopiaspeciesandtheirvariantshavetherightto
continueexisting,andare,ormaybe,usefulnowand/orforgenerationstocome
(whataboutthisprovision?)
•BDCinwhichEthiopiaisasignatoryrecognizestheintrinsicvalueofthe
environment,includingecosystemandspeciesoritscomponentswhichinturnled
totheissueofawardingrightstosubjectsotherthanman,shiftsthepositionof
thelawoncemoretotheecocentricapproach
•theDraftBio-safetyproclamationmayalsoshowthetrendofthelawinthatit
entitlesanyperson,groupofpersons,oranyprivateorstateorganizationto
bringaclaiminthenameoronbehalfoftheenvironmentarticle10
5.2
■
■
no clear approach-should the environment be given a legal
personality?
LegalPersonalityandStandingvis-a-vistheFutureGenerations
SustainableDevelopment(intergenerationalvs.interagenerational)SD=
thedevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentgenerationwithout
compromisingtheabilityofthefuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds
Intergenerationali)preservingnaturalresourceforfutureg.
ii) preserving areas of national significance due to their aesthetic
appeal, historic attributes, or ecological significance for the use of FG.

41. ■Theproblemsraisethequestionofhowweshouldbalancepresentcostsagainst
futurebenefits.SeeRIOprinciple3,Stockholm
Who and How is then future generation to be represented?
>MinorsOposaV.SecretaryoftheDepartmentofEnvironmentaland
NaturalResources(July,1993)
•Inthiscase,fortyfourminorsandthePhilippineEcologicalNetwork
brought an action
•Thecasewasagainstdeforestationandthelodgingpermitsinthecountry
(surveyshowedthatonly85,000hectarvergionforestwereleftinthecountry)
•Thenovelaspectofthecaserelatestothefactthatthepetitionersassertedthat
theyrepresentedtheirgenerationaswellasgenerationsvetunborne
•ThecourtruledthatWefindnodifficultyinrulingthattheycan,for
themselves,forothersoftheirgenerationandforthesucceeding
generations,fileaclasssuit.Theirpersonalitytosueonbehalfofthe
succeedinggenerationscanonlybebasedontheconcentofintergenerational
responsibilityinsofarastherighttoabalancedandhealthyecosystemis
concerned
•Whatlessoncanwederivefromthisrulingofthecourt?
•WhataboutunderEthiopia?SeetheFDREConstitution,Environmental
Policy2.3therightofspeciesandtheirvariantstocontinueexisting/andare
/ormaybeusefulnowand/orforgenerationstocome,
-SeeArt.37(2),seeart.10ofthedraftbiosafety
proclamationinrespectofthebreachofenvironmental
lawsintheinterestof,oronbehalfof,apersonwhois,
forpracticalreasons,unabletoinstitutesuch
proceedings’

42. ❖Asaconclusion,itispossibletoarguethatthereisalee-wayto
entertaintheinterestoffuturegenerationsbybestowingthemlegalpersonality
tohavestandingbeforeacourtoflaw
Liberalization of Standing in Environmental Proceeding that Led to Public interest
Litigation
^Inordertofurtherprotecttheenvironmentgrantingindividualsa
personalorsubjectiverighttoacleanandhealthyenvironmentisofaparamount
importance.
^TraditionalTortlaw--individualcitizenshavearighttosueonlyiftheir
ownpersonalinterestisinfringed
^Hencealertcitizensandpublicinterestgroupscannotinitiatelegalaction
when damage is done to the environment per se ^ Thus so as to further protect the
environment there is a move to allow
alertcitizensandpublicinterestgroupstofileasuitwithouthavingtoshowthe
specificpersonaldamagethatsuchanindividualhassustained
Who has the standing to protect the environment? Why?
^Ethiopia.
^SeeArticle33ofthecivilprocedurecode
^Art.33.-Qualification
(1)Anypersoncapableunderthelawmaybeapartytoanysuit.
(2)Nopersonmaybeaplaintiffunlesshehasavestedinterestinthesubject-
matterofthesuit.
(3) No person may be a defendant unless the plaintiff alleges some claim against
him. ^ Article 38 requires membership of a class to bring class action
^UnderthetortlawofEthiopia,beforeaplaintiffcanrecovercompensationintort,he
mustshowthathe/shehassuffereddamageart.2102(2)
^TheproclamationthatdefinesthepowersandresponsibilitiesoftheConstitutional
Inquirystatesthatonlythepersonwhoallegesthathis/herconstitutionalrights
havebeenviolatedmayinitiateacasetotheConstitutionalInquiryArt.84(2)

43. Therefore,onthebasisoftheabovelegalprovisions,onecaninitiateasuitinthe
ConstitutionalInquiryorintheregularcourtsonlyifhe/shehasvestedinterest
inthecase.
>ButalsotrytoseeFDREConstitutionarticle,44,92(2)and(4)Article37(2)(d),
andpollutioncontrolproc.Seepreamble(everybodyhasanobligationtoprotectthe
environment)—allthusprovideaccesstojusticeincasesofenvironmentaldamage
>ReadArticle11ofenvironmentalpollutionproclamation-Anypersonshall
have,withouttheneedtoshowanyvestedinterest,therighttolodgeacomplaint
attheauthorityortherelevantregionalenvironmentalagencyagainstanyperson
allegedlycausingactualorpotentialdamagetotheenvironment./Readalsosub
twoofthesamearticle
Whatcanyousaynow?
EnvironmentallawofEthiopia---noneedofshowingvestedinterest—future
generationcouldalsoberepresented
N.B.Accordingly,wecaninferthefactthatrestrictiveviewoflocusstandiand
personaggrievedhasbeensupplementedbyrepresentativestandingandcitizen
standing
CitizenStandinginCasesofEnvironmentalAuthorities’Inactionor
Abuse:JudicialReview
>WhatismeantbyCitizensStanding?Whereaconcernedcitizen[orvoluntary
organization]sues,notasarepresentativeofothersbutinhisorherownright
asamemberofthecitizenrytowhomapublicdutyisowned
>Whatisimportantistheinflictionofactualorpotentialdamage
>Seearticle11(1)and(2)ofpollutionproc.—grantpublicinterestgroupsa
secondaryrightofstanding
>thereisalegalgroundtograntsuchpublicspiritedindividualstherighttodirectly
askacourtforaninjunctioninordertopreventsignificantdamageoravoidfurther
damagetotheenvironment
>PeriodoflimitationlookArt.11(2)!Whatdouthinkisthejustification?

44. >Somearguethatjudicialdecisionisaimedatstoppingdecisionbeforetheyareput
intoeffectratherthatwhenitistoolateandtheharmhasalreadyoccurred.
>Isitreasonable?Donotuthinkthatdiscretionarypowershouldbegiventothe
court?
>UndertheFDRElegalsystem,anumberofpersonshavelegalstanding,sothatitis
pertinenttoscrutinizewhethertheycouldbecomejoinderplaintiffsornotinthe
legalaction.
>See.Art.35ofcivilpro.Twoconditions—(1)therighttoreliefmustarisefromthe
sametransactionorseriesoftransactions,whetherjointly,severallyorinthe
alternative(2)ifsuchpersonsbroughtseparateactions,acommonquestionoflaw
orfactwouldarise.
>Joinderofdefendants--pollutantsandenvironmentalauthority-seeart.36(1)of
civilpro.Requirement—acommonquestionoflaworfact
>thenextissuethatshouldbeaddressedisthequestionofmaterialjurisdictionin
environmentalproceeding
>Seeart.18ofcivil.Pro.Code.asuitthesubjectmatterofwhichcannotbe
expressedintermsofmoneyshallbeentertainedbytheFederalFirstInstance
Courthavinglocaljurisdiction.Thesameistrueforenvironmentalproceeding
CitizenStandingtoChallengetheConstitutionalityofEnvironmentalLaws
SSeeart.61,62and83oftheFDREconstitution.
SWheresubstantialconstitutionalissueisraisedoveranactionofadministrative
authorities
SSinceadministrativeofficialsandregularcourtsarenotempoweredtodecide
uponconstitutionaldisputes,thereisnoremedyavailablebeforeadministrative
officialsandregularcourts.
SNoneedofexhaustionoflegalremedies
SWhohasvestedinterest?everyoneispresumedtohavevestedinterestwhendamage
isdonetotheenvironmentduetounconstitutionalactsofadministrativeorgans
Citizen Standing Before International Courts and Tribunals
>Exhaustionofdomesticremediesisamustatinternationallevel

45. >Sovereigntyofstateandcorollaryobligationisthebasicreason
>theroleofNGO’sandindividualsisextremelylimited
>But,regionalinstruments,likeArt.25(1)ofEuropeanconventiononhuman
rightsallowindividuals,NGO’scanpetitiontothecommission
>AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples’rightArt.50opensanavenuefor
individualstopetitiontothecommissionwhenallowed
> TheAfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’Rightsfollowthe
jurisprudenceofliberalstanding
>Eg,CERAC(NGO)(byrepresentingtheOganicommunity)vs.theNigerian
GovernmentandtheOilGiantShell.
>Accordingly,afterdueconsiderationwasmadebytheCommission,CERACand
thepeopleofOgoniwereawardedthejudgmentthattheyhavetherighttolivein
asafeenvironmentwhichishabitable
❖Whatlessoncanwederive—takingcasestoregionalorinternationalbodiesafter
exhaustionoflocalremedies
Public Interest Litigation Case: APAP VS. Environmental Protection
Authority
>APAP(ActionProfessionals’’AssociationforthePeople(NGO)
>Wasestablishedin1993
>formakingjusticeaccessibletothepoor,womenandchildren
>in1998,HasinitiatedpublicinterestlitigationagainstpollutionofAkakiand
MojjoRiversbyGovernmentalandNon-GovernmentalIndustriesandFactories
forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofthecountry
>AgainstsolidandliquidaffulentsreleasedbyfactoriesandresidentsofAA
>ItfirstlodgedacomplainttotheenvironmentalauthoritybasedonArt.11(1)of
pollutionproc.
>ThenbeingnotsatisfiedbythereplyoftheauthorityAPAPfileasuittothe
federalfirstinstancecourt.inLidetaFirstInstancecourtseventhDivision.
>Thenthecourtalsoorderedtheauthoritytopresentitsdefenceindefaultof
whichthecasewouldbeheardexparty

46. Judicial activism
SReferstotherolejudgesaretoplayinmakingthelawresponsivetothefeltnecessities
ofthechangingtime
SReliefisprovidedtothedisadvantagesandaggrievedpartywhenthereisagaporwhen
thelawissilent
SInsuchinstancesthejudiciarywouldbeacustodianandwatchdogsoftheconstitution
Stheconceptisdefinedasthepracticeinthejudiciaryofprotectingorexpanding
individualrightsthroughdecisionsthatdepartfromestablishedprecedentorare
independentoforinoppositiontosupposedconstitutionalorlegislativeintent
Chapter six
REMEDIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROCEEDING
S Damage to the environment needs appropriate remedies S Ensures that violators do not
gain advantage by virtue of their misdeeds..
❖Courts tend to give priority to the following kinds of remedies in environmental
cases:
1.Injunctiverelieftohalttheharmfulactivity;
2.Damagestocompensateforharmsuffered;
3.Ordersofrestitutionorremediation;
4.Sanctionstopunishthewrongdoerandtodeterfutureviolations;and
5.Awardsofcostsandfees
^InEnvironmentalLaw,thelegalremediesarebroadlycategorizedascivilandcriminal
liability.
^Theremediesareprovidedunderthecriminallaw,tortlawandotherenvironmental
legislations

47. ^ the legal remedies are devised in away to tackle any actual or potential damage to the
environment
^ while assessing environmental cases the criteria’s to be considered mostly include;
•Seriousnessoftheoffence-theextentofthedamage,howmuchdidtheconduct
divergefromtherequiredbehavior?Whetherthedefendanthasahistoryofviolations
•Abilitytopay-themeansavailabletothedefendant,Forexample,afineappropriate
foranindividualorasmallcompanywillhavelittleimpactonalargeenterprise,a
finethatistoolargecantakeawaythefinancialresourcesnecessarytoensurefuture
complianceorremediateexistingcontamination.afinethatistoolargecantakeaway
thefinancialresourcesnecessarytoensurefuturecomplianceorremediateexisting
contamination.
•Economicgain-Nooffendershouldprofitfromitsmisdeeds.Costsavoidedasa
resultofbobcomplianceofarequiredpermitorlicenceshouldbebornebythe
polluter
•Polluterpays-thesanctionshouldforceinternalizationof
environmentalandothercosts.thesanctionshouldreflectthevalueoftheoverall
damagecausedbytheoffender,andthesocial,environmentalandeconomicimpacts
•Abatementcosts-sanctionshouldbeinadditiontopaymentofcostsofcleanup,
restorationorremediation
Constitutional law remedies
^ See article, 44(1) and (2), 91, 92, 37(2)(b)
Administrative Remedies
See proclamation No. 295/2000
^ Proc. 300/2002-see for example article 3 Any person who causes any
pollutionshallberequiredtocleanuporpaycostofcleaningupthe
pollutedenvironmentinsuchamannerandwithinsuchperiodasshall
bedeterminedbytheAuthorityorbytherelevantregional
environmentalagency.

48. SThemeasurescouldbeinstallationofsoundtechnology,recyclingofwaste,
cleaninguporpaymentofthecostofcleaningupthepolluted
environment,andanymeasureuptotheclosureorrelocationofany
enterpriseinordertopreventharm.
Civil Liability
❖InEnvironmentalLaw,liabilityforatortariseswhenawrongfulact
complainedofamountseithertoaninfringementofalegalprivateright
orabreachorviolationofalegalduty.Thatis,whenthereispublicor
privatenuisance.
❖Nuisance-meanstohurtortoannoy
❖Itcouldeitherbepublicorprivate
Public or common nuisance
•anactaffectingthepublicatlargeorconsiderableportionofit
•itmustinterferewiththerightthepublicatlarge
•Acts,whichseriouslyinterferewiththehealth,safety,comfortor
convenienceofthepublic
•‘amanmustnotmakesuchuseofhispropertyasunreasonably
and
unnecessarilytocauseinconveniencetohisneighbors’
•thedamagemustbeparticular,directandsubstantial
•Thisistrueincasewhentheplaintiffmanagestogetredressonly
to
hispersonalinjuryviathetraditionallitigation
•However,37(2)(b)oftheFDRE,article11ofproc.No.300/2002
the
privatepartieswouldenforcetheirrightstotheextentthatthey
areespeciallyanddifferentlyaggrieved,andthepublicinterest
groupscouldenforcetheremedyastothediffusedintereststhat
couldaffecttheinterestofthepublicatlarge,theinterestofthe
futuregeneration,andtheintrinsicvalueoftheenvironment.
Private Nuisance
SPrivatenuisanceisusingorauthorizingtheuseofone’spropertyorofanything
underone’scontrolsoastoinjuriouslyaffectothersbyphysicallyinjuringhis
propertyorbyinterferingmateriallywithhishealth,comfortorconvenience.

49. S Others define it as unlawful interference with a person’s use or enjoyment of land
or some right over or in connection with it S I
tincludes,Wrongfuldisturbancesofeasementsorservitude,Wrongfulescapeof
deleterioussubstancesintoanother’sproperty,suchassmoke,smell,fumes,gas,
noise,water
S An action for nuisance will lie against the person;
1,ifhecausesit;
2,ifbyneglectofsomedutyheallowedittoarise;and
3,whenithasarisen,withouthisownactordefault,heomitstoremedyitwithina
reasonabletimeafterhebecameoroughttohavebecomeawareofit.
❖The remedies for nuisance are:
Injunction
SI
s to prevent environment from imminent or harmful activity the
environment (pollution or other)
Sc
an be preliminary (immediate), temporary, or permanent S c
an be important to securing compliance with the law and requiring
affirmative remediation of harmful environmental conditions
Damages
^W
heretheharmhasalreadyoccurred,indemnitiesorcompensatorydamagesmaybe
awardedtotheinjuredparty
■=>i
stocompensateforthefulllossessufferedtotheenvironmentandtheservicesit
providesaswellastheexpensesthathavebeenincurredduetotheenvironmental
harm.

50. ■=>T
he exact type of award depends upon the nature of the harm, the characteristics
of the environment in question, and the technical capacity
to repair the damage.
^A
ny award of damages or indemnity requires giving an economic value to the loss
suffered
^P
roblems;
✓N
ot all parts of the environment are easily valued. Eg air, forest ✓t
heeconomicvalueoftheenvironmentasawholecanbeconsideredasthe
sumofallthegood(food,lumber,medicinalplants,shelter)andservices(life
support,recreation,assimilationofcontaminants)
✓T
ortlaw-art.2069(actualdamage)art.2091(thedamageduebytheperson
shallbeequalthedamagecaused)-
• i s based on vested interest of the plaintiff
• e nable us only to take reactive measures in case when there is actual
damage
•d
oes not encompass damage to the environment per se which could affect the
public interest
• the intrinsic value of the environment, and the interest of the future
generation.
Criminal liability
^ not only injunction, compensation but penalizing environmental
wrongdoing ^ Criminal liability is encompassed in the Criminal Code, and
other enabling environmental statutes.

51. ^w
hensomeonepollutestheenvironment,thecourtwhichentertainsthecasewouldtake
judicialnoticeoftheseverepenaltyoneitheroftheselegalinstruments.(Seearticle3
ofcri.Codeandart.12(3)ofpollutionC.P)
^I
f no sever penalties are envisaged under the cri. C then pollution c. p. shall apply
^S
ee from Art. 12—17 of pollution proclamation ^ S
ee Art. 18 of EIA proclamation
^S
ee from Article 514-524 of the Criminal code.