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1. Educational Psychology By: Moy Top

2. Chapter three Theories of Development and Their Educational Implications Theories of Cognitive and Language Development Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory Theories of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson Psychoanalytic Approach Biological Approach Social Learning Approach Theories of Moral Development Piaget’s Theory Kohlberg’s Theory Gilligan’s Theory 3

3. Cognitive Development: The Theory of Jean Piaget Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist named Jean Piaget. Piaget studied how children and youth gradually become able to think logically and scientifically. 4

4. Piaget believed that learning was proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s cognitive theory . After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features: 5

5. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features: The stages always happen in the same order . No stage is ever skipped . Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it . Each later stage incorporates the earlier stages. 6

6. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development Stage Age Thinking 1 Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence 2 Preoperational 2 to 7 years Symbolic thought 3 Concrete 7 to 11 years Logical thought 4 Formal operational 12 years old and over Scientific reasoning 7 Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.

7. Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years During the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) infants refine motor skills and engage in sensory exploration, forming early concepts like object permanence through active interaction with their surroundings. 8

8. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring their environment). Schema development include: object permanence ; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and representational play . Cognitive abilities relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally . 9

9. Around 8 months, infants develop object permanence, understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight, and will search for them when they disappear. Educators and caregivers should focus on interactive and sensory-rich experiences, such as tactile play (sand, water), games promoting object permanence (peek-a-boo), and imitation activities. At the beginning of the sensorimotor stage, infants live in the present without a mental representation of the world, lacking a sense of object permanence . If an infant cannot see an object, it does not exist to them; thus, if a toy is hidden from view, the infant will not search for it once it is out of sight. 10

10. The primary achievement during the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when hidden . It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object . Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another . Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings . The child begins to be able to store information about the world, recall it, and label it. 11

11. Individual Differences in sensorimotor Cultural Practices: In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence . Gender Norms: Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations. 12

12. The Preoperational Stage Ages : 2 – 7 Years Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage, which occurs between 2 and 7 years . At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations (a set of logical rules), so thinking is influenced by how things look or appear to them rather than logical reasoning . For example, a child might think a tall, thin glass contains more liquid than a short, wide glass, even if both hold the same amount, because the child focuses on the height rather than considering both dimensions. 13

13. Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does, as shown in the Three Mountains study . As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more important . Teaching should incorporate role-playing, symbolic play, storytelling, and visual aids to support imaginative thinking . Tasks that encourage perspective-taking can help children gradually overcome egocentrism. 14

14. the pre-operational stage Cont … 15 Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

15. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery . During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself . A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought . Moreover , the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously . 16

16. Preoperational stage cont .. Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s. As they get older, children also begin to develop what’s called theory of mind – this means they start to understand that other people can have different thoughts, feelings, and perspectives than their own . 17

17. By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages. Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world). 18

18. Individual Differences ( preop stage cont.. Cultural Storytelling: Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore. Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements differently based on their cultural narratives . Race & Representation: A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background. 19

19. The Concrete Operational Stage Ages : 7 – 11 Years By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical rules ) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way ( decentring ), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks . Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking . The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them. 20

20. The Concrete Operational Stage 21

21. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During the concrete operational stage (approximately ages 7 to 11), children begin to think logically about concrete events and physical objects . Children develop an understanding of conservation – the idea that certain properties, such as volume, mass, and number, remain the same despite changes in form or appearance . Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).They also acquire the ability to mentally reverse actions (reversibility), such as picturing a ball of plasticine being reshaped to its original form. 22

22. Children become less egocentric, gaining the ability to consider other people’s thoughts and perspectives, which supports the development of perspective-taking and empathy . Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems . Children in this stage show improvements in classification (grouping objects based on shared characteristics), seriation (ordering items along a dimension, such as size), and transitive inference (understanding logical relationships, e.g., if A > B and B > C, then A > C). 23

23. Individual Differences Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks: In a society where resources are scarce, children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on preserving and reusing materials . Gender & Learning: Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on perceived gender norms. 24

24. The Formal Operational Stage Ages : 12 and Over During the formal operational stage (beginning around age 12), adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly , reason hypothetically , and engage in deductive logic . They are no longer limited to reasoning about physical, concrete objects and can instead manipulate ideas, principles, and theoretical constructs. 25

25. Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage).This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning . Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas; for example, they can understand division and fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems. 26

26. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Concrete operations are carried out on physical objects, whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints . During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g., they no longer need to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples . Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. For example, if asked, ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour?’ they could speculate about many possible consequences. 27

27. Piaget identified reflective abstraction as a key mechanism in this stage – where individuals become aware of and reflect on their own thought processes, a skill known as metacognition. This allows them to evaluate, plan, and regulate their cognitive strategies, supporting higher-order thinking . From about 12 years, children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content . During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses . This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem . 28

28. Individual Differences Culture & Abstract Thinking: Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex narratives might develop prominently . Gender & Ethics: Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights. 29

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30. Social Development theory

31. Vygotsky Theory Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development He focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences. According to Vygotsky , humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs.

32. Discovered By: Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896 in Orsha , a city in the western region of the Russian Empire. He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in law in 1917. H is formal work in psychology did not begin until 1924 when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow and began collaborating with Alexei Leontiev and Alexander Luria. His interests in Psychology were quite diverse, but often centered on topics of child development and education. He also explored such topics as the psychology of art and language development.

33. 3 Major Themes Social Interaction The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) Zone of Proximal Development

34. Social Interaction Vygotsky felt social learning anticipates development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people ( interpsychological ) and then inside the child ( intrapsychological ).” He believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings.

35. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) MKO refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept . For example: Teachers, Other adults, Advanced students, sometimes even computers. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example: Who would know more about the latest teen music group, how to be the newest black ops game, or what is the latest dance moves, a child or their parent?

36. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. According to Vygotsky learning occurs here. Vygotsky sees the ZPD as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given, allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own, developing higher mental functions.

37. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Cont’d An example would be reading a book with a child. They are reading the words of the book out loud to you as you follow along. They come across a word that in unfamiliar to them and ask for help. Instead of directly telling them the word, show them pictures of ask them questions about what they just read. They will figure the word out on their own and come to understand what the word means on their own. They will later learn to do it themselves first before asking for help.

38. Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways: 1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive development - this contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development. ( Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does ). 2 : Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticized for underestimating this ). 3 : Vygotsky places more emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development (again Piaget is criticized for lack of emphasis on this). http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

39. Teachers and Social Development Theory with Technology Technology can be used to facilitate learning within the ZPD. Online activities and projects can encourage the co-operation of students even when not in the classroom. Teachers can use videos and interactive worksheets to engage their students and assist them through scaffolding .

40. Teachers and Social Development Theory without Technology Even without technology, the basic ideas are the same. Students work better in groups according to Vygotsky , so group projects from art all the way to presentations on the latest math systems learned are a great way to get kids learning. Scaffolding can be done with real world objects and interactions, not just technological ones.

41. Students and Social Development Theory with Technology Technology provides internet, library databases, and chat rooms, technology resources students will be able to use an endless amount of resource's. Being able to share information provides classroom opinions. The classroom , based on Vygotsky provides groups for peer instruction, collaboration, and small group instruction . T he environment of the classroom, the design of material to be learn would promote and encourage student interaction and collaboration. Leading into a classroom community.

42. Students and Social Development Theory without Technology No Technology classes Less opportunity for educational search engines Classroom community is only able to excel with “in-class” searches such as books, fellow peers, and classroom curriculum. Still possible for a classroom community Unable to provide the class needs for certain topics.

43. Practical Application A group project on the major themes in Dracula in which students would work in teams exploring one of a list of possible themes. Each group would be required to use the teacher and trusted websites for expert support The teacher would be hands on, helping students to grasp the concept of themes woven throughout a narrative, utilizing examples, handouts, and practice examples.

44. P sychosocial Theory of Development (Erik Erikson) In Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, Erikson highlighted the importance of relationship with others in the formation of one’s own identity. Erikson believed that personality develops through eight stages or critical periods of life . He also contended that at each stage of life, an individual is confronted by a crisis . Erikson assume the personality develops in accordance to one’s ability to interact with the environment and to resolve the crises experienced . The manner in which the crises are resolved will have a lasting effect on the person’s view of himself or herself and the surrounding world. 45

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46. Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (birth-1 yr ) The first psychological challenge faced by an infant involves developing a sense of trust in others . For the infant, this sense of trust develops if s/he is predictably cared for when s/he cries and is warmly treated by her/his primary caregivers. If an infant, instead, is cared for in unpredictable ways such as not being fed, or comforted when necessary, Erikson believed this infant would develop basic mistrust of others, which would lead to fear and suspicion .

47. Stage 2 : Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (1 to 3yrs) At this stage, children want to do things on their own or act autonomously . Yet this need to become autonomous must be balanced by the reality of safety issues. For instance, while Erikson thought it was healthy to allow the two-year-olds to explore the streets alone , this exploration must be done in a constraint way such that the child is not hit by a car. Therefore, Erikson called for a delicate interplay between freedom and restraint . If children of this age are not allowed to do the things they can do, they may develop a sense of shame or doubt about their own abilities and fall to develop self-confidence. Encouraging children to do what they can do is the key to their developing a sense of autonomy.

48. Stage 3 : Initiative Versus Guilt (4 to 5 yrs) Erikson contends that children when face with new challenges, will want to explore and investigate . He termed this the development of a sense of initiative, whereby children begin to ask many questions about the world . The ever-present questions of “why” and “what” seem to engulf a child at this stage as do the inquisitive behaviors that often accompany taking initiative. For instance, children may ask question about and want to help with work in the kitchen. In situations in which a child is discouraged from taking the initiative, Erikson believed that the child would develop a sense of guilt regarding her natural tendency to explore and investigate . This in turn leads them to lack of assertiveness.

49. Stage 4 : Industry Vs Inferiority (6 to 11 yrs) The major psychological task in the fourth stage is the development of competence or industry . The term industry means in this stage children not only continues their interest in trying new things, but they will try to succeed in learning and gain recognition for producing things or good result. In this stage of development, which last throughout the elementary school years, children are faced with the challenges of producing good academic work related to reading, writing, and mathematical skills . Children also face the challenges to be competence in hobby, playing sports, maintaining a positive relationship with teachers, & developing friendship .

50. Recent research has shown that social skills training as well as attention to social problem solving can be helpful in terms of developing social competence in forming friendships and developing social skills . If children succeed in acquiring these new skills and the accomplishments are valued by others, the child develops a sense of industry and has a positive view of the achievements. On the other hand, a child who is constantly compared with others and come up a distinct second may develop a sense of inferiority. Children who leave the elementary years without this sense of industry, may feel they are failure at everything. So it is the responsibility of parents and teachers to help them to become academically and socially competent.

51. Stage 5 : Identity Vs Role Confusion (12 to 18 yrs) Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development is for the secondary and post-secondary school students. The major psychological task is to gain self identity . In this stage, adolescents struggle to resolve the questions of “Who am I?” and “Who will I become?” . That is why they move increasingly from their parents to peers as a point of reference , they need to understand how they are both alike and at the same time uniquely different from everyone else.

52. The adolescents also strive to find their own personalities . They need a figure or model to identify with . That’s why the adolescents often imitate the attitudes and actions of others they admire . Adolescents also face the issues of sexual identity that is the adolescent searches for comfortable expressions of sexuality through friendship and dating. This in fact is the most difficult time in everyone’s life . Teachers and parents have to be patience with the adolescents and guide them to cope effectively with the crises they are facing . Parents and teachers should give the adolescent opportunity to explore different jobs such as working temporarily in fast food restaurant, become the chef of a restaurant, work in a bank, work in a factory etc.

53. Stage 6 : Intimacy versus Isolation (19 to 40 yrs ) The major psychosocial crisis in Erikson’s six stage is the development of a true and intimate heterosexual relationship . Erikson contends that in this stage individuals should be able to care for others without losing their self-identity . Erikson believes individual who never know this intimacy will develop a sense of isolation & tend to avoid relationships with others and make commitments. This six stages crises faced mostly by college and university students . One of the ways for the adolescents to face this crisis is to be active in sports, clubs and participate in community social works.

54. Stage 7 : Generativity Vs Stagnation (40 to 60 y rs) The major concern of the people at this age is on the caring and well-being of the next generation rather than being overly self-concerned . Most parents focused their energy and time on bringing up their children to be successful academically, socially and emotionally . Erikson argued that if a sense of generativity is not present, the individual would experience stagnation & become overly self-preoccupied . Helping other people is a means of remaining productive and achieving the positive outcome of generativity .

55. Stage 8 : Ego Integrity Versus Despair (Over 60) The last psychosocial stage, involves integrity and despair. Older people must cope with the death of others , increasing illness , & their own approaching end . If people of this psychosocial stage look back with pride at a life of accomplishment , they can develop a positive sense of ego integrity. If, on the other hand, all they see is missed opportunities, they may become depressed and bitter, developing a sense of despair.

56. Thank you ! 57