Environmental Risk & Impacts of Abiotic resource Exploitation

Environmental Risk & Impacts of Abiotic resource Exploitation

1. Environmental Risk and Impacts of Abiotic Resource Exploitation By Ahmed Mohamed Khedr

2. Abiotic Resources Abiotic Resources:  Abiotic Resources are resources that are non-living. These resources fall under the larger category of natural resources which occur naturally within the environment and aren’t created or produced by humans. Abiotic factors are nonliving physical and chemical elements within the ecosystem. Resources of abiotic factors are usually obtained from the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples of abiotic resources are air, water, sunlight, soil, and minerals.

3. W hy resource use is of concern ? Abiotic resources can be valued for different reasons, ranging from a (conservationist) value of the resource per se, to ecosystem functions (e.g. soil formation and nutrient cycling), to their role in the economy. It is therefore important to clarify the role and context in which they are seen. The ‘role’ of resources explains the motivation behind protecting the resources. The role is defined as the context in which the resources are valued in relation to: • the stakeholder ‘interested’ in the resources, i.e. either humans, the environment, or the resources themselves. • the system of concern in which the resources and/or their functions are valued (e.g. environment or economy). • the relevant production system (primary, or primary and secondary production. .

4. The global demand for material use has seen prolonged growth over the past fve decades. The annual global extraction of materials has grown from 30.9 billion tonnes in 1970 to 95.1 billion tonnes in 2020, and is expected to reach 106.6 billion tonnes in 2024 following an annual average growth rate of 2.3%. Global material extraction, four main material categories, 1970 – 2024, million tonnes .

5. Metal ores – Iron, aluminum, copper and other nonferrous metals accounted for around 9% of global material extraction (2.7 billion tonnes ) in 1970, and this grew slightly to around 10% (9.6 billion tonnes ) in 2020. This represents a yearly average growth of 2.6% and reflects the importance of metals for the construction industry, energy and transport infrastructure, equipment, manufacturing and for many consumer goods. Iron ore was the fastest growing metal because of the rising demand for steel in construction activities and the second wave of urbanization in the Global South. Metals also play a key role for the energy transition to an intermittent renewable energy system that will rely on massively increased energy transmission infrastructure (mainly aluminum and copper) and energy storage capacity (cobalt, nickel and lithium). The electrification of transport and mobility will further add to global metal demand and will require the build-up of metal-recycling capability. Non-metallic minerals – These include sand, gravel and clay for construction and industrial purposes and represent the largest component of material use. They accounted for the highest growth of 3.2% per year on average and extraction grew from 9.6 billion tonnes in 1970 to 45.3 billion tonnes in 2020 This fivefold increase has been related to the massive build-up of infrastructure in many parts of the world. The increasing share of non-metallic minerals from 31% to almost 50% of overall global material extraction reflects a major shift in global extraction from biomass to mineral-based natural resources.

6. Domestic extraction of materials – Top-ten largest extractors in 2020, million tonnes and tonnes per capita.

7. Top ten net importers of materials, 2020, million tonnes and tonnes per capita.

8. Relative contribution of different types of resources (extraction and processing), the remaining economy (downstream use of resources in the economy after extraction and processing) and households (impacts of direct emissions and resource consumption) to global environmental and socioeconomic impacts for 2022.

9. MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT Mining changes the environment. Extracting minerals from the ground will change the landscape, alter water quality, change the local ecology, and change land use. To what extent the environment is impacted depends on several things. The nature of the deposit, the method chosen for extraction, for mineral processing, for storage of mine waste and for treatment of mine water and for mine closure. The environmental impact also depends on the location; the natural environment; sensitive biotopes; biodiversity and pre-mining land use and on long term goals of mine closure. The people and society at the mine, before mining, during mining and after mining, will be impacted by environmental changes directly and indirectly. The impact on people will differ due to economic, cultural, and socio-economic dynamics. The environmental impact at a mine is also very dependent on the preparedness, organisation , economy, policy, culture, experience and skills of the operator, the company, and its people at the mine. The environmental impact from mining is also very dependent on how mining projects are reviewed, audited, permitted, and monitored by accountable representatives, government agencies, by owners and financers, by activist groups, by international organizations and by shareholders. The capability of authorities and others depend on the same conditions as for the operator. Legislation, guidelines and policy describe how short-term and long-term goals of sustainable mineral extraction are to be reached. Environmental impacts The economic benefit of mineral extraction can only be measured by calculating long-term impacts on people and the environment. Predicting and managing environmental impacts are crucial if mining is to benefit society sustainably and protect societies and future generations from environmental and economic risk. Legislation is the result of political decisions derived from of the complex interaction of public opinion, debate, democratic process, research, and lobbying. The regulatory process differs between countries. To receive a permit for mining, the company (or governmental agency in some countries) is generally required to carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

10. The life cycle of a mining project goes through several steps, beginning from mineral ore exploration and ending with closure or post closure stage. Each phase has different type of environmental impacts. Exploration Environmental impact related to the exploration phase may include clearing of  vegetation for access, housing or investigations. Vegetation is often cleared to allow the entry of heavy vehicles mounted with drilling rigs. Ideally environmental impacts are minimal during the exploration phase however many countries require a separate EIA for the exploratory phase of a mining project because the impacts of this phase can also be profound.  In many areas indirect impacts such as settlement, deforestation, poaching or informal mining commences in the wake of regulated and permitted exploration.

11. Access road construction Developing a mine involve amongst other supplying heavy equipment and consumable to the site and shipping out the processed ore and metals. Access roads are needed to achieve both activities. Constructing the road have commonly substantial environmental impact especially if it is done in sensitive area or near previously isolated community.  Clearing and site preparation Mining in remote and undeveloped area requires substantial amount of land clearing for construction of the mine and plant, housing for project staff, and storage for equipment and consumables. Land clearing has significant environmental impact. The size of the land to be cleared usually depend on the ore deposit size and shape and the conditions of the terranes.  Extraction Once the land has been prepared the mining and plant construction may begin. Mining commonly involve extracting the ore from the mine through excavation and processing the ore to produce a concentrate of the metal and then eventually producing the metal mined. Mining project will differ considerably according to the extracting and processing method which depends on : the type of ore ( sulphides , oxides a combination of both), the metal to be extracted, the depth at which the deposit is buried under the ground, and the terrane conditions. If a deposit is buried deep under the ground the volume of soil and rock also called ‘overburden or waste rock’ to be removed to access the deposit is significant. Thus, an underground mine method might be preferred over an open pit mine. Mine closure and site reclamation At the end of mining operations, the mine and it associated facilities must be reclaimed and closed. The ultimate goal is to return the site to conditions that resembles the pre-mining status. Some of the impacts of mining can persist for decades or even centuries if they are not well managed during mine closure. Using the baseline study, the project owner need to describe in details each steps of the site restoration and provide information about how it will prevent – on the long run – after mine closure the release of toxic contaminants to the environment from various mine facilities (e.g. TSF and pits); the project owner must also describe how funds will be set aside to ensure the cost of reclamation and closure are paid for as well as monitoring post-closure. It can be easier to get an overview of the environmental impacts by categorizing them.

12. S hort summary of common environmental impacts from mining consisting of environmental impacts on water, air, social impacts, wildlife, and climate. Water A significant impact from many mining activities is the impact on water quality and the availability of water. As a mine can take up a large area, it can change the way water travels within the landscape. Sometimes, rivers need to be re-routed to not flood the mine. At the same time, groundwater needs to be pumped to also not flood the mine. By disrupting the landscape and possibly building dams or re-routing rivers and groundwater, the availability of water can be impacted over long distances downstream from the mine. This can impact flora, fauna, local communities and other industries. Impacts on water quality can have possible health implications for local communities, or impact the environment, flora and fauna. The mine uses large quantities of water that is sometime released to the environment, intentionally or unintentionally, and depending on its composition it can potentially harm the environment. Water can also, in contact with waste rock, dissolve minerals and release metals and other harmful elements to the environment. What elements that can be released to the environment, and the effect, depends on the composition of the rocks. Acid mine drainage and contaminant leaching The potential for acid mine drainage is a key question. The answer will determine whether a proposed mining project is environmentally acceptable. When mined materials (such as the walls of open pits and underground mines, tailings, waste rock, and heap and dump leach materials) are excavated and exposed to oxygen and water, acid can form if iron sulfide minerals (especially pyrite, or ‘fools gold’) are abundant and there is an insufficient amount of neutralizing material to counteract the acid formation.

13. The acid will, in turn, leach or dissolve metals and other contaminants from mined materials and form a solution that is acidic, high in sulfate, and metal-rich (including elevated concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, etc.) Leaching of toxic constituents, such as arsenic, selenium, and metals, can occur even if acidic conditions are not present. Elevated levels of cyanide and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite) can also be found in waters at mine sites, from heap leaching and blasting. Acid drainage and contaminant leaching is the most important source of water quality impacts related to metallic ore mining. “HARM TO FISH & OTHER AQUATIC LIFE: If mine waste is acid-generating, the impacts to fish, animals and plants can be severe. Many streams impacted by acid mine drainage have a pH value of 4 or lower – similar to battery acid. Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to survive in streams such as this. “ TOXIC METALS: Acid mine drainage also dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, aluminum, cadmium, arsenic, lead and mercury, from the surrounding rock. These metals, particularly the iron, may coat the stream bottom with an orange-red colored slime called yellow boy. Even in very small amounts, metals can be toxic to humans and wildlife. Carried in water, the metals can travel far, contaminating streams and groundwater for great distances. The impacts to aquatic life may range from immediate fish kills to sublethal, impacts affecting growth, behavior or the ability to reproduce. Erosion of soils and mine wastes into surface waters For most mining projects, the potential of soil and sediment eroding into and degrading surface water quality is a serious problem. The ultimate deposition of the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may be deposited within the floodplains of a stream valley. Historically, erosion and sedimentation processes have caused the build-up of thick layers of mineral fines and sediment within regional flood plains and the alteration of aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity within surface waters.

14. Air Impacts on air quality is, as water, controlled by the way the mine is managed, but also by factors such as climate, topology, availability of water and composition of rocks. Dust from mining operations or waste can contain harmful elements such as chemically or radiologically toxic metals, which can have health implications when breathed or when dust contaminates water sources. A large amount of dust, even if not containing significant amounts of toxic elements, can also be harmful. Dust is often controlled by spraying water on haul roads, open pit walls, waste rock piles and so on. In arid climates with high winds, high temperatures and low precipitation, dust can be hard to control due to water evaporating quickly. Special liquids and solutions, which does not evaporate as quickly, can be used in these cases. Negative impact on air quality can also come from gaseous emissions from smelters, processing plants, machinery, or power plants. These can contain heavy metals or acid solutions which can be harmful to the environment. These emissions can often be controlled by installing filters and flue gas cleaners.

15. Wildlife The impact on wildlife can be large depending on factors such as location and size of the mine, availability of water, safety measures etc. Different types of wildlife react in different ways to mining, some may be heavily impacted and some not. Wildlife documentation is important in the baseline study, and continued monitoring of certain species can give more information on how the environment is influenced by the mine than for example monitoring metal content in rivers. Protecting animals from the mine operations, for example from trucks, open pits, and shafts, can be done by installing safety measures such as fences. Some species may be endemic and sensitive to even very little disturbance. Even though some species have a higher degree to which they can tolerate human competition, it does not mean directly that it is acceptable to invade their space without good mitigation and control measure in place. Climate change considerations Every a project that has the potential to change the global carbon budget should include an assessment of a project’s carbon impact. Large-scale mining projects have the potential to alter global carbon in at least the following ways: Lost CO2 uptake by forests and vegetation that is cleared. Many large-scale mining projects are proposed in heavily forested areas of tropical regions that are critical for absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and Some mining projects propose long-term or even permanent destruction of tropical forests. CO2 emitted by machines (e.g., diesel-powered heavy vehicles) involved in extracting and transporting ore, vehicles that will be needed during the life of the mining project. CO2 emitted by the processing of ore into metal (for example, by pyro-metallurgical versus hydro metal lurgical techniques). An example is found in an assessment by CSIRO minerals of Australia which used the Life Cycle Assessment methodology to estimate the life cycle emissions of GHGS from copper and nickel

16. Climate Change Impacts in Africa Different parts of the globe have been experiencing the negative impacts associated with climate change including more frequent wildfires, longer periods of drought, and an increase in the number, duration, and intensity of tropical storms. These effects though tough on developing countries, have also been experienced in the developed world. For instance, the Southern and Central Europe are seeing more frequent heat waves, forest fires, and droughts, while the Mediterranean area is becoming drier and Northern Europe is getting significantly wetter, making it vulnerable to winter foods. With respect to SSA, it is worth pointing out the general characteristics of the African climate, which is shaped by the inter-tropical convergence zone, seasonal monsoons in East and West Africa, and the EI Niño/ La Nina Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the South. The ENSO and the seasonal Monsoons influence temperatures and precipitation across the continent including extreme events in metrological droughts. Africa is the most vulnerable continent to climate change impacts, as it is expected to severely disrupt water and food systems, public health, and agricultural livelihoods not to mention causing enhanced droughts, sea-level rise, and changes in the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne disease. These projected changes are expected to exacerbate already high levels of food and water insecurity, poverty, and poor health and undermine economic development.

17. Social Impacts of Mining Mining activities are associated with various social, economic and environmental impacts. Economically, they contribute to government revenue and employ a significant number of people. There are however some social negative impacts associated with mining including violence, child labour , escalation of gender inequalities, health and environmental effects including deforestation and pollution. In this section, the focus will be on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). However, environmental impacts of industrial sand mining will be explored. Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Africa ASM has attracted a lot of attention in recent years following the increasing number of people relying on this activity in developing countries. Basically, ASM involves miners who carry out mining activities using their own resources and tools. These miners work independently from mining companies. Whereas, artisanal mining focuses on substance miners, small-scale mining on the other hand includes enterprises or individuals that employ workers for mining. The main characteristic of ASM is the use of hand tools to carry out mining activities. Child Labour One of the key issues that need to be tackled in ASM is child labour . Indeed, child labour is not only associated with ASM but also other sectors and as such there have been global efforts to tackle it both at national, regional and international level. Internationally, in addition to 12th June, a day launched by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2002, as the World Day Against Child Labour , there is also a special day of 16th June celebrated on the African continent as the Day of the African Child. The origin of this day dates back as far as 1991 when it was first initiated by the Organization of African Unity in honor of those who participated in the Soweto uprising—and it has since then been used to raise awareness of the need for improvement in not only the education but also welfare of the African children.

18. Health and Safety There has been an increasing number of health and safety issues in various mining communities. Taking the example of ASM, most miners operate without basic protective equipment such as gloves, boots and goggles. ASM by its nature involves the use of hand tools and rudimentary methods to extract minerals. In this respect, besides lack of protective gears, ASM is associated with the use of dangerous chemicals such as mercury; poorly constructed shafts/tunnels; poor waste management leading to contamination and diseases—all of which pose health and safety risks. In AGM for instance, miners still use rudimentary methods such as amalgamation to extract gold. Gold amalgamation necessitates the use of mercury, which has various health and environmental impacts. Gold amalgamation is one of the oldest forms of extracting gold: mercury is added to silver and gold to form an amalgam (paste) and it amalgamates all metals except iron and platinum. Violence and Conficts ASM has in the past benefted the local people in resource-rich countries. However, it has in recent years been characterized with violence especially in instances where foreign companies attempt to take over the mining areas where ASM miners operate or in the case of Ghana, where Chinese migrants attempted to dominate AGM . For instance, in 2013, ASM in Ghana attracted Chinese illegal miners who got into confict with the local miners.33 An estimate of about 50,000 Chinese illegal miners mostly exclusively from Shanglin County in Guangxi province were involved in AGM in Ghana. Consequently, there was a deportation of over 4000 Chinese citizens who were involved in ASM.

19. The Environmental Impacts of Lithium and Cobalt Mining There is no doubt that lithium and cobalt play a huge role in modern societies, as both elements are essential components of many renewable energy sources such as solar panels, wind turbines, and electric cars. Demand for electric vehicles is likely to continue to increase in the coming decades, as the apparatus to switch to more sustainable forms of transportation becomes clearer and clearer. Not only for EVs, but the battery demand for consumer electronics will continue to increase as well, up to 2.5 terawatt hours by 2030. However, we cannot talk about the green transition without taking the environmental impacts of lithium and cobalt mining into account. Though emissions deriving from mining these two elements are lower than those deriving from fossil fuels production, the extraction methods for lithium and cobalt can be very energy intensive leading to air and water pollution, land degradation, and potential for groundwater contamination.

20. Despite the importance of EV markets and growing battery technology in controlling the world’s emissions, it is up to society to figure out a more practical and efficient way of extracting these resources. It is important to note that fossil fuel mining, including lithium and cobalt mining, is estimated to be responsible for the emission of around 34 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) worldwide annually. About 45% of it is from coal, 35% from oil, and 20% from gas. Relative to fossil fuels, Cobalt mining is only responsible for around 1.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2e) equivalent. For Lithium mining, it is estimated to be in a similar range at around 1.3+ million tonnes of carbon annually, with every tonne of mined lithium equating to 15 tonnes of CO2 into the air. Thus, the amount of carbon emitted is significantly less than fossil fuels, and a necessary middle ground should be considered in society’s transition to further renewables technologies. The Environmental Impact of Lithium Lithium is typically mined through a process called brine mining, which involves extracting lithium from underground saltwater reserves. The risks in polluting local water sources arise here, with examples in Solar de Uyuni and Solar de Atacama. This process involves pumping saltwater to the surface, where it is evaporated to remove the lithium and other minerals. Despite being relatively energy-intensive, this remains one of the most cost effective ways to mine lithium nowadays. Unfortunately, these toxic metals can contaminate water sources, threatening not only humans but also animal biodiversity. Furthermore, some of the metals contained in EV batteries are highly damaging even in small quantities. Since a large majority of them are disposed of in landfills, leaks of environmental contaminants are quite frequent. Often, these leaks lead to underground fires, which release even more pollutants into the atmosphere. When particles of hazardous metals contained in batteries – like arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, and copper – enter the human respiratory system, they can cause a variety of health problems.

21. The Environmental Impact of Cobalt Cobalt is mined through surface and underground mining. Surface mining is the process that involves removing the top layer of soil or rock to access minerals or metals, while underground mining involves digging tunnels and shafts to access minerals or metals located deeper below the surface. Unlike Lithium where the supply is plentiful, there is more of an effort to meet the demand logistics for cobalt. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) produces 60-70% of the world’s Cobalt output. However, the conditions of the mines in which Cobalt is produced has generated significant controversy in the media and abroad. Still, the average, daily $3+ wage for miners is significantly more than the average wage in the country (where 73% of the population live below $1.9 a day). A main reason why workers will continue to mine in these fields is the above average pay and thus the associated economic incentives resulting from artisanal mines. It is currently estimated that between 140,000-200,000 people work as artisanal miners in the DRC. Nonetheless, the risks of cobalt mining on the human population in Congo is well documented, where mines are often operated in dangerous and polluted conditions. The mining and refining processes are often labor-intensive practices and are associated with a variety of health problems as a result of accidents, overexertion, exposure to toxic chemicals and gasses. On top of all this, violence is common throughout centered around racism, discrimination, and worker abuse. The miners, known locally as creseurs , are so economically reliant on this informal economy that these dangerous conditions cannot afford full consideration. The environmental costs of cobalt mining activities are also substantial. Southern regions of the DRC are not only home to cobalt and copper, but also large amounts of uranium. In mining regions, scientists have made note of high radioactivity levels. In addition, mineral mining, similar to other industrial mining efforts, often produces pollution that leaches into neighboring rivers and water sources. Dust from pulverized rock is known to cause breathing problems for local communities as well.

22. Lithium sources and exploitation . a , Active lithium mining from brine facilities and corresponding production capacities in 2022 for the following salars : Clayton Valley (USA); Lake Zabayu (or Zabuye ), Dongtai Salt Lake and Xitai Salt Lake (China); Salar de Atacama 1 and 2 (Chile) and Salar del Hombre Muerto and Salar de Olaroz (Argentina). The inset zooms in on the Lithium Triangle in South America, which has the largest identified deposits in continental brines worldwide, but are not currently exploited are also shown: Salar de Uyuni (Bolivia) and geothermal fields in the Rhine region (France–Germany). LCE: Lithium carbonate equivalent. b , Schematic representation of evaporitic technology. The first step is brine pumping from underground reservoirs. Brines are poured into large shallow open air ponds, where over 90% of the original water content is lost via evaporation accelerated by solar radiation and wind. LiCl concentration increases gradually and salts from other cations crystallize in the ponds as saturation is reached. Concentrated brines then enter a refining plant for crystallization of the final product (usually lithium carbonate). Fresh water and chemicals are used at several steps of processing.

23. Environmental impact of phosphate mining and beneficiation: Phosphorus is common within geological materials. The average continental crust contains 0.27% P2O5. Phosphorus is the primary resources to produce fertilizer and phosphorous-based products. Phosphorus is neither substitutable nor recyclable, therefore, the total demand must be provided through the mining, beneficiation and chemical processing of phosphate ores. The key to understanding the association between environmental pollution and phosphate rocks lies in appreciating the mining and processing effect of phosphate ores. Phosphorus is normally produced by mining and beneficiation of Phosphate ores. Mines produce large amounts of waste including toxic metals and radioactive elements.4 The mining and beneficiation process results in the majority of these hazardous elements being lost either to waste disposal or to the environment, mainly soil, water, atmosphere and human food chain.5,6 Apatite is the dominant mineral in phosphate ores. It may occur as carbonate-fluorapatite [Ca5 (PO4, CO3)3 (OH, F)] in sedimentary rocks and as hydroxyl-fluorapatite [Ca5 (PO4)3 (OH)] in igneous rocks.

24. Average phosphorus and toxic heavy metal concentrations in rock phosphate from different origin

25. Radioactivity elements in phosphate rock The radioactivity of phosphate rock was probably first observed in 1908, when the British physicist R. Strutt found that samples of phosphorite were many times more radioactive than the average rocks of the Earth’s crust. 23 The dominant radioactivity detected in phosphate rocks are uranium, thorium and their decay products in equilibrium with their respective parent elements in the ore. 24 The Uranium series includes 238 U, 234 Th, 234 U; 230 Th; 226 Ra, 222 Rn, 210 Pb, 210 Bi and 210 Po, Thorium series includes 232 Th; 228 Ra, 228 Ac; 228 Th, 224 Ra, 220 Rn, 212 Pb, 212 Bi. Of all the radionuclides in phosphate rock, 226 Ra is of particular interest because of its long half-life, radiotoxicity and its relative physical and biological mobility. The nuclide is of further importance as the parent nuclide of the gaseous 222 Rn which, along with its solid decay products, constitutes a significant source of radiation exposure. Concentrations of 226 Ra in phosphate rock are reported to vary, covering a range of 1-2 Bq /g. 25‒29 Most of the 226 Ra in the ore ends up in the waste phosphogypsum during the production of phosphate fertilizers. The concentration of 226 Ra in these wastes is reported to be nearly 1Bq/g.

26. Beneficiation effect There are two types of phosphate processing: The wet processing and dry thermal processing. The wet processing, done with Sulfuric acid, is the most used method for more than 90% of the phosphate fertilizer production. The reaction of calcium phosphate with sulfuric acid leads to different products depending upon the relative amount of Sulfuric acid added to the phosphate ore (Figure 2): the first reaction used produce SSP; the second reaction used to produce WPA; the third reaction used to produces TSP; if phosphoric acid is neutralized by ammonia, the fourth reaction can lead to the production of MAP and DAP etc. Phosphogypsum is the byproduct in wet processing. Generally, 4-5 tons of phosphogypsum are produced per ton of phosphoric acid (P2O5).

27. In the wet process method, 226Ra is co-precipitated with the gypsum, while 238U and 232Th follow the Phosphorus into the phosphoric acid, which is then used to manufacture various fertilizer products.24 In general, about 80% of the 226Ra, 30% of the 232Th and 14% of the 238U is left in the phosphogypsum . 238U and 232Th become enriched in the fertilizer to about 86% of their original value.

28. Phosphate Mining Wastes at Abu Tartur Mine Area, Western Desert of Egypt Abu- Tartur phosphate mine is the largest phosphate mine in Egypt. The mine located adjacent to Abu Tartur plateau, some 50 Km to the west of El Kharga Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt. The estimated phosphate ore reserves in the area may reach up to billion tons.

29. Environmental Adverse Impacts: The adverse impacts on the environmental that is commonly connected with mining activities appear to be due mainly to poor management of the different types of mining wastes. Mismanagement of tailings can result in the discharge into the environment of wastes that rich in toxic heavy metals. Alteration in the water table, acid mine drainage, and potential surface and ground water pollution are common environmental challenges in mine areas. Dust emissions during loading, en route, and unloading of the ore, and during crushing affect the quality of urban air in the vicinity of the mine area. Chemicals and reagents added during the beneficiation of the ore can have adverse environmental impacts as well as impose health risks if not appropriately handled and controlled. Inappropriate disposal of solid and liquid mine wastes may lead to leaching of pollutants from disposal areas and can result in soil and groundwater contamination. Flooding caused by tailings dams failure and dump heaps collapse can contaminate both surface and groundwater. Loss of surface vegetation and consequent soil erosion in mining areas can have serious long-term ecological consequences. The impact of the beneficiation process depends largely on the chemicals and reagents added to the original ore to fit the chemical and physical properties of the end product rather than on the geological sit up of the phosphate ore body and the surrounding rocks. In all cases, land and water resource consumption and/or degradation is a common issue for both mining and beneficiation activities. The impacts of crushing, grinding, and sorting at early stages of beneficiation process produce airborne particulates and deteriorate the air quality. At Abu Tartur mine area dust storms occur all year long, the reported values of total suspended particulate are significantly greater than the 120 mgm-3 maximum concentrations permissible (Ahmed 2003). Radioactive Phosphatic dust can be precipitated at and around the mine areas in the form of wet precipitation and/or dry deposition. The radioactive dust can be accumulated on surface soils, become bio-available by animals and plants and enter the food chain. Radon gas produced from phosphate piles and tailings is of concern and can be considered as a potential hazard (UNSCEAR 1993, IAEA 2004).

30. Human health Risk: Adverse health impacts associated with phosphate mining are stemmed from the inhalation of particulate emissions and the intake of heavy metals, metalloids, non-metals and their oxides, either from the mining activates or from the application of the phosphatic fertilizers. Radiation hazards are also of concern as the phosphates of the Abu Tartur mine are proved to have Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) due to thorium and uranium decay series 232Th and 238U ( Khater et al. 2001), and are considered as a radiation health hazard ( Makweba and Holm 1993, Abbady et al. 2005). Air particulates emissions produced during processing and transportation of phosphate ore represent a potential health hazard; they might cause respiratory problems at least to the miners ( Khater et al. 2004). Mining of phosphate rocks and application of phosphatic fertilizers are major sources of heavy metals that enter the environment (Pinsky 1988). Phosphate mine wastes can cause environmental hazards as they contain significantly toxic elements, such as Th, U, REE, As, Cd, V, Sb, Zn, Cr, Ni, Cu, etc , depending on the origin of the phosphate deposit, the mining method, and the beneficiation technology used.