Expo 67 Not Just A Souvenir Rhona Richman Kenneally Editor Johanne Sloan Editor

Expo 67 Not Just A Souvenir Rhona Richman Kenneally Editor Johanne Sloan Editor
Expo 67 Not Just A Souvenir Rhona Richman Kenneally Editor Johanne Sloan Editor
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5. Expo 67
Not Just a Souvenir

6. This page intentionally left blank

7. Expo 67
Not Just a Souvenir
EDITED BY
RHONA RICHMAN KENNEALLY AND
JOHANNE SLOAN
University of Toronto Press
Toronto Buffalo London

8. © University of Toronto Press Incorporated 2010
Toronto Buffalo London
www.utppublishing.com
Printed in Canada
ISBN 978-0-8020-9708-8 (cloth)
ISBN 978-0-8020-9649-4 (paper)
Printed on acid-free, 100% post-consumer recycled paper with vegetable-based inks.
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Expo 67 : not just a souvenir / edited by Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-8020-9708-8 (bound)   ISBN 978-0-8020-9649-4 (pbk.)
1. Expo 67 (Montréal, Québec).  I. Kenneally, Rhona Richman, 1956–
II. Sloan, Johanne
T752 1967 B1E96 2010   907.4971428   C2010-906221-3
University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing
program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council.

This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Federation
for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Aid to Scholarly Publications
Programme, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada.
University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishing
activities of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry
Development Program (BPIDP).

9. List of Illustrations  vii
Acknowledgments  ix
1 Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  3
rhona richman kenneally and johanne sloan
PART ONE: THE MATERIAL CULTURE OF NATIONHOOD
2 ‘The greatest Dining extravaganza in Canada’s history’: Food, Nationalism,
and Authenticity at Expo 67  27
rhona richman kenneally
3 ‘Britain Today’ at Expo 67  47
elizabeth darling
4 ‘Une terre humaine’: Expo 67, Canadian Women, and Chatelaine/Châtelaine  61
eva-marie kröller
PART TWO: BECOMING MODERN
5 Obsolescence as Progress and Regression: Technology, Temporality, and
Architecture at Expo 67  83
tom mcdonough
6 The Ambiguous Modernity of Designer Julien Hébert  93
martin racine
7 Girl Watching at Expo 67  109
aurora wallace
PART THREE: VISUAL TRANSACTIONS
8 Into the Labyrinth: Phantasmagoria at Expo 67  125
ben highmore
Contents

10. vi Contents
 9 The Christian Pavilion at Expo 67: Notes from Charles Gagnon’s Archive 143
  monika kin gagnon
10 Andy Warhol at Expo 67: Pop In and Pop Out  163
jean-françois côté
11 Postcards and the Chromophilic V isual Culture of Expo 67  176
johanne sloan
PART FOUR: URBAN EXPERIENCE
12 Montreal and the Megastructure, ca 1967  193
inderbir singh riar
13 Brian Jungen: Habitat 04  211
kitty scott
14 Tabloid Expo  221
will straw
Contributors  239

11. BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS
1.1 Selection of Expo 67 postcards.  4
2.1 Page from Cuisine of Pakistan.  40
3.1 Brochure from the Great Britain pavilion.  48
3.2 Tableau of a British family in the ‘Britain Today’ exhibit.  56
5.1 Exterior of the Federal Republic of Germany pavilion.  84
6.1 Maquette of The Buffet restaurant in the Canada pavilion.  95
6.2 Picnic table from The Buffet restaurant.  95
7.1 Attributes required of an Expo 67 hostess.  111
7.2 Uniforms of the hostesses of Expo 67.  114
8.1 Multi-screen display in the Czechoslovakia pavilion.  126
8.2 Cruciform arrangement of screens for Labyrinth.  134
8.3 Crowds line the balconies of the Labyrinth pavilion.  135
9.1 The garden in front of the Christian pavilion.  147
9.2 Christian pavilion interior.  149
9.3 Charles Gagnon, The Eighth Day/Le huitième jour.  155
10.1 Sculpture in the Youth pavilion.  169
11.1 Postcard showing the Canada pavilion.  182
12.1 Banham’s ‘comprehensive airview’ of Megacity Montreal.  201
12.2 Metro Education and the strategy of ‘urban infill.’  204
13.1 Moshe Safdie’s Habitat 67.  212
13.2 Brian Jungen, Habitat 04: Cité radieuse des chats/Cats Radiant City, 2004.  217
14.1 ‘Enfin, L’Expo!’ Cover of Le Journal de Montréal.  229
14.2 Coverage of a possible rat invasion of the Expo site.  232
14.3 A rat catcher applies noxious gas to a rat nest.  235
COLOUR PLATES
(Colour plates follow page 22)
Plate 1 Commemorative ‘passport.’
Plate 2 Colour slide of young visitors.
List of Illustrations

12. viii List of Illustrations
Plate 3 Canada Day cover of Weekend Magazine.
Plate 4 The Canada pavilion as presented in Daredevil comic.
Plate 5 Annotations by one visitor to the Expo 67 guide.
Plate 6 The Expo Lounge internet blog (from 2007).
Plate 7 ‘Experience Weightlessness’ advertisement.
Plate 8 ‘How to Become a Connoisseur without Leaving Canada.’
Plate 9 Menu of the 4 Regions Restaurant in the Switzerland pavilion.
Plate 10  The ‘Fashion and Music’ tableau in the ‘Britain Today’ exhibit.
Plate 11 Interior of the Federal Republic of Germany pavilion.
Plate 12 Expo 67 logo designed by Julien Hébert.
Plate 13 Sculpture by Julien Hébert, Place des arts.
Plate 14 ‘One of the Best Jobs in Canada.’
Plate 15 Pavilion hostesses in front of Places des Nations.
Plate 16 The film Canada 67, made using Circle-V ision 360-degree film.
Plate 17 Display and visitors in Zone 1 of the Christian pavilion.
Plate 18 Interior of the U.S. pavilion.
Plate 19 Postcard showing an Expo 67 maquette.
Plate 20 Brochure for the Kaleidoscope pavilion.
Plate 21 Postcard of the Quebec pavilion.
Plate 22 Man the Producer – a ‘rational and romantic’ megastructure.
Plate 23 Brian Jungen, Habitat 04: Cité radieuse des chats/Cats Radiant City, 2004.
Plate 24  ‘Hookers Descend on Sexpo 67!’

13. Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan would like to express their thanks
to the following individuals and institutions, for their abiding support in facilitat-
ing this project. The exhibition Expo 67: Not Just a Souvenir that we co-curated in
2005 at the Canadian Centre for Architecture, and a colloquium we co-organized,
held jointly at the CCA and at Concordia University and entitled Montreal at Street
Level: Revisiting the Material, Visual, and Spatial Cultures of the 1960s, were inspira-
tional points of departure for this collection of essays. We would thus like to thank
Phyllis Lambert, Founding Director of the CCA, for her enthusiastic support of
these projects, as well as Nancy Dunton, Helen Malkin, Serge Belet and Mirko
Zardini. We gratefully acknowledge both funding and encouragement from the
Faculty of Fine Arts and the Office of the Vice-President, Research at Concordia
University, as well as additional funding from the Social Sciences and Humani-
ties Research Council of Canada, and the Aid to Scholarly Publication fund of the
Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences. Bruno Paul Stenson,
MA, has been unfailingly generous with his expertise regarding Expo 67, and in
giving us access to his outstanding collection of Expo 67 memorabilia. Sara Spike’s
demonstrated proficiency as an editor and organizer, as well as a historian, has
been of immeasurable assistance throughout this project. We are grateful to Siob-
han McMenemy for her expert stewardship of the book through the various stages
of production at the University of Toronto Press, and to Ryan Van Huijstee and
Frances Mundy at the Press. Finally, we would like to thank our contributors for
all their efforts, and for having brought both breadth and nuance to the study of
Expo 67.
Acknowledgments

14. This page intentionally left blank

15. Expo 67
Not Just a Souvenir

16. This page intentionally left blank

17. On 27 August 1967, a couple named Claire and Leonard sent an Expo 67 postcard
from Montreal to Croton-on-Hudson, New York. The postcard depicted ‘a gon-
dola ride on Ile Notre Dame [one of the islands comprising the Expo site], passing
along the way the beautiful pavilions of Monaco, Haiti and France’ (fig. 1.1). Given
this juxtaposition of continents and countries, their scrawled message seems apt:
‘Having a wild time running to and fro.’ Presumably, the postcard reached its des-
tination, but that was not the end of its voyage. Years later, it was purchased for
a pittance at a flea market, became a cherished artefact in a personal collection of
Expo 67 souvenirs, and appeared in a formal exhibition at the Canadian Centre for
Architecture in 2005, one of the world’s premier architectural museums. Thus this
modest object has proven to have cultural longevity, beginning at the spatial and
temporal coordinates of Montreal, 1967, and then continuing to resonate in life sto-
ries and institutional contexts up to the present day. Such images and objects are
still taken out of boxes and drawers to be marvelled at anew, because even a lone
Expo 67 souvenir seems to contain some vital spark from that memorable event.
Like other Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions, and World’s Fairs
1
which
had been staged in Europe and North America since the mid-nineteenth century,
Expo 67 began with the demarcation of a new space, the material base on which
a vision could be concretized. In 1962 Montreal was officially chosen by the Paris-
based Bureau des Expositions to host an exhibition, in 1963 the overarching theme
of Terre des Hommes/Man and his World was put forward, and construction
began immediately afterwards on an alluring conglomeration of pavilions, enter-
tainment zones, and transportation networks occupying two man-made islands
in the St Lawrence River. This exurban apparition was meant to exist for a short
time alongside the real city of Montreal, provisionally detached from the usual
commercial, political, or ideological imperatives which govern the lives of people
around the globe. At Expo 67, buildings, machines, technologies, foodstuffs, art-
works, and myriad other cultural artefacts would be removed from everyday life
and re-presented according to the phantasmagoric logic of the world’s fair. The so-
called ‘passport’ issued to visitors reinforced the idea that Expo 67 functioned as a
miniaturized mirror image of the entire planet (see plate 1). Having gained entry
to the Expo islands with this document in hand, the visitor was temporarily trans-
formed into a citizen of the world, challenged to bear witness to the tremendous
1
Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir
rhona richman kenneally and johanne sloan

18. 4 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
range of peoples and things on display, and consequently drawn into processes of
cultural exchange.
The contributors to this book attest to a widespread fascination with what tran-
spired on those manufactured islands in the summer of 1967, and they also set out
to analyse the imaginative and ideological vestiges of Expo 67 that remain lodged
in contemporary culture. The essays interrogate aspects of Expo 67 in light of cur-
rent scholarly and theoretical concerns – postcolonial and national discourses, gen-
der studies, visual culture, the critique of modernism, the interdisciplinary study
of cities, and histories of technology, for instance. At various moments throughout
these essays, Expo 67 is also regarded as an important conjuncture in histories of
Canada, Quebec, and Montreal. And then, because Expo 67 was arguably one of
the last great world’s fairs, this book is also an opportunity to assess the legacy of
1.1 Selection of Expo 67 postcards, including one with the handwritten message
‘Having a wild time running to and fro’ sent 27 August 1967.
Collection of Johanne Sloan.

19. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  5
this phenomenon. Most world’s fair scholarship focuses on the nineteenth- and
early twentieth-century exhibitions, but relatively little has been written about the
late twentieth-century incarnations. Expo 67 has certainly not been forgotten, but
it is only recently that artists, architects, teachers, and scholars from various disci-
plines have been exchanging their respective insights.
2
We realized early on that
unravelling the complexity of Expo 67 would demand an interdisciplinary con-
versation, and so this book brings together scholars from art history, architecture,
design, communications, media studies, sociology, and literature. Certainly, we
make no claims that this book is comprehensive: rather, we see it as a point of
departure and hope that it will contribute to further investigation. The essays
have been grouped under four headings: ‘The Material Culture of Nationhood,’
‘Becoming Modern,’ ‘V isual Transactions,’ and ‘Urban Experience.’ In methodo-
logical terms we have chosen to regard the ephemeral artefacts and experiences of
Expo 67 as revealing cultural markers, to the same extent as the more monumental
architecture and rituals enacted during the exhibition. The intellectual respect we
accord to the above-mentioned postcard, for example, underscores the opportu-
nity lost when such souvenirs are treated as trivial stuff, or regarded apart from
the trajectories they describe through social space.
Expo 67 was developed under the thematic rubric Terre des Hommes/Man and
His World, a phrase borrowed from Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, the French author/
aviator best known for writing The Little Prince. One foundational document, pre-
pared in 1963, states: ‘“Terre des Hommes” has been chosen as the central motif.
The intent will be to examine the behaviour of man in his environment, extolling
his achievements in the fields of ideas, culture and science.’
3
Here and in count-
less other texts in circulation around the time of Expo 67, a similarly essentialized
notion of ‘Man’ was put forward. All of the planet’s inhabitants would supposedly
be represented by this singular, aspirational figure. In Saint-Exupéry’s writings,
the distanced view from above the surface of the planet (literally the view from
his airplane, that is) allowed the emergence of a humanistic point of view, with
the implication that this perspective was impossible at ground level; indeed, the
author’s extra-planetary stance has been described as ‘cosmic humanism.’
4
This
airborne gaze allowed any number of geo-political, ethnic, or religious differences
and conflicts to be reduced to insignificance, thus seducing Expo visitors into con-
cluding that the earth belonged collectively to humankind, to ‘Man.’
5
This cen-
tral positioning of Man, and the idea that every visitor could simply step into the
shoes of this idealized Everyman to survey the world, would serve as the event’s
ostensible unifying principle. Yet if Expo 67 shows the popularity of this brand
of humanism at this particular time, its intellectual foundation was nevertheless
under threat as well. The idea of ‘Man and His World’ as borrowed from Saint-
Exupéry can be measured against the contribution of a rather different French
writer, Michel Foucault, whose book Les mots et les choses (published in 1966, the
year before Expo 67) attempted to dislodge this phantasmatic figure of Man from
its place as the privileged subject of history. Following Foucault’s lead, we might
therefore ask: what kinds of subjects were produced by the humanist discourse of
Expo 67?
The Man and His World theme branched out into sub-categories, such as Man

20. 6 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
the Creator, Man the Explorer, Man the Producer, Man the Provider, and Man and
the Community. If the majority of pavilions ultimately reverted to the tradition-
al programming of previous world’s fairs by representing countries, states, and
provinces, these ‘Man and His World’ meta-pavilions were meant to serve as the
common denominators speaking to the needs and desires of all humankind.
6
And
despite the implicit masculinity of these ‘Man’ pavilions, it can be argued that
the official female presence on the site most successfully epitomized this humanist
aspiration. The official Expo 67 hostesses, fashionably attired in sky-blue miniskirts
and white go-go boots, visually punctuated the environment and interacted with
visitors at all times. While every national pavilion had its own cohort of hostesses,
each wearing her own representative costume and voicing a particular nation’s
agenda, these official hostesses seemed to transcend that nationalist consciousness
by articulating (while pleasantly smiling) Expo 67’s fundamental message of a
unified planetary community.
Our contributors address this humanistic message in various ways, showing
how it was translated into images, objects, and forms of display, and analysing its
success as an ideological veil overlaid onto more complex social and political real-
ities. And indeed, this book builds on a body of scholarly literature which points
out such contradictory impulses from the outset of the world’s fair phenomenon.
Writing about the first wave of nineteenth-century exhibitions, Paul Greenhalgh
notes that ‘brotherly love and understanding between nations was the single
most laboured aspect of exhibition diatribe, the sentiment usually being ridiculed
by displays of military technology, imperial conquest and abject racism on the
sites themselves.’
7
In a book examining the ideological foundations of American
world’s fairs, Robert Rydell brings the story more up to date by showing how the
1958 world’s fair in Brussels was permeated by Cold War politics, undermining
the fair’s inevitable rhetoric of global understanding. He argues that the American
pavilion in Brussels served to ‘give material shape to a vision of American culture
as a paradise of mass consumption developing under the benevolent guidance of
corporate capitalists, government authorities, and academic experts.’
8
If world’s fairs have historically been sites of contradictory messages, ideals,
and ideologies, it is all the more important to submit each fair to close scrutiny,
and hence to determine what was distinctive about Expo 67. We cannot ignore that
previous world’s fairs coincided with chapters in the history of colonialism, and
that forms of display, education, and entertainment were typically entwined with
assertions of cultural superiority. By 1967 the geo-political map of the world had
dramatically changed, however, and Expo 67 could be regarded as a promotional
opportunity for an emergent post-colonial consciousness, with countries such as
Algeria presenting themselves as newly independent entities on the world stage,
and the ‘Africa Place’ pavilion providing testimony to that continent’s ongoing
national liberation struggles. The Cold War, meanwhile, was in full throttle, but
Cuba could gleefully advertise itself in the official Expo 67 guidebook as ‘the first
socialist country of the Western Hemisphere,’
9
and Canadian soil provided a less-
than-hysterical setting for the inevitable showdown between the American and
Soviet pavilions, and their competing world views. It is also significant that the
summer months of 1967 would achieve renown both as the ‘summer of love’ and

21. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  7
as a time of violent racial clashes in the United States, which is to say that Expo 67
coincided with the rise of youth and counterculture movements, feminism, civil
rights activism, and anti-war protests.
Several of the essays show that even the fair’s most prescriptive messages would
be appropriated and modified by visitors. An example of this appropriation cen-
tres on the ‘passport’ issued to Expo 67’s paying customers. In accordance with the
event’s official message of global friendship, this multi-use ticket, in the guise of a
travel document, promised temporarily to overwrite the reality of nationally deter-
mined identities; that is, Expo 67’s facsimile passport had utopian connotations.
Nevertheless, the very idea that people must move through the world bearing
passports was challenged by the anarchist social critic Paul Goodman, who spoke
on ‘Youth Day’ at Expo 67, taking the opportunity to suggest that ‘young people
should tear up their passports when travelling abroad so as to promote real inter-
national understanding.’
10
And so, while our object of study is a highly orchestrat-
ed event, intended to articulate government agendas and the dominant ideological
tendencies of the Western world, this book attempts to do justice to the dynamic
interaction of people, places, things, and ideas that was triggered by Expo 67.
The Material Culture of Nationhood
The concept of the nation remained central throughout Expo 67, precisely because
the array of self-promoting national pavilions, exhibitions, and displays was situ-
ated against the backdrop of Canadian and Québécois nationalisms. It is signifi-
cant, too, that the assertion of nationhood at Expo 67 – whether by newly formed
nation-states, ex-colonies, or long-established nations in the process of renego-
tiating their own identities – would be continually juxtaposed to principles of
inter-national commonality, universal human truths, and the transcendence of
boundaries. Everywhere at Expo 67, the very concept of the nation would be
propped up, even while its ideological limits were being questioned.
The effectiveness of Expo 67 and the other centenary celebrations as manifes-
tations of Canadian nationalism can to some extent be measured by the many
expressions of nostalgia for these events in subsequent years. The popular histo-
rian Pierre Berton published a book on the thirtieth anniversary of Expo 67, rather
melodramatically entitled 1967: The Last Good Year. Glossing over social and politi-
cal conflicts as well as the rise of Quebec’s separatist movement, Berton avows that
‘1967 was the last good year before all Canadians began to be concerned about
the future of our country.’
11
Referring to ‘the miracle of Expo 67,’ Berton envelops
the whole event in a nostalgic, nationalist bubble.
12
Berton’s testimony resembles
what Svetlana Boym has termed ‘restorative nostalgia.’ Boym writes: ‘This kind of
nostalgia characterizes national and nationalist revivals all over the world, which
engage in the antimodern myth-making of history by means of a return to national
symbols and myths.’
13
Certainly Berton has not been alone in wanting Expo 67 to
represent that one perfect moment (now forever lost) of Canadian unity, and even
more than forty years later, as we will see, such aspirations manifest themselves.
Expo continues to elicit powerful affective responses from people who attended
the event, as well as from those who acquired mementos and souvenirs at the

22. 8 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
time or subsequently (see plate 2). But Boym also points to a more productive and
complex kind of nostalgia which ‘does not pretend to rebuild the mythical palace
called home,’ and so is unlikely to be yoked to political goals.
14
Instead, with this
‘reflective nostalgia,’ as she terms it, ‘the past opens up a multitude of potentiali-
ties’ and ‘awaken[s] multiple levels of consciousness.’
15
The articulation of Canadian nationalism around Expo 67 would ultimately
encompass a range of official voices, unsanctioned views, and polemical positions.
One such voice is that of author Gabrielle Roy: as a member of the select group of
intelligentsia invited by the federal government to brainstorm about the upcom-
ing world’s fair, Roy was no doubt expected to trumpet (however eloquently) the
glorious achievements of the nation.
16
But in the end, in an oversized picture book
issued by the Expo Corporation, this pre-eminent Quebec author expands upon
the humanism of Saint-Exupéry, but has remarkably little to say about the Cana-
dian nation: she observes only that Expo 67 would permit ‘the word “Canada” [to]
re-echo throughout the world like a rallying cry and an invitation to friendship.’
17

If Canada is hereby reduced to a word, for Roy it is an almost talismanic ‘word,’
to be launched into a global environment rather than being contained within our
national borders. Expo 67 is regarded, in this case, as a kind of instrument or tech-
nology with the capacity to broadcast Canada’s ‘rallying cry.’
Roy apparently chose not to describe a troubled or fractured Canadian nation,
although she would have been well aware that competing visions of nationalism
were in play within Canada’s borders by the 1960s. Indeed, Expo 67 might have
told a triumphant story of the modern Canadian identity, but this event also coin-
cided with the so-called révolution tranquille in Quebec, that modern and secular
coming-to-consciousness of the Québécois.
18
Against the inter-national backdrop
provided by Expo 67, a great many people in Quebec were reconsidering the sta-
tus of their own language, culture, and nationhood. It is relevant that the Parti
Québécois officially came into existence the following year, while the Québécois
writer/activist Pierre Vallières was in jail during that summer of Expo 67, having
just completed the manuscript for Nègres blancs d’Amérique, a book which address-
es the Québécois people as victims of sustained and systematic oppression within
the Canadian state. Vallières encourages his compatriots to ‘sweep away the rot-
tenness that poisons their existence,’ and ‘in solidarity with the exploited, the nig-
gers of all the other countries, to build a new society for a new man, a society
that is human for all men, just for all men, in the service of all men. A fraternal
society.’
19
In a way, this author’s message of futurity and international solidarity
echoes Expo 67’s (and Roy’s) humanist doctrine, although this was undoubtedly
an angrier, more confrontational vision of how global harmony might eventual-
ly be achieved. Even if Vallières’s militant stance was not the majority view, the
question of a distinct Québécois destiny was in the air in 1967 and would achieve
notoriety through the visit of the French president to Expo 67, culminating in his
infamous ‘Vive le Québec libre!’ speech, delivered to an exultant Montreal audi-
ence, and to livid politicians. (The irony of De Gaulle’s cheerfully glib support of
Quebec’s ‘national liberation struggle’ would not have been lost on those who so
painfully overthrew French colonial rule in Algeria.)
These were some of the ideological stakes around the time of Expo 67. But the

23. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  9
ideology of nationalism does not only operate at the level of abstract concept; it
acquires physical form as landscape, architecture, exhibition display, not to men-
tion the unassuming souvenirs that would inevitably become detached from
the site.
20
It is fascinating, then, to realize that in the early planning stages of the
event, the possibility was raised of staging this world’s fair without the concept
of nationhood as the central organizing principle. The architects/urban planners
H.P. Daniel (Sandy) and Blanche Van Ginkel were part of a team of experts hired
to translate the Expo 67 vision into a material form. Throughout 1963, the Van
Ginkels put forward their view that adhering to a national paradigm was old-fash-
ioned and even reactionary, and that it was preferable to bring the world together
without providing a separate container for each nation-state.
Support for this position was both local and international. Lewis Mumford, the
renowned urban and cultural theorist, responded positively to memoranda the
Van Ginkels sent him on this issue. He espoused a plan to ‘get rid of national
exhibitions, or at least national buildings: have each country contribute its best
products and skills to buildings that would display the works of all nations togeth-
er.’
21
In this document Mumford does not deny the right of each country to show
off its achievements, but he challenges the imperative that each nation remain
sequestered, unto itself, in a discrete pavilion. One can only imagine how different
the impact of Expo 67 might have been if, for example, visitors had encountered
American and Soviet ventures into space only within the neutral environment of
the Man the Explorer pavilion. Instead, visitors were forcefully reminded of the
ongoing and competitive space race, through the dramatic artificial moonscapes
and simulations of space travel featured in both the U.S. and USSR pavilions.
Mumford’s opinion about Expo 67 is significant because it provides a genealogy
for an alternate discursive thread within the world’s fair tradition. Mumford had
himself contributed to the 1939 New York World’s Fair, while his mentor, the Scot-
tish scientist and social theorist Patrick Geddes, participated in the 1900 Exposition
Universelle in Paris. Both these men argued for the world’s fair to be taken seri-
ously as an opportunity for civic and social planning, and as ‘a form of citizen
education,’
22
and it can be argued that this perspective, as taken up by the Van
Ginkels, might have corresponded more closely to the macrocosmic mapping of
human endeavour expounded by Saint-Exupéry.
The Van Ginkels would resign from their posts when it became clear that these
radical ideas were not going to be adopted, and admittedly, a critique of national-
ism as the fair’s organizing principle would have been strange, under the circum-
stances, as Canada exuberantly prepared to celebrate its centenary. Examples of
this refocused Canadian identity include the introduction of the new maple leaf
flag (1965) alongside more symbolic gestures such as the approval by Parliament
of ‘O Canada!’ as the national anthem (1967).
23
Throughout the centenary year
and all across the country, historical re-enactments, art exhibitions, concerts, edu-
cational events, and so on, were underwritten by the public purse, as well as by
private sponsors. Still, for many Canadians the ultimate affirmation of nationhood
was that trip hundreds or thousands of miles across the country to attend Expo 67
in the summer of 1967, an event proudly captured on the cover photo of the Mon-
treal Star’s Weekend Magazine on Canada Day. (see plate 3)

24. 10 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
The contributors to the first section of this book – Rhona Richman Kenneal-
ly, Elizabeth Darling, and Eva-Marie Kröller – approach Expo 67 as a site where
nationalism was negotiated, contested, and destabilized. These essays are innova-
tive insofar as they explore nationalism from the perspective of material culture.
Nationhood became intelligible to Expo 67 visitors in a variety of ways – through
the architecture of the pavilions, the presentation of industrial objects, artworks,
and crafts; through guidebooks, pamphlets, photographs, and films; through cos-
tume and clothing; and also through food and drink. In focusing on the food at
Expo 67, Rhona Richman Kenneally explores gastronomic opportunities for the
articulation of nationalism. Her argument is that the foods served in the thirty or
so restaurants housed within the national pavilions were themselves important
markers in constructing and transmitting the cultural values and riches that each
country wished to emphasize. These were mediated for the public through taste,
smell, and texture, but also through menus, restaurant decor, and the names of
dishes, not to mention the Expo 67 venue itself. By assuring eaters that the often-
exotic dishes they would be served were ‘authentic,’ subjected to rigorous quality
control guided by culinary heritage on the one hand and the recognized vicissi-
tudes of modern life on the other, the administrators of these restaurants asserted
their national cultural hegemony. The result was an interactive, combined enter-
tainment/pedagogic opportunity to experience a nation’s bounty first-hand – one
worthy of the high prices, not to mention the long lines, that characterized these
eating experiences.
Expo 67 served as a venue for many investigations and re-presentations of
nationhood, through a range of cultural artefacts. Elizabeth Darling’s essay on the
‘Britain Today’ exhibition in the Britain Pavilion examines how a sense of British
identity was made available to Expo 67 visitors. Drawing on Umberto Eco’s con-
temporaneous writings about ‘open symbols,’ Darling argues that the semiotically
‘open’ quality of the displays functioned to challenge the monolithic representa-
tions of British identity that had prevailed in past exhibitions and world’s fairs.
And so, displayed alongside tweed-clad gents sipping teas was the new youth cul-
ture of Carnaby Street and the manufactured goods to be found on any high street
in the country. In this way, the national character of Britons emerges as a complex
and ‘unfinished’ cultural process, with the implication that Britain was changing
before one’s eyes. This case study is crucial insofar as what unfolded in the British
pavilion paralleled the strategies of other national pavilions to achieve some kind
of balance between tradition, heritage, and folklore on the one hand and a more
cosmopolitan modernism on the other.
Eva-Marie Kröller’s analysis of ‘What to wear to Expo,’ as prescribed in the
English and French versions of Canada’s Chatelaine magazine, suggests that much
more was at stake than sartorial advice in the magazines’ anecdotal accounts of
celebrating the centennial and travelling to Expo from various parts of the country.
The debate about nationalism is embedded in the very pages of a ‘woman’s’ maga-
zine, conventionally focused on domestic matters and the everyday life of families
but beginning to contend with changing gender roles and the rise of feminism.
Kröller tracks the magazine’s advice about how a Canadian family should dress
the part at Expo 67. Thus she regards these seemingly minor journalistic fragments

25. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  11
– as well as the visitor’s suitcase-full of garments – as tangible evidence of how a
newly modern Canadian identity was being tried on for size by both anglophone
and francophone women.
Becoming Modern
Expo 67 brought art, architecture, design, fashion, and technology together into
a glittering, modern package. If the exhibition organizers deployed a humanistic
vocabulary to establish common ground for its heterogeneous crowd of contribu-
tors and visitors, one could argue that modernism itself became a lingua franca
at Expo 67, seemingly capable of traversing borders, nationalities, and even ide-
ologies. Almost every pavilion was striking for its modern-looking appearance,
and indeed very few national pavilions referred to vernacular or nationally spe-
cific architectural traditions.
24
Thus the ingenious geometry of Buckminster Ful-
ler’s geodesic dome for the United States, the unusual ‘folded-paper’ architecture
of the Cuba pavilion, and the abstract shapes of the Canada pavilion could all
become iconic manifestations of the event, the modern language of the buildings
proclaiming a unified project, despite the many historical and political differences
between these countries.
In a way, all world’s fairs were modern. The first Great Exhibition of London
in 1851 had showcased Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace as a new engineering and
architectural feat to be marvelled at for its own sake. The enormous iron and glass
building composed of prefabricated elements, unlike anything seen before, was
itself a glimpse of the future. Even when subsequent world’s fairs created an archi-
tectural environment that evoked, in a more nostalgic way, a grand and monu-
mental European tradition (and even if the buildings in question were quickly
erected replicas made of plaster and other ephemeral materials),
25
it was a given
that world’s fairs would put the metropolis’s very latest products, technologies,
artworks, and fashions on display. And it is possible that the sparkling newness
of these artefacts became even more evident to visitors when viewed against a
historicized (however ersatz) architectural backdrop.
It was in the twentieth century that world’s fairs most unabashedly embraced
futurity. The 1939 World’s Fair in New York, for example, provided its visitors with
awe-striking glimpses of a future world that would be radically different from the
daily lives of most New York residents. E.L. Doctorow’s novel World’s Fair conveys
this very effectively by contrasting the old-fashioned habitus of working-class
Jews in the 1930s with the hyper-stimulating world of new technologies, architec-
tures, and transportation systems introduced on the nearby Flushing Meadows
site of the 1939 fair.
26
If Expo 67 also announced a future world, by the 1960s this
futurity was already on the doorstep. And if colonial-era events had once denied
the possibility of cultural change and improvement to non-Western participants,
at Expo 67 the entire planet was apparently becoming modern in sync.
27
Indeed,
Expo 67 made it seem as if modern life was accessible to all visitors, to embrace
and take home.
The ‘modern’ only acquires meaning, however, in relational terms. What is con-
strued as modern at any given moment will be opposed in myriad ways and con-

26. 12 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
texts to something else that is un-modern or anti-modern. And so at Expo 67 every
national pavilion flaunted its modern identity in some way; very often this was
in architectural terms, and the attention-grabbing designs of the aforementioned
American, Cuban, and Canadian pavilions were echoed many times throughout
the site. Another striking signifier of the modern was provided through the exten-
sive use of large-screen and multi-screen cinematic projections, as well as other
innovative visual technologies (to be discussed in some detail in the section of
this book entitled ‘V isual Transactions’). Inevitably, though, such gestures towards
the modern were counterbalanced by exhibits, displays, performances, meals,
costumes, and so on, which emphasized tradition, heritage, and folklore. This
meant that each pavilion inevitably contained a (sometimes blatant) tension: the
affirmation of a cosmopolitan, urban, technologically sophisticated identity had
to be conjoined or opposed in some way to the specificity of a given nation’s tradi-
tions and history. The Czechoslovakia pavilion, for instance, became an extremely
popular venue because of its experimental cinematic multi-screen projections, but
also due to its displays of centuries-old traditions of glassware and puppetry; in
such instances it seemed as if the modern and the traditional could be seamlessly
reconciled. A less reassuring version of this modern/traditional tension could be
found in the Indians of Canada pavilion, where the displays included hand-craft-
ed artefacts bespeaking traditional spiritual values, but where state-of-the-art pho-
tographic murals and textual panels also addressed the contemporary struggles
of Native peoples in Canada to restore a culture decimated through contact with
Europeans.
What it meant to appear modern, or to become modern, at Expo 67 is therefore
not so straightforward, and the essays in this section, by Tom McDonough, Mar-
tin Racine, and Aurora Wallace, approach their case studies as complex moments
in the implementation of modern forms and ideas. McDonough’s primary object
of study is Frei Otto and Rolf Gutbrod’s polyester-and-steel tent for West Ger-
many, and he analyses how the legacy of architectural modernism would have
been understood at Expo 67 by comparing the Otto and Gutbrod structure with
Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion of 1929 – a model of which was, in fact,
prominently displayed in the West Germany pavilion. While the modern character
of these buildings is linked to their materiality, spatial configuration, and use of
new technologies, McDonough expands the discussion of architectural style and
spatiality to address modernism in more theoretical, and more political, terms. The
concepts of ephemerality and obsolescence might circulate within the discourse of
architecture, but they also appear in the social theory of Henri Lefebvre, and in the
contemporaneous journal Utopie. McDonough questions whether there was still
utopian content embedded in the modernism of the Otto and Gutbrod building,
and this is indeed a key theoretical question, one that can be directed to the entire
modern-looking built environment of Expo 67.
The overall visual coherence of the architecture and design on the Expo 67 site
camouflages the complexity of what it meant to ‘become modern’ at Expo 67, as
this was by no means a uniform experience. Martin Racine’s essay addresses the
distinctive conditions under which Quebeckers were becoming modern in the
1960s by examining the contribution of the designer Julien Hébert. Hébert was

27. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  13
responsible for Expo 67’s distinctive logo of stylized human figures which would
be emblazoned on innumerable signs, documents, and souvenir objects, and he
also designed urban furniture, fixtures, exhibition displays, and pavilion interiors
on the Expo site. Racine argues that it is wrong to regard this body of work as
simply another iteration of an internationally viable style, because the designer’s
approach was forged amid debates concerning the appropriate aesthetic and cul-
tural forms for the emergent Québécois nation. Hébert’s career intersects at various
points with that of the abstract painter and manifesto writer Paul-Émile Borduas,
but Hébert insisted on the need to go beyond easel painting to embrace the design
of objects associated with everyday life. Expo 67 can be seen as his materialized
‘manifesto,’ showing how a modern Québécois consciousness could be expressed
through the reinvention of these objects and furnishings, through the embrace of
industrialized materials, and through the integration of art and architecture.
Modern impulses can become intelligible through visual form and shape, and
just as the previous essays begin with specific examples of architecture and design,
so too does Aurora Wallace zero in on the modern-looking silhouette of the mini-
skirted hostesses at Expo 67. Certainly this collective fashion statement contrib-
uted to Expo 67’s overall modern impact, but if the space-age sheaths in evidence
throughout the exhibition echo the bold architectonics of sixties design in general
terms, Wallace also reminds us that more was at stake in the conceptualization and
presentation of the hostess costume. In one sense hostesses were part of the visu-
al spectacle to be consumed at the world’s fair, and Wallace introduces the era’s
peculiar phenomenon of girl-watching to analyse how women were constantly
being scrutinized as they occupied public space and assumed new urban apparel.
At the same time, much like airline hostesses – their uniformed counterparts in the
sky – Expo 67 hostesses were also enticing the public to experience modern prac-
tices while serving as cultural mediators for visitors to the site. Effectively under-
mining, then, the gendered rhetoric of ‘Man and His World,’ this essay points to
the mutable identity of modern women at Expo 67.
Visual Transactions
In the summer of 1967, the Queen of England visited Expo 67 and rode on the
monorail – receiving the adulation of her subjects just as if she were riding in a
royal carriage – even if the next person to occupy her seat might have been a nine-
year-old kid visiting from Saskatchewan. Each of such moments stood a chance
to be transformed into a visual representation – as photo-journalism, snapshot
or slide, filmed news footage, or home movie. Expo 67 was a highly photogenic
event, and the experience of it was largely constituted in visual and pictorial terms.
This is yet another way that Expo 67 followed in the footsteps of earlier world’s
fairs. During their nineteenth-century heyday, these events were admired as visual
extravaganzas, and the European venues in particular were opportunities for the
most powerful states to show off (with an emphasis on show) their colonial wealth
to each other and to the rest of the world, with the aim of asserting a sense of cul-
tural (racial, ideological, spiritual, artistic, etc.) superiority. Timothy Mitchell has
written that in these exhibitions the colony was destined to become ‘picture-like

28. 14 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
and legible, rendered available to political and economic calculation.’
28
A rather
different take on the visual impact of world’s fairs was described by Walter Ben-
jamin, however. His Arcades project includes the testimony of visitors to London’s
Crystal Palace in 1851, for whom the overall effect of the light-filled interior, con-
taining every new mechanical invention under the sun but also adorned with
plants, statues, and birds, was one of enchantment.
29
Benjamin labels this experi-
ence ‘phantasmagoric,’ following the Marxist idea that the commodity casts a spell
over consumers. These analyses are therefore markedly different: Mitchell asserts
that the world’s fair strove to be ‘picture-like and legible,’ but Benjamin argues
against this kind of ideological transparency, suggesting instead that the dominant
visual paradigm was a dreamlike illusion. (Expo 67’s fantastical quality is perhaps
most apparent when it seamlessly becomes the setting for a 1967 comic book fea-
turing Daredevil, one of the Marvel superheroes [see plate 4].) In fact, both of these
conceptual models co-exist and are legitimate, and the resulting ambiguity is a
feature of world’s fairs.
Expo 67 as a whole was a veritable showcase for new visual technologies. If
visitors to the exhibition were probably familiar with a limited repertoire of mov-
ing and projected images – the cinema, the domestic television set, the home slide
projector – a tour through the pavilions provided encounters with a whole new
world of moving pictures. The panoramic film Canada 67 shown in the Telephone
Pavilion completely enveloped the spectator in a 360-degree circular image. The
Man the Explorer pavilion had slowly revolving theatres, so that multiple screens
could be seen all at once. The previously mentioned Czechoslovakia pavilion fea-
tured three different experimental-screen presentations: an interactive narrative
film, a multi-screen cinema where a computer controlled the sequencing, and
the Diopolyecran, whereby fifteen thousand photographic transparencies (slides)
formed a constantly moving kaleidoscope of imagery. The complexity of the cin-
ematic experience in the Labyrinth pavilion, described in this volume by Ben
Highmore, was also much admired. These are only a few examples, as many more
oversized, multiple, or faceted screens could be found throughout the exhibition,
presented as a foretaste of the future. It is important to remember, though, that
novel, experimental screen experiences had been presented at earlier world’s fairs;
for instance, Rosalind Williams’s book Dream Worlds describes over twenty proto-
cinematic visual entertainments at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, which
explored the boundary between still and moving images and which drastically
altered or enhanced perception through some mechanical contrivance. Visitors to
the 1900 event could view the world from above in a Cineoramatic balloon trip,
while the ‘Trans-Siberian Railway’ moving panorama had spectators seated in real
railway carriages with the illusion of moving past or through a sequence of Rus-
sian landscapes.
30
At world’s fairs leading up to and including Expo 67, the for-
mal and technological aspects of these visual experiences was marvelled at, while
the subject-matter or narrative content routinely remained of secondary interest.
Whereas a conventional filmic presentation of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
would have been terribly banal, this same material, repackaged in a cinematic
panorama for Canada 67, resulted in what one critic at the time called an ‘optical
amusement park.’
31

29. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  15
The architecture and spatial layout of the Labyrinth pavilion at Expo 67 was
purpose-built to house the immersive cinematic environment conceived by
Roman Kroitor, and Highmore’s essay in this volume asks whether such new
architectural/visual technology marks the advent of a new cinematic language.
To address this question, Highmore introduces the concept of the phantasmago-
ria, particularly as it pertains to the world’s fair experience. For Walter Benjamin,
as mentioned above, as well as for other authors such as Theodor Adorno, the
phantasmagoria implies the interdependence of visual experience, commodifica-
tion, and ideology. In his discussion, Highmore points to paradoxical aspects of
the phantasmagoria: it permits the inculcation of dominant values, but through
its multi-sensorial assault suggests the ‘potential for other sorts of experiences,
ones that might possibly be utopian or critical, or simply new.’
32
In the context of
Expo 67, it then becomes possible to analyse the entertaining visual thrills of the
Labyrinth pavilion while also considering how it might serve as the catalyst for a
genuine kind of social and perceptual awakening.
Another kind of experimental cinematic experience is addressed in Monika Kin
Gagnon’s essay about The Eighth Day, a film made by her father Charles Gagnon
for the Christian pavilion at Expo 67. The Eighth Day was composed of found foot-
age, and in this sense it resembled the many instances at Expo 67 of montaged
and collaged imagery, whether cinematic or photographic, which showed diverse
people from around the world. The film’s confrontational approach was a far cry,
however, from the conciliatory messages of universal human values that charac-
terized so many of the displays. This is an important case study because it shows
how Expo 67’s rhetoric of universalism and humanism could be appropriated and
to some extent undermined. And although Gagnon’s film appeared under the
rubric of Christianity, its explicit anti-war stance brought it close to the countercul-
tural values of the 1960s, while the absence of any religious iconography would
have resonated with the anti-clerical mood of Quebeckers in the very throes of the
révolution tranquille.
Expo 67 was replete with movement, colour, and visual stimuli, and it could be
argued that the entire space of the exhibition was aestheticized – but what does
this imply about the status of art, both within the ideological and physical con-
struct of the exhibition itself? Discrete works of art did punctuate the pavilions
and exhibition grounds, sometimes very dramatically, as was the case with Alex-
ander Calder’s monumental abstract sculpture, Man. At other times, works of art
were integrated into more general displays, for example in the U.S. pavilion, where
Pop and Colorfield artworks appeared – from certain angles – to merge with the
recreated lunar landscape which occupied a seemingly floating platform inside
Buckminster Fuller’s dome. On many other occasions, the elaborate displays and
decorative schemes throughout the Expo 67 site resembled, in a variety of ways,
works more formally sanctioned as art, further blurring the identification and dif-
ferentiation criteria supporting that imprimatur, criteria that, themselves, were in
flux during this period.
Jean-Francois Côté’s essay in this collection addresses precisely these questions
by examining the fleeting presence of Andy Warhol at Expo 67. Warhol was the
main figure associated with the Pop Art movement, whereby the category of art

30. 16 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
was apparently dissolving into a bigger category of pop culture. Was this Warho-
lian paradigm in evidence at Expo 67? At a certain level it does seem as if the Expo
67 experience was an object lesson in how education, entertainment, technological
innovation, commercial display, and aesthetic concerns could all be rolled into one
highly desirable pop-culture image/product. But Côté argues that the levelling
out of cultural hierarchies at Expo 67 was more complicated than that, and so he
contrasts Warhol’s triumphant assertion of a Pop Art world, manifested at the U.S.
pavilion, for example, with the local phenomenon of Ti-pop (examples of which
were displayed in the Youth Pavilion). Ti-pop artworks embraced Americanized
pop culture but simultaneously regionalized its conceptualization and execution
by addressing, and repackaging, the religious iconography and parochial tradi-
tions of the Québécois people. Thus we see that Expo 67 was an opportunity to
negotiate the meaning of an expanded visual culture.
Johanne Sloan’s essay presents the glossy, intensely coloured postcard as a key
artefact for studying the visual culture of Expo 67. Throughout the exhibition site,
still photographs were introduced into elaborately conceived spatial environ-
ments, integrated into sculptural forms, set in motion, and bombarded with col-
oured light. The artificially enhanced, colour-saturated postcard epitomized all
that was fantastic and dreamlike about Expo 67. If the result was a pleasurably
chromophilic experience, this was an integral part of the world’s fair promise – to
create, if even temporarily, a new imaginative space, a utopian glimpse.
Urban Experience
This idea of a kind of adjacent, captive utopia as a goad to the reorganization of public
spaces in the ‘real’ city is remarkable. Expo 67 … constantly informs what’s happen-
ing across the river in Montreal.
33
This comment was delivered by the architect and theorist Michael Sorkin on the
occasion of the Canadian Centre for Architecture’s (CCA’s) exhibition The Sixties:
Montreal Thinks Big, held in 2004–5. The city of Montreal was indeed booming in
the 1960s: monumental architectural and engineering feats such as new skyscrap-
ers, freeways, industrial zones, and an underground Metro system, were trans-
forming the city. Some urban planners predicted that the population of Montreal
would reach seven million by the year 2000.
34
This anticipated growth fostered
much speculation about this enlarged city of the future, and indeed, many of the
documents included in the CCA exhibition showed grandiose visionary schemes
for Montreal’s development – hence the exhibition’s title, Montreal Thinks Big.
And so Expo 67 was (and sometimes still is) regarded by commentators such as
Sorkin as a kind of materialized blueprint for the future city, an idealized model of
urban space, a ‘captive utopia.’
35
Officially, of course, Expo 67 was the stage on which Canada’s centenary was
celebrated, but one could argue that the evolving city of Montreal also played a
key role in shaping and defining the world’s fair experience in 1967. Significantly,
the same Van Ginkel design team that lobbied for a less nation-oriented prism
through which to study Man and His World had also argued forcefully that the

31. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  17
exhibition grounds should be built, not as a more or less autonomous zone unto
themselves, but as a directly linked outgrowth of Montreal. Such a strategy, they
believed, would greatly facilitate the integration of the new construction into the
real, workaday city once the exhibition was over.
36
As we know, this plan was not
realized, and Expo 67’s physical segregation from the rest of Montreal was assert-
ed all the more strongly by the fact that it was situated on islands of its own in the
St Lawrence River. Yet Expo 67 nevertheless maintained many city-like qualities
of its own by virtue of its strategically laid out ‘urban’ design, which included
promenades, plazas, state-of-the-art public transportation, shops, restaurants, and
‘streets.’ In that sense, Expo 67 can be seen as a kind of utopic urban satellite in
opposition to the wider municipality that fed and sustained it – a municipality
that, despite the intentions of Mayor Jean Drapeau to sanitize Montreal’s street
scene by sweeping its detritus (human and otherwise) under the rug for the visi-
tors, maintained a seamy side commensurate with its reputation for hedonistic
activities.
37
Certainly, this was not the first time that a world’s fair seemed to func-
tion as a kind of alter ego for the actual city hosting the event – emerging as its
cleaner, more well-ordered self, its future self perhaps. The Chicago World’s Fair
of 1893 was known at the time as the ‘White City’ because the entire urban envi-
ronment – buildings, streets, sculptures, and fountains – had been made pristine
with a coat of white paint, which differentiated it rather dramatically from the
gritty ‘grey city’ of Chicago. Peter Hales has written that this fair was ‘a piece of
inspired civic boosterism’ on the part of Chicago’s entrepreneurs, who saw the fair
as ‘an opportunity to create the ideal city and realize their grand scheme: an urban
environment based on concepts of planning, order, monumentality, and symbolic
historicism.’
38
The chapters in this section explore different modalities of urban life in the inter-
stices between Montreal proper and Expo 67. Inderbir Singh Riar’s essay examines
the discourse of urbanism that arose around this world exhibition alongside the
more focused discussion of architecture generated primarily by the pavilions. One
of the most sustained – and most famous – discussions about the urban potential
embedded in Expo 67 was provided by Reyner Banham, both at that time as well
as some years later, when he published the renowned book entitled Megastructure.
This work included a chapter on Montreal circa 1967 and devoted attention to the
entire Expo site, as well as Moshe Safdie’s Habitat and the newly built subway
system, not to mention a range of new buildings within the city proper – many
of them furnished with atriums and indoor plazas. Whereas the title of course
implied a consideration of size – a mega structure – and the concept acknowledged
the future city as a massive network of interconnected units, Banham nevertheless
conceived of this urban space as liberating and ludic, rather than as oppressive
and dehumanizing. Revisiting comments by Banham, as well as Umberto Eco,
Melvin Charney, and others, Riar shows that Expo 67 provoked conflicting under-
standings of architecture, modernism, and urban space.
Moshe Safdie’s Habitat housing complex still lies stretched out across the water
from downtown Montreal, so close, so visually accessible, and yet, ultimately isolat-
ed from the life of the city. In 1967, Habitat captured the imagination of so many peo-
ple because this seemingly flexible kind of architecture promised to provide an easy

32. 18 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
and imaginative solution to global housing problems. There was an affinity between
Safdie’s project and the ‘plug-in’ notion of architecture championed by Banham,
namely the idea that modular units could be provisionally inserted into the main
body of a city, in order to fulfil specific needs. Habitat proved, however, not to be
the panacea after all: for example, the modular units could only be standardized to
a degree, because their location in the final massing (at the top, bottom, or middle of
the pile) demanded different structural accommodations. Hence, Safdie’s original
building was and still is a deluxe, one-of-a-kind apartment complex. In 2004, how-
ever, the artist Brian Jungen appropriated this iconic building, miniaturizing it and
reinserting it into the industrial heart of Montreal and turning it into a refuge for
some of the city’s homeless cats. Kitty Scott’s essay discusses how Jungen’s version
of Habitat takes the form of a sustained social experiment, whereby the structure’s
inhabitants are under constant surveillance. Clearly, this dystopian picture is quite
far removed from the social and architectural ideals of 1967, and yet it can also be
understood as a commentary on the ‘relational aesthetics’ so prevalent in contem-
porary art. This case study is a striking example of how Expo 67 continues to be a
source of fascination for contemporary cultural producers.
The popular press, both local and international, waxed eloquent in 1967 in its
praise of the Expo 67 project, no doubt in part as a response to the positive spin
induced by the organizers of the event, Mayor Jean Drapeau, and other interested
parties. The covers of Life, Maclean’s, Actualité, Saturday Review, Saturday Night,
Popular Mechanics, Paris Match, Chatelaine, Sept-Jours, Sky and Telescope, and so on,
splashed images of the exhibition across the supermarkets and airports of North
America and beyond.
39
More obscure magazines including Holiday Inn, Canadian
Boy, The Dodge News, and The Ford Times, and rather less obscure ones such as
Newsweek, Road and Track, Redbook, the Saturday Evening Post, and Reader’s Digest,
alerted many target audiences. It seems reasonable to assume that these induce-
ments helped generate 50 million visits to Expo 67 during the spring, summer, and
fall of that year.
40
As compared with this barrage of positive publicity, Will Straw analyses tabloid
newspapers to examine how Montreal’s project of urban transformation and the
staging of Expo 67 was inserted into a typical parade of entertaining stories about
the city’s crime, vice, and corruption. As previously mentioned, Montreal had for
decades maintained a reputation as a ‘sin city,’ but the mayor of Montreal, Jean
Drapeau, had been waging a battle against his city’s disreputable character; the
cleaned-up city that surrounded the luminous Expo 67 was the culmination of
this effort. The response of the mainstream press was overwhelmingly positive
and tended to parrot the boosterism of city administrators, as well as the human-
istic messages disseminated by Expo 67 officials. And so the headline ‘Hookers
Descend on Sexpo,’ or stories about rats infesting the Expo site, can be regarded as
welcome bits of satire, but they also point to the contested image of Montreal that
is all but subsumed by the overwhelmingly positive hype.
Memories of Expo 67
On 29 October 1967, Expo 67 closed its doors, and everybody went home. Despite
the extraordinary efforts of Mayor Jean Drapeau to extend the lifespan of the exhi-

33. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  19
bition as Man and His World in subsequent summers, these later iterations never
had the allure of the original world’s fair. Around the time of Expo 67’s fortieth
anniversary, a group of individuals (including Yves Jasmin, OC, Expo 67’s Director
of Public Relations, Marketing and Communications) even went so far as to put
together a proposal for a sesquicentennial celebration along the lines of Expo 67
that would take place on the original site as well as at other locations in Montreal.
To be called Expo 17, it is intended, among other goals, to ‘encourage unity and
self-esteem by recalling the glory of Expo 67.’
41
In the summer of 2008, a similar
goal was expressed by Benoit Labonté, Montreal’s municipal opposition leader.
Waving a pair of the famous passports, he invited citizens of the city to develop a
bid to hold a Universal Exposition in 2020. ‘It was probably the biggest moment of
collective pride felt by Montrealers in the 20th century,’ he said.
42
But whether or not an intact physical site is ever made available to visitors, the
people who had attended Expo 67, and, eventually, others born after 1967, contin-
ue to collect and amass souvenirs and other physical traces. Sometimes these were
intentionally devised as triggers of memory, as is the case with the list made by one
enthusiastic Expo 67 visitor on the inside back cover of his official Expo 67 guide-
book, documenting the exact dates, times, and number of hours he spent on the site
(see plate 5). Much of the traffic in such visual and material culture takes place via
eBay, the online auction site, and there are devotees who scrutinize each day’s new
entries as carefully and routinely as they update their Facebook page. More gener-
ally, the internet has come to play a crucial role in commemorating Expo 67, serving
as a virtual memory bank to sustain a thriving online community. With the fortieth
anniversary of Expo 67 in 2007, a whole new flurry of responses has arisen, both
from the intellectual milieu and from the wider public.
Commentators on Expo 67 include many scholars, artists, and writers beyond
those whose essays are contained in this collection. For instance, Expo 67 forms
a backdrop to the extraordinary lives of some marginalized characters in Michel
Tremblay’s novel Le cahier rouge, published in 2004.
43
In the summer of 2007, a
public art project, Artefact 2007, was organized by Gilles Daigneault and Nicolas
Mavrikakis: twenty artists created work on the old Expo site, reinterpreting the
concept of the pavilion.
44
Also in 2007, the Landscape Architecture Department of
the Université de Montréal offered a special-topic course on Expo 67, taught by
Thilo Folkerts and Roberto Zancan. Less predictably, a 2007 summer studio course
from the College of Architecture at Texas Tech University, on Construction Docu-
ments, brought students to Montreal and asked them to construct digital solid
models of Expo 67 pavilions.
45

Among the most fascinating assessments of Expo 67 are the reveries and remi-
niscences of men and women whose reactions are personal, rather than profes-
sional. Some conversations have been driven by hard-core enthusiasts, through
blogspots such as Expo Lounge run by jason67, a Montrealer born ten years after
Expo 67.
46
Jason67’s extraordinary internet profile includes a Flickr account to
store his Expo-related photos; MySpace and Facebook accounts, both accessible
through the Expo Lounge blog (see plate 6); and videos posted to YouTube using
the moniker bonjourexpo67.
47
As jason67 recounts,
My favorite part of Expo 67 is the way in which people got dressed up to go to this

34. 20 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
international event. Women wore hats and gloves. There was a sense of respect and
honor that people don’t have these days. Anyone who is old enough to have seen and
remembered Expo say it’s the best summer they ever had. Anyone who hasn’t seen it
have [sic] been told they really missed out on something special.
48
In 2007, local newspapers injected some interactivity in their historical accounts
of the exhibition by soliciting individuals’ descriptions of their Expo experiences,
whether actual or imagined. An online forum from the Montreal Gazette, inviting
Expo 67 memories, reveals levels of nostalgia and idealization comparable to those
of jason67. One individual who was actually there writes: ‘I hope that in the future
we will be able to see something like that again … I will be the first one waiting in
line shoud [sic] a time machine ever be invented and Expo will be my first stop.
Mayor Drapeau with all his flaws did this great thing and we will never forget him
for that.’
49
Claire and Leonard’s postcard – the artefact which opened this introductory
essay – has survived for forty years as a physical, tangible trace of Expo 67, but
YouTube provides opportunities for new generations of Expo enthusiasts to inhab-
it the Expo site, with an immediacy and a vitality that were previously experi-
enced only by people who were there, or others fortunate enough to be shown
home movies in someone’s living room. Expo 67 Part 1, a home movie posted by
‘rhoughtonny,’ is remarkable for the way it weaves together conventional tour-
istic sights of the fair with very intimate details of one family’s experience of the
event.
50
We see shots of a recreation vehicle towed by a car, out of which a family
emerges (including a woman in a mini-dress), and which is eventually parked
in front of a house … We see the car being disconnected from the camper, and
then a dashboard view of the approaching vista of Expo 67 … A man counts out
his money, and hands it over to two Expo 67 hostesses who apparently sell the
group the necessary admission tickets … The camera zooms in on Buckminster
Fuller’s gridded dome from the outside … Inside the pavilion, a boy photographs
the Americans-in-space exhibit. What is wonderful here is that a seemingly spon-
taneous five-minute home movie manages to visualize a number of the artefacts
addressed in this collection. More than that, the film can be viewed as a complex
narrative that persuasively conveys the ways that individuals could inhabit Expo
67 and personalize its ostensibly universal messages and ideals. We hope that this
book is as effective in offering multiple points of access to, and new ways of think-
ing about, this pivotal moment in Canadian history and culture.
NOTES
1 These are, respectively, the French, British, and American terms to describe the same
kind of event. Montreal was officially an exposition universelle, but we use the term
‘world’s fair’ throughout this book to adhere to the anglophone scholarly convention.
2 Previous publications about Expo 67 have tended to be subjective, anecdotal, and
laudatory. See, for example, Yves Jasmin, La petite histoire d’Expo 67: L’Exposition uni-
verselle et internationale de Montréal comme vous ne l’avez jamais vue (Montreal: Éditions

35. Introduction: Dusting Off the Souvenir  21
Québec/Amérique, 1997); Peter H. Aykroyd, The Anniversary Compulsion: Canada’s
Centennial Celebration, A Model Mega-Anniversary (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1992). See
also, the Bulletin d’Histoire Politique (the journal of the Association québécoise d’histoire
politique), featuring a thematic dossier on Expo 67, with several essays questioning
how this world’s fair might have played a role in Quebec’s political and ideological
destiny. See Bulletin d’Histoire Politique 17, no. 1 (Autumn 2008).
3 ‘The Theme “Terre des Hommes” and Its Development at the Canadian World Exhibi-
tion in Montreal, 1967,’ V an Ginkel fonds (027), Canadian Centre for Architecture,
Montreal, Box 3-01, Folder 27-A21-04.
4 Mark Bell, Gabrielle Roy and Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: ‘Terre des Hommes’ – Self and Non-
Self (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991), 4.
5 In fact, Saint-Exupéry’s view from an airplane would be superseded, at Expo 67, by the
even more distant perspective onto Planet Earth of astronauts and cosmonauts: both
the United States and the USSR would highlight such imagery by presenting spacecraft
and other paraphernalia pertaining to their respective space programs.
6 Ironically, these theme pavilions did not wholly live up to the internationalist impulse,
and Canada was often the primary case study or reference point.
7 Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and
World’s Fairs, 1851–1939 (Manchester University Press, 1988), 17.
8 Robert Rydell, World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions (Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press, 1993), 211.
9 ‘The Cuban Pavillion’ advertisement in Expo 67: Official Guide / Expo 67: Guide officiel
(Toronto: Maclean-Hunter, 1967), 125.
10 Paul Goodman, quoted in Nika Rylski, ‘The Expo Love-In,’ Ottawa Journal, 18 August
1967, Q8.
11 Pierre Berton, 1967: The Last Good Year (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 1997), 364.
12 Ibid., 256.
13 Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 41.
14 Ibid., 50.
15 Ibid.
16 The meeting, which took place over three days in May 1963 at Montebello, Quebec,
was attended by such individuals as the architect Ray Affleck; Allan Jarvis, former
director of the National Gallery of Canada; physician Wilder Penfield; Claude Robil-
lard, Director of Urban Planning for the City of Montreal; and theatre director Jean-
Louis Roux; as well as Gabrielle Roy.
17 Gabrielle Roy, in Terre des Hommes – Man and His World (Ottawa: Canadian Corporation
for the 1967 World Exhibition, 1967), 34. It is fascinating to note that another version
of this essay gives a different timbre to this observation, with the addition of one short
phrase: ‘That word Canada! – at the same time strong and sweet to hear – would resound
throughout the world like a rallying call’ (our emphasis). Gabrielle Roy, ‘Man and
His World: A Telling of the Theme,’ in The Fragile Lights of Earth: Articles and Memories
1942–1970 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1982), 203. We would like to thank Eva-
Marie Kröller for bringing this discrepancy to our attention.
18 See Marcel Fournier, ‘A Society in Motion: The Quiet Revolution and the Rise of the
Middle Class,’ in The 60s: Montreal Thinks Big, ed. André Lortie (Montreal: Canadian
Centre for Architecture and V ancouver/Toronto: Douglas and McIntyre, 2004), 31–73.

36. 22 Rhona Richman Kenneally and Johanne Sloan
19 Pierre V allières, White Niggers of America, trans. Joan Pinkham (1968; Toronto: McClel-
land and Stewart, 1971), 214.
20 On the way nationalist sentiment assumes physical form, see Benedict Anderson, Imag-
ined Communities : Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London and New
York: V erso, 1991).
21 See Van Ginkel fonds, Box 3.01, Folder 27 A2-02. See also the long letter by the eminent
Harvard architectural and urban historian John E. Burchard that suggests new ways
of organizing the exhibition into distinct national, international, and trade zones. V an
Ginkel fonds, Box 3.02, Folder 27-A21-10.
22 Piet van Wesemael, Architecture of Instruction and Delight: A Socio-historical Analysis of
World Exhibitions as a Didactic Phenomenon (1798 – 1851 – 1970) (Rotterdam: 010 Publish-
ers, 2001), 467.
23 See Martin Racine’s essay in this collection. For an additional analysis of Canada’s flag
debate that emphasizes the priority given to designing an iconography that reflected
modernist principles, see Michael Large, ‘A Flag for Canada,’ in Made in Canada: Craft
and Design in the Sixties, ed. Alan C. Elder (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press,
2005), 40–50.
24 The Thailand pavilion was a meticulous reproduction of an eighteenth-century Bud-
dhist shrine, and the Burma pavilion was likewise a traditional-looking building, but
these were anomalies on the Expo site.
25 The Beaux-Arts buildings of the World’s Columbian Exhibition, for instance, started
out as wood and iron sheds which were then sheathed with ‘staff’ as it was called, a
‘mixture of plaster, cement and jute fibers’ which had been invented in France and
had already been ‘extensively employed in European fairs.’ Stanley Appelbaum, The
Chicago World’s Fair of 1893 (New York: Dover, 1980), 5.
26 E.L. Doctorow, World’s Fair (New York: Random House, 1985).
27 For a critique of how the concept of modernism could affirm colonial relations, see
Geeta Kapur, When Was Modernism: Essays on Contemporary Cultural Practice in India
(New Delhi: Tulika, 2001).
28 Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988),
33.
29 Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, ed. Rolf Tiedemann, trans. Howard Eiland and
Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999),
184.
30 Rosalind Williams, Dream Worlds. Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 73.
31 Judith Shatnoff, ‘Expo 67: A Multiple V ision,’ Film Quarterly 21, no. 1 (1967): 2.
32 Ben Highmore, ‘Into the Labyrinth: Phantasmagoria at Expo 67,’ in this volume.
33 ‘Learning from Montreal: Roundtable with André Lortie, Michael Sorkin, and Jean-
Louis Cohen,’ in The 60s: Montreal Thinks Big, 154.
34 Lortie, The 60s: Montreal Thinks Big, 88.
35 It should be noted that André Lortie, curator of the CCA exhibition, is not one of those
who regarded Expo 67 in this utopian light.
36 For a more extensive account of the alternate strategies envisioned for Expo 67, see the
Expo 67 files in the V an Ginkel fonds, especially Box 3.01 and 3.02. Also, see Margaret

37. Plate 1   Commemorative ‘passport’ (actually the seasonal entrance ticket) used by Montreal teenager Pamela McBurney,
who visited Expo 67 many times during the six months of the fair.
Courtesy of Pamela McBurney Manning.

38. Plate 2  Colour slide of young visitors to Expo 67.
Courtesy of Reuben Raichel.

39. Plate 3  ‘Youth Takes over Expo.’ Canada Day cover of Weekend Magazine.
Montreal Star/The Gazette (Montreal) ©1967.

40. Plate 4   The Canada Pavilion as presented by Stan Lee and Gene Colan in one frame of a Daredevil comic, dated November 1967.
Reproduced by permission of Marvel Entertainment Inc.

41. Plate 5   Annotations by one visitor to the Expo 67 site, made on the inside back cover of the Expo Guide .
Collection of Johanne Sloan.

42. Plate 6   The Expo Lounge internet blog (this entry is from 2007) displays Jason Stockl’s ongoing passion for all things Expo 67.
Courtesy of Jason Stockl.

43. Plate 7  ‘Experience weightlessness’ advertisement, Canadian Corporation
for the 1967 World Exhibition.
Courtesy of Bruno Paul Stenson.

44. Plate 8  ‘How to Become a Connoisseur without Leaving Canada.’ Expo 67
press photo, published in Toronto Star Weekly, 11 February 1967.
Photo credit: Peter Croydon, R.C.A.

45. Plate 9  Menu of the 4 Regions Restaurant in the Switzerland pavilion,
showing the offerings from the German-speaking part of the country.
Collection of Rhona Richman Kenneally.

46. Plate 10  The ‘Fashion and Music’ tableau in the ‘Britain Today’ exhibit of the Great
Britain pavilion emphasized aspects of youth culture such as the Beatles and Mary Quant.
Design Archives, University of Brighton (ESD00645).

47. Plate 11   Interior of the Federal Republic of Germany Pavilion at Expo 67.
Copyright Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2008).  
Library and Archives Canada/Canadian Corporation for the 1967 World Exhibition fonds/e000990885.

48. Plate 12  Expo 67 logo designed by Julien Hébert,
on the cover of the Expo 67 Graphics Manual (1963).
Courtesy of Bruno Paul Stenson.

49. Plate 13 Sculpture by Julien Hébert created for the Salle Wilfrid-Pelletier, Place des Arts, Montreal (1963).
Photo: Martin Racine.

50. Plate 14  ‘One of the Best Jobs in Canada.’ Cover of Weekend Magazine, 29 July 1967.
Montreal Star/The Gazette (Montreal) ©1967.

51. Plate 15   Pavilion hostesses in front of the flags of Places des Nations, Expo 67.
Copyright Government of Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2008). Library and
Archives Canada/Canadian Corporation for the 1967 World Exhibition fonds/e000990933.

52. Plate 16  The film Canada 67, made using Circle-Vision 360-degree film,
was shown in the pavilion of the Telephone Association of Canada.
Image from Jean-Louis de Lorimier, Expo 67: The Memorial Album/L’album memorial
(Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons Canada, 1967).

53. Plate 17   Display and visitors in Zone 1 of the Christian pavilion.
Courtesy of the estate of Charles Gagnon.

54. Plate 18   Interior of the U.S. pavilion showing the proximity of Andy Warhol’s artworks to the staged moon landing. Image from Jean-Louis de Lorimier, Expo 67: The Memorial Album/L’album memorial (Toronto: Thomas Nelson and Sons Canada, 1967).

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56. Thorax subquadrate; prothorax transverse, linear, angulated at the
sides; mesothorax with its bosses protuberant; scutellum and post-
scutellum semilunulate; metathorax abruptly truncate, and
longitudinally carinated in the centre; wings with two submarginal
cells, a third slightly indicated, the first recurrent nervure springing
from the extreme apex of the first submarginal cell, closely to the
first transverso-cubital nervure, and the second closely before the
termination of the second submarginal cell; stigma of the wing large
and distinct; legs wholly destitute of polliniferous hair, the terminal
joint of the tarsus as long as the two preceding; claws bifid; Abdomen
subtruncate at the base, subconical with a downward bias.
The MALE differs in having the mandibles distinctly bidentate, the
external tooth acute; the antennæ are very slightly longer and more
curved, and their colouring is more intense and more widely
distributed. These insects are glabrous, generally intensely black,
dull on the head and thorax, but shining on the abdomen, and are
more or less thickly punctured, and they are usually gaily marked
with yellow, citron, or red, especially on the face, thorax, and legs.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. annulatus, Fab., ♂ ♀. 2½-3 lines.
annulatus, Kirby.
2. dilatata, Kirby, ♂. 3 lines. (Plate I. fig. 2 ♂.)
Hylæus dilatatus, Curtis.
3. annularis, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2½-3 lines.
4. hyalinata, Smith, ♂ ♀. 2-3 lines.
5. signata, Panzer, ♂ ♀. 3-3½ lines. (Plate I. fig. 2 ♀.)
signata, Kirby.
6. cornuta, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3-3¼ lines.
7. varipes, Sm., ♂ ♀. 1½ lines.
8. variegata, Fab., ♂ ♀. 2-3 lines.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

57. This genus is named from προσωπὶς, apparently in allusion to its
seemingly masked face, most of the species having yellow markings
more or less conspicuous upon the face.
It is the least pubescent of any of the bees, even less so than
those confirmed parasites, the genera Nomada and Stelis, thus
further tending to corroborate its apparently parasitical habits, for
none of the truly pollinigerous bees are so destitute of hair. The
ground-colour of the species is intensely black, variously decorated
on the face, thorax, and legs, with markings of different intensities
of yellow; but one of our species, the P. variegata, is also gaily
marked with red. Indeed exotic species, and especially those of
warm climates, are often very gay insects.
They have usually been considered as parasitical insects, from
their being unfurnished with the customary apparatus of hair upon
the posterior legs, with which pollinigerous insects are generally so
amply provided. In contradiction to their parasitism, it is asserted
that they have been repeatedly bred from bramble sticks; this
circumstance is no proof of the fact of their not being parasitical, for
many bees, for instance Ceratina, Heriades, etc., nidificate in
bramble sticks, and they may have superseded the nidificating bee
by depositing their ova in the nests of the latter; although it certainly
is a remarkable circumstance that some one of these bees has never
escaped destruction in the several instances in which these have
been thus bred. It is also said that their nests contain a semi-liquid
honey. The fact of the larva of a wild bee being nurtured upon any
other provender than a mixture of pollen and honey, does not
elsewhere occur, and it would seem to contradict the function this
family is ordained to exercise, by conveying pollen from flower to
flower, and which besides, in every other case, constitutes the
nutritive aliment of the larva. But then, again, the structure of its
tongue, which resembles somewhat that of Colletes in lateral
expansion, and with which it would be provided for some analogous
purpose, seems to contradict parasitical habits, although St. Fargeau
asserts that it is parasitical upon this genus, and if so, although it

58. has not been observed in this country, the analogous structure of
the tongue might be perhaps explained.
But notwithstanding this deficiency of positive characters, from the
absence of pollinigerous organs, nature is not to be controlled by
laws framed by us upon the imperfect induction of incomplete facts,
for if it be incontestable that this genus is constructive and not
parasitical, the riddle presented by this structure of its tongue is at
once solved, for without any affinity beyond that single peculiarity
with Colletes, it presents an anomaly of organization which cannot
be accounted for but by its application to a use similar to what we
find it applied in that extraordinary genus,—a use that could not be
extant in a parasite. In Colletes it is the concomitant of as ample a
power of collecting pollen as any that we find exhibited throughout
the whole range of our native bees, but in Prosopis it is concurrent
with a total deficiency of the ordinary apparatus employed for that
purpose.
One of the species of this genus has been found near Bristol, with
the indication of a Stylops having escaped from it, which is a further
extension of the parasitism of that most extraordinary genus, but the
Stylops frequenting it has not yet been discovered, which would
doubtless present a new species, therefore an interesting addition to
the series already known.
These insects are not at all uncommon in some of the species
during the latter spring and summer months, and they frequent the
several Resedas, being very fond of Mignonette. They are also found
upon the Dracocephalum Moldavica, and occur not unfrequently
upon the Onion, which in blossom is the resort of many interesting
insects. The majority of them emit when captured, and if held within
the fingers, a very pungent citron odour, exceedingly refreshing on a
hot day, in intense sunshine. Some of the species are rare, especially
those very highly coloured, as is also the P. dilatata, so named from
the peculiar triangular expansion of the basal joint of the antennæ,
the female of which is not known or possibly has only been
overlooked or not identified. The P. varipes and P. variegata, which

59. are the most richly coloured, occur in the west of England, and in
one, the P. cornuta, the clypeus is furnished with a tubercle.
Subsection b. Linguæ lanceolatæ (with lancet-shaped tongues).
Genus 3. Séhecodeë , Latreille.
(Plate I. fig. 3 ♂♀.)
Melitta ** a, Kirby.
Gen. Char.: Head transverse, linear, fully as wide as the thorax, flat,
with a slightly convex tendency; ocelli in a triangle; antennæ short,
scarcely geniculated; face beneath the insertion of the antennæ,
protuberant; clypeus transverse, margined, convex; labrum
transversely ovate, deeply emarginate, in the centre in front;
mandibles bidentate, obtuse, the external tooth projecting much
further than the second; tongue short, lanceolate, fringed with setæ;
paraglossæ not so long as the tongue, abruptly terminated, and
setose at the extremity; labial palpi not so long as the paraglossæ;
the joints comparatively elongate and slender, and decreasing
towards the apex in length and substance; labium rather longer than
the tongue, its inosculation straightly transverse; maxillæ about the
length of the tongue, broad and lanceolate; maxillary palpi six-
jointed, the first joint shorter and less robust than the second, which
is also shorter and less robust than the third, which is the longest
and most robust of all, the terminal joints more slender, and
declining gradually in length. Thorax ovate; prothorax linear,
produced into a sharp tooth on each side; mesothorax with
longitudinal lateral impressed lines; bosses acutely protuberant;
scutellum quadrate; postscutellum inconspicuous; metathorax
slightly gibbous; wings with three submarginal cells, and a fourth
slightly commenced, the second narrow, forming a truncated
triangle, and receiving the first recurrent nervure in its centre, the
second recurrent nervure springing from just beyond the centre of
the third submarginal cell; legs slightly but rigidly spinose and
setose; claws bifid. Abdomen ovate.

60. The MALES differ, in having the antennæ longer and sometimes
moniliform, the lower part of the face and clypeus usually covered
with a dense short silvery decumbent pubescence, and they have
the metathorax truncated at its base; in other respects they greatly
resemble their females.
The insects of this genus may be called glabrous, their
pubescence being so slight and scattered, they usually shine
brightly, and are more or less deeply punctured; and the abdomen is
always partially or entirely of a bright ferruginous red, sometimes
verging into fuscous or pitchy.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. gibbus, Linnæus, ♂♀. 3-4½ lines. (Plate I. fig. 3 ♂♀).
sphecoides, Kirby, ♀.
monilicornis, Kirby, ♂.
picea, Kirby, ♂.
2. Geoffroyella, Kirby, ♂♀. 1-3 lines.
divisa, Kirby, ♂.
3. fuscipennis, Germar, ♂♀. 4½-6 lines.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
This genus is named from σφὴξ, a wasp, from its apparent
resemblance to some of the sand wasps.
They are not uncommon insects, and I have found them abundant
in sandy spots sporting in the sunshine upon the bare ground, where
they run about with great activity, the females chiefly, the males the
while disporting themselves upon any flowers that may be adjacent,
and they are especially fond of Ragwort. Their prevalent colours are
black and red, the latter occurring only on the abdomen in different
degrees of intensity and extension, sometimes occupying the whole
of that division of the body, and sometimes limited to a band across
it. Much difficulty attaches to the determination of the species from

61. the characters which separate them being extremely obscure, for it
is not safe to depend upon the differences of the arrangement of
colour upon them, as it varies infinitely; nor can their relative sizes
be depended upon as a clue, for in individuals which must be
admitted to be of the same species, size takes a wider extent of
difference than in almost any of the genera of bees. St. Fargeau,
who maintains the parasitism of the genus, accounts for it by saying
that in depositing their eggs in the nests of the Andrenæ, Halicti,
and Dasypoda, the Sphecodes resorts to the burrows of the species
of these genera indifferent to their adaptation to its own size, and
thus from the abundance or paucity of food so furnished to its
larvæ, does it become a large or a small individual. Westwood says
the species are parasitical upon Halictus. Latreille says they are
parasites. They are certainly just as destitute of the pollinigerous
apparatus as the preceding genus. Mr. Thwaites once thought he
had detected a good specific character in the differing lengths of the
joints of the antennæ, but I believe he never thoroughly satisfied
himself of its being practically available. At all events great difficulty
still attaches to their rigid and satisfactory determination. There is an
array of entomologists who deny their being parasites. Mr. Kirby says
they form their burrows in bare sections of sandbanks exposed to
the sun, and nine or ten inches deep, and which they smooth with
their tongues. But then, in impeachment of the accuracy of his
observation, he further supposes there are three sexes, founding his
statement upon what Réaumur remarks of having observed pupæ of
three different sizes in the burrows. In the first place, it is not
conclusive that these pupæ were those of Sphecodes, and secondly
we know that this condition of three sexes is found only in the social
tribes, wherein the peculiarities of the economy exact a division of
offices. Therefore his adoption of this inaccuracy militates against
the reception of his other statement. But Smith also states that they
are not parasites, and apparently founds his assertion upon direct
observation. It still, however, remains a debatable point, from the
fact of the destitution of pollinigerous brushes, and thence the
character of the food necessary to be stored for the larva. It would

62. be very satisfactory if these apparent inconsistencies could be lucidly
explained.
If, however, it be ultimately proved that Sphecodes is a
constructive bee, as well as Prosopis, we have then this fact
exhibited by our native genera, that none of the subfamily of our
short-tongued bees, or Andrenidæ, are parasitical. This is a
remarkable peculiarity, as it is amongst them that we should almost
exclusively expect to find that distinguishing economy, from the
seemingly imperfect apparatus furnished in the short structure of
their tongues. It is possible, however, that nature has so moulded
them as to fit them chiefly for fulfilling its objects within merely a
certain range of the floral reign, and which restricts them to visiting
flowers which do not require the protrusion of a long organ to rifle
their sweet stores.
Genus 4. Andrena , Fabricius.
(Plates II. and III.)
Melitta ** c, Kirby.
Gen. Char.: Head transverse, as wide as the thorax; ocelli in a
triangle on the vertex; antennæ filiform, geniculated, the basal joint
of the flagellum the longest; face flat; clypeus convex, transverse,
quadrate, slightly rounded in front; labrum transverse, oblong;
mandibles bidentate; tongue moderately long, lanceolate, fringed
with fine hair; paraglossæ half the length of the tongue, abruptly
terminated and setose at the extremity; labium about half the length
of the entire apparatus, its inosculation acute; labial palpi inserted
above it, below the origin of the paraglossæ in a sinus upon the
sides of the tongue; maxillæ irregularly lanceolate; maxillary palpi
six-jointed, longer than the maxillæ, the basal joint about as long as
the fourth, but more robust, the second joint the longest, the rest
declining in length and substance. Thorax ovate; prothorax not
distinct; mesothorax quadrate; bosses protuberant; scutellum
lunate; post-scutellum lunulate; metathorax gibbous, and pubescent
laterally; wings with three submarginal cells, and a fourth slightly

63. commenced, the second quadrate, and with the third receiving a
recurrent nervure about their middle; legs densely pubescent,
especially externally, and particularly the posterior pair, which have a
long curled lock upon the trochanter beneath, the anterior upper
surface of the femora clothed with long loose hair, which equally
surrounds the whole of the tibiæ, but which is less long upon their
plantæ, the claws strongly bifid. Abdomen ovate, a dense fringe
edging the fifth segment, and the terminal segment having a
triangular central plate, its sides rigidly setose.
The MALE differs in having the head rather wider than the thorax,
the vertex where the ocelli are placed more protuberant, the
mandibles very large and more acutely bidentate, sometimes largely
forcipate and with but one acute tooth; the males in most species
greatly differ from their females.
None of these insects exhibit any positive colouring of the
integument, excepting in some upon the abdomen, which exhibits
red bands, and is disposed to vary considerably in intensity and
breadth, and in some the clypeus and face are of a cream-colour,
but which occurs chiefly among the males. They are very dissimilar
in general appearance, some being densely pubescent all over,
others merely so on the head and thorax; others are banded with
white decumbent down, and some are wholly unmarked upon the
abdomen. These peculiarities help to group them, and thus facilitate
their recognition.
NATIVE SPECIES.
§ Banded with red on the abdomen, the segments of which are more or less
fringed.

64. 1. Hattorfiana, Fab., ♂ ♀. 6—7 lines.
Lathamana, Kirby, ♀.
hæmorrhoidalis, Kirby, ♀.
2. zonalis, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4½-5 lines.
3. florea, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 5-6½ lines.
Rosæ, Kirby, var.
4. Rosæ, Panzer, ♂ ♀. 4-6 lines. (Plate III. fig. 1 ♂ ♀.)
Rosæ, Kirby, ♀.
5. decorata, Smith, ♂ ♀. 5-6½ lines.
6. Schrankella, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5 lines.
affinis, Kirby.
7. cingulata, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 3½-4 lines. (Plate III. fig. 3 ♂ ♀.)
cingulata, Kirby.
§§ Abdominal segments edged with decumbent short down, or fringed with long
hair.

65. 8. longipes, Shuckard, ♂ ♀. 4-6 lines. (Plate III. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
9. chrysosceles, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3½-4½ lines.
10. dorsata, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-4½ lines.
combinata, Kirby.
nudiuscula, Kirby.
11. connectens, Kirby. 5 lines.
12. Wilkella, Kirby, ♀. 5¾ lines.
13. Coitana, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4 lines.
Shawella, Kirby.
14. labialis, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5½-6 lines.
15. Lewinella, ♂. 3¾ lines.
16. xanthura, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3½-6 lines.
ovatula, Kirby.
17. Collinsonana, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3½-4½ lines.
digitalis, Kirby.
proxima, Kirby.
18. albicrus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5½ lines.
barbilabris, Kirby.
19. minutula, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2½-3½ lines.
parvula, Kirby.
20. nana, Kirby, ♀. 3½ lines.
21. convexiuscula, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5 lines.
22. Kirbyi, Curtis, ♀. 6 lines.
23. fuscata, Kirby, ♀. 4½ lines.
24. Afzeliella, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4½-5 lines.
25. fulvicrus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3½-5¼ lines.
contigua, Kirby.
26. fulvago, Christ. ♂ ♀. 4-4½ lines.
fulvago, Kirby.
27. tibialis, Kirby. 5-7¼ lines.
atriceps, Kirby.
28. Mouffetella, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5-7 lines.
29. nigro-ænea, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5-6½ lines.
30. bimaculata, Kirby, ♂. 5½ lines.
31. Trimmerana, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5-6 lines.
32. conjuncta, Smith, ♀. 5½ lines.

66. 33. varians, Rossi, ♂ ♀. 4-5½ lines.
34. helvola, Linnæus, ♂ ♀. 5-5½ lines.
picipes, Kirby, ♂.
angulosa, Kirby.
35. Gwynana, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5½ lines.
pilosula, Kirby.
36. angustior, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5 lines.
37. picicornis, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5-6 lines.
38. spinigera, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5-6 lines.
39. Smithella, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3-6 lines.
40. Lapponica, Zetterstedt, ♂ ♀. 3½-5½ lines.
41. tridentata, Kirby, ♂. 4½ lines.
42. denticulata, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5½ lines.
Listerella, Kirby.
43. nigriceps, Kirby, ♀. 5 lines.
44. pubescens, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5 lines.
rufitarsis, Kirby.
fuscipes, Kirby.
§§§§ Thorax very pubescent, abdomen smooth and shining.
45. albicans, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5 lines.
46. pilipes, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 5-7 lines.
pratensis, Kirby.
47. cineraria, Linnæus, ♂ ♀. 5-7 lines. (Plate II. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
cineraria, Kirby.
48. thoracica, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 5-7½ lines.
thoracica, Kirby.
melanocephala, Kirby.
49. nitida, Fourcroy, ♂ ♀. 5-6½ lines. (Plate II. fig. 3 ♂ ♀.)
nitida, Kirby.
50. vitrea, Smith, ♀. 6½ lines.
§§§§ The entire body densely pubescent.

67. 51. fulva, Schrank, ♂ ♀. 4-6½ lines. (Plate II. fig. 1 ♂ ♀.)
fulva, Kirby.
52. Clarkella, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4½-6½ lines.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Fabricius seems to have named this genus from ανθρήνη, a wasp,
but why, it is impossible to say. Although one name is as good as
another, it being indifferent what the name may be, yet where so
evident an attempt to give a name pertinence is conspicuous, it is
remarkable that it should be so little relevant, for none of the
characteristics of a wasp or hornet are exhibited in these insects.
Possibly it was from the genus being the most numerous in
species that Dr. Leach was induced to give this subfamily its
collective designation, making the other genera thus converge to it
as to a centre. He took its elliptical form as typical. Indeed, it is
remarkable how very judiciously this was done, for it is a form not
apparent among the normal bees excepting in two exceptional
cases, the one upon the frontiers of this subfamily, in almost
debatable land, where the last of the Andrenidæ and the first of the
Apidæ seem almost to melt into one another; and in the other case,
in the parasitical Nomada, whose parasitism is in every instance, but
one only, restricted to the first subfamily. A different type of form
prevails amongst the Apidæ, upon which I shall have subsequently
occasion to speak.
These insects are not distinguished for any elaborate economy.
Varying in the species, some prefer vertical banks, others sloping
undulations, and again others horizontal flat ground or hard down-
trodden pathways. Some burrow singly, and others are gregarious,
collected in great numbers upon one spot. They are, perhaps, the
most inartificial burrowers of all the bees. Their tunnels vary from
five to nine or ten inches in depth, and in some species they are
formed with other small tunnels slanting off from the main cylinder.
The sides and bottom are merely smoothed, without either drapery

68. or polish. The little cells thus formed are then supplied with the
usual mixture of pollen and honey kneaded together, which in the
larger species forms a mass of about the size of a moderate red
currant, its instinct teaching it the quantity necessary for the nurture
of the young which shall proceed from the egg that it then deposits
upon this collected mass of food. The aperture of each little tunnel is
closed with particles of the earth or sand wherein the insect
burrows, and it proceeds to the elaboration of another receptacle for
a fresh brood until its stock of eggs becomes exhausted. Some
species have two broods hatched in the year, especially the earlier
ones,—for several present themselves with the earliest flowers,—but
others are restricted to but one. The quantity of pollen they collect is
considerable, and in fact they are supplied with an apparatus
additional to what is furnished to any of the other genera in a curled
rather long lock of hair that emanates from the posterior
trochanters. This, with the fringes that edge the lower portion and
sides of the metathorax, as well as the usual apparatus upon the
posterior legs, enables the insect to carry in each flight home a
comparatively large quantity of pollen, but perhaps scarcely enough
at once for the nurture of one young one, and it therefore repeats
the same operation until sufficient is accumulated.
The exact period occupied by their transformations is not strictly
known; it will, of course, vary in the species, as also in those in
which two broods succeed each other in the year, but the larva
rapidly consumes its store and then undergoes its transformation. It
does not spin a cocoon, but in its pupa state it is covered all over
with a thin pellicle, which adheres closely to all the distinct parts of
the body. It is not known how this is formed; perhaps it is a
membrane which transudes in a secretion through the skin of the
larva, or it may be this itself converted to its new use, which seems
to be for the protection of all the parts of the now transmuting
imago, until these in due course shall have acquired their proper
consistency.
These insects in their perfect state vary very considerably in size,
both individually and specifically, the former depending upon both

69. the quantity and quality of the food stored up, for the pollen of
different plants varies possibly in its amount of nutriment, else why
should we observe so marked a difference in the sizes of individuals
whose parent instinct would prompt to furnish them with an uniform
and equal supply. The differences of specific appearance is often
very considerable in long genera, and perhaps in no genus is it more
conspicuously so than in Andrena, for here we have some wholly
covered with dense hair, and others almost glabrous; others again
with the thorax only pubescent; some are black, some white, some
fulvous, or golden tinted, and some red; some we find banded with
decumbent down, and others with merely lateral spots of this close
hair, but the most prevalent colour is brown, which will sometimes
by immaturity take a fulvous or reddish hue. In many males we see
excentrically large transversely square heads broader than the
thorax, which also have widely spreading forcipate mandibles, with
often a downward projecting spine at their base beneath; and it is
chiefly these extravagantly formed males which are most dissimilar
to their own partners that the result of observation alone confirms
their specific identity. In other cases the males are so like their
females that a mere neophyte would unite them. In many males the
clypeus and labrum are white, which also occurs in some females;
for instance, in A. labialis, but this peculiarity is found more rarely in
this sex. The species are much exposed to the restricting influences
of several parasites, whose parasitism is of a varying character, but
the term should properly be applied only to the bees which deposit
their eggs in their nests, and whose young, like that of the cuckoo
among the birds, thrives at the expense of the young of the sitos by
consuming its food, and thus starving it. These parasites consist of
many of the species of Nomada, very pretty and gay insects, but in
every case totally unlike the bee whose nest they usurp. Several of
the species of these Nomadæ are not limited to any particular
species of Andrena, but infest several indifferently, whereas others
have no wider range in their spoliation than one single species, to
which they always confine themselves. In my observations under the
genus Nomada I shall notify those which they assail amongst the
Andrenæ, as well as the other genera which they also infest.

70. The others which attack them are more properly positive enemies
than parasites, for they prey upon the bees themselves, or, as in the
case of the remarkable genus Stylops, render the bee abortive by
consuming its viscera and ovaries. I have spoken of these insects in
the chapter upon parasites, to which I must refer, but I may here
add that the female is apterous, and never quits the body of the
bee. Much mystery attaches to their history in which their
impregnation is involved, for the male, immediately upon undergoing
its change into the imago, escapes through the dorsal plates of the
abdomen of the bee wherein it was bred and takes flight. In
localities where they occur they may be usually taken on the wing in
the month of May. The female would seem to be viviparous, and
produces extraordinary multitudes at one birth, extending to
hundreds. Being born as larvæ within the body of the bee they seek
to escape from their confinement, and find the opportunity in the
suture which separates the mesothorax from the metathorax. Their
extreme minuteness admits of their passing through the very
constricted tube which connects the abdomen with the thorax.
Having now escaped into the air they alight upon the flowers which
the bee frequents, and thence they affix themselves to other bees
which may visit these plants, and thus perpetuate the activity of the
function it is their instinct to fulfil. That many may be lost there can
be no question; but Nature is very prodigal of life, for by life it
endows life, and thus its activity is enlarged to a wider circle.
Although the matured Stylops has preyed upon all the internal
organs of the bee its attack is not immediately fatal, although the life
of the creature may be thus considerably abridged, but it seems to
live sufficiently long afterwards to disseminate the distribution of the
Stylops. A small blackish Pediculus, which Mr. Kirby called Pediculus
Melittæ, is found also both upon the flowers the bees frequent and
also upon the bees themselves, especially the pubescent ones; but
this insect is not limited to the genus Andrena, as I shall have
occasion to notice. The flower I have chiefly found them upon is the
Dandelion (Leontodon). Their peculiar economy and connection with
the bees is unknown; it may be merely an accidental and temporary
attachment, but they even accompany them to their burrows.

71. Another and more curious case of attack upon the young of the
Andrena, is instanced in the reputed parasitism of the Coleopterous
genus Meloë. The perfect insect is a large apterous, fleshy,
heteromerous beetle, ten times as big as the bee. Its vermicle,
having issued from the egg, has the appearance of a very small
pediculus, of an orange colour. They are often seen upon flowers,
and, like the former pediculus, attach themselves to such suitable
Andrena as may happen to visit the flowers they are upon; and, it is
said, that they are thus conveyed by the bee to its domicile, and
there feed to maturity upon the larva of the bee. I have no faith in
the correctness of this statement, for it is not credible that so small a
creature as the larva of an Andrena could fully feed the larva of so
large a beetle. Observation has not satisfactorily confirmed it, and
the connection may be, as in the former case, merely accidental.
Although, perhaps, not a strictly scientific course, it is certainly a
matter of convenience in very long genera to break them up into
divisions, framed upon external characters, readily perceptible, and,
by which means, the species sought for may be more readily found.
This I have done in the preceding list of the species, and which are
based upon very prominent features. A slight divarication from the
typical neuration of the wing is observed in some species, but it is
not of a sufficiently marked character to afford a divisional
separation, and even much less a subgeneric one. I have therefore
passed it unnoticed. The commencing entomologist will often find
considerable difficulty at first in determining the species of this
genus, for so much depends upon condition; and where the colour
of the pubescence is the chief characteristic, a very little exposure to
the atmosphere much alters their physiognomy, but time, patience,
and perseverance will ripen the novice into an adept. The connection
of the males with the females, from their ordinarily great
dissimilarity, was only to be accomplished by positive observation,
but now that this, in the majority of cases, is effected, good
descriptions facilitate their discrimination.
The most conspicuous species are the Hattorfiana and the Rosæ
for size and colour; the Schrankella is also a very pretty species; and

72. perhaps the commonest of all the cingulata is the prettiest of all,
with its yellow nose and red abdomen; in the next section we may
point out the longipes as being a very elegant insect,
[3]
as are also
the chrysosceles and the helvola. In this section we find those most
subject to the attacks of the Stylops, for instance the labialis,
convexiuscula, picicornis, Afzeliella, nigro-ænea, Trimmerana,
Gwynana, etc. The whole of the third and fourth sections are
splendid insects, especially the fulva in the last. The comparative
rarity of some results chiefly from an exceedingly local habitat. Many
of the species may be found everywhere where insects can be
collected, consequently, all over the United Kingdom. In all the three
seasons of the year, which prompt animal life, some of the species
may be collected, and the flowers they chiefly prefer are the catkins,
especially of the sallow, the early flowering-fruits, the hedge-row
blossoms, the heath, the broom, the dandelion, chickweed, and very
many others.
3.  This insect was first captured by me, and with this, my manuscript name,
attached to it, it was distributed to entomologists with an unsparing hand.
The ordinary courtesy of the science has been, for the describer, when not
the capturer, to adopt and circulate the original authority, and not to
appropriate it. Similar buccaneering has been practised with poor
Bainbridge’s Osmia pilicornis, to which he had attached this manuscript
name, he being the first to introduce it, having caught it at Birchwood.
Genus 5. Ciliëëa, Leach.
(Plate V. fig. 1 ♂ ♀.)
Melitta ** c, partly, Kirby.—Andrena , Fab. Latreille.
Gen. Char.: Head transverse, scarcely so wide as the thorax, flat;
ocelli in an open triangle on the vertex; face flat; clypeus transverse,
margined; labrum transverse, slightly rounded in front; mandibles
bidentate; cibarial apparatus moderately long; tongue lanceolate,
fringed with delicate hair; paraglossæ about one-third the length of
the tongue, abruptly terminated, lacerate and setose at the
extremity; labial palpi rather longer than the paraglossæ, the basal
joint considerably the longest, all the joints subclavate and

73. diminishing both in robustness and length to the apex; labrum half
the length of the entire apparatus, its inosculation acutely triangular;
maxillæ subhastate, as long as the tongue; maxillary palpi six-
jointed, less than half the length of the maxillæ, the joints short,
subclavate and decreasing gradually from the base to the apex.
Thorax densely pubescent, obscuring its divisions; metathorax
truncated; wings with three submarginal cells, and a fourth slightly
commenced, the second subquadrate and receiving the first
recurrent nervure in its centre, the second recurrent nervure issuing
from beyond the centre of the third submarginal cell; legs all pilose,
especially the posterior pair, which have hair beneath the coxæ and
trochanters, above only on their femoræ, but surrounding the tibiæ,
and as dense externally upon their plantæ; claws distinctly bifid.
Abdomen ovate, truncated at the base, the segments banded at their
apex, with decumbent down, which becomes densely and widely
setose on the fifth segment, the terminal segment having a central
triangular glabrous plate, carinated down the centre, and very rigidly
setose laterally.
The MALE scarcely differs, except in having the antennæ less
distinctly geniculated, the flagellum taking a sweeping curve, the
face and clypeus much more pubescent, but the legs sexually less
so; the sexes are much alike.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. tricincta, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 5 lines. (Plate V. fig. 1 ♂ ♀.)
? Apis leporina, Panzer.
2. hæmorrhoidalis, Fab. ♂ ♀.
hæmorrhoidalis chrysura, Kirby.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
This genus has been named without any reference to any
peculiarity, Dr. Leach having applied a Proper name to it to designate

74. it.
The Cilissa tricincta is perhaps most like the larger species of the
genus Colletes, both in markings and in the form of the body, but in
resemblance of form the second species participates. Although
robust insects, and as large as the larger Andrenæ, they are yet
unprovided with the same ample means for conveying pollen, being
destitute of the lock of hair upon the posterior trochanters and the
sides of the metathorax are less densely pubescent. The ground
colour is brown. Their economy is assumed to resemble that of
Andrena, although it has not been so closely investigated; for my
own part I have never had the opportunity of tracing it to its nidus,
having always captured the species upon flowers. They are fond of
the trefoil (Trifolium repens), and the C. chrysura frequents the
Campanula rotundifolia, as well as the flowers of the throatwort
(Trachelium). In their excursions they are usually accompanied by
their males. Both species are found in the south and west of
England.
Section 2. With entire paraglossæ.
Subsection c. Linguæ Acutæ (acute tongues).
a. With three submarginal cells to the wings.
Genus 6. Halictuë , Latreille.
(Plate IV.)
Melitta ** b, Kirby.
Gen. Char.: Head transverse, flattish, scarcely so wide as the
thorax; ocelli in an open triangle on the vertex, which is flat;
antennæ short, filiform, geniculated, scape quite or more than half
as long as the flagellum; face flat, excepting in the centre just below
the insertion of the antennæ, where it is protuberant; clypeus
transversely lunulate, very convex; labrum subquadrate, very
convex, with a central, linear, carinated appendage in front, nearly
as long as the basal portion; cibarial apparatus moderate; tongue
very acute and delicately fringed with short hair; paraglossæ acute,
about half the length of the tongue; labial palpi not quite so long as
the paraglossæ, the basal joint very long, the rest decreasing

75. gradually in length; labium about as long as the tongue, its
inosculation emarginate; maxillæ subhastate, rather longer than the
tongue; maxillary palpi filiform, the basal joint the shortest, second
the longest, the rest decreasing in length. Thorax oval, usually
pubescent, sometimes glabrous; prothorax inconspicuous, as are the
bosses of the mesothorax; scutellum and post-scutellum lunulate,
the former convex; metathorax gibbous or truncated, but laterally
pubescent even in the glabrous species; wings with three
submarginal cells, and a fourth sometimes commenced, the second
subquadrate and receiving the first recurrent nervure close to its
extremity, the second being received beyond the centre of the third
submarginal cell [a slightly different arrangement takes place in
some of the species, which will be noticed subsequently]; the legs all
setose, but the setæ not very long, and the posterior coxæ and
trochanters have long hair beneath; the claws bifid. Abdomen ovate,
the terminal segment with a longitudinal linear incision in its centre.
The MALES differ in having the antennæ as long or longer than the
thorax; the labrum transverse, linear, and the abdomen usually
elongate and cylindrical, and much longer than the head and thorax.
NATIVE SPECIES.

76. 1. xanthopus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 4-5 ½ lines. (Plate IV. fig. 1 ♂♀.)
Lasioglossum tricingulum, Curtis.
2. quadricinctus, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 4-4½ lines.
quadricinctus, Kirby.
3. rubicundus, Christ. ♂ ♀. 4-5 lines.
rubicundus, Kirby.
4. cylindricus, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 3-5 lines.
malachura, Kirby.
fulvo-cincta, Kirby.
abdominalis, Kirby.
5. albipes, Fabricius, ♂ ♀. 3-4 lines.
albipes, Kirby.
obovata, Kirby.
6. lævigatus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3-4½ lines.
lugubris, Kirby.
7. leucozonius, Schrank, ♂. 3-4½ lines.
leucozonius, Kirby.
8. quadrinotatus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2-3 lines.
9. sexnotatus, Kirby, ♂ ♀.
10. lævis, Kirby, ♀. 4 lines.
11. fulvicornis, Kirby, ♂. 4 lines.
12. minutus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2½-3½ lines.
13. nitidiusculus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2-3 lines.
14. minutissimus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 1½-2½ lines. (Plate IV. fig. 3 ♂
♀.)
15. flavipes, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3-4 lines. (Plate IV. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
seladonia, Kirby.
16. Smeathmanellus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2½-3½ lines.
17. æratus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2½-3 lines.
18. leucopus, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 3-3½ lines.
19. morio, Kirby, ♂ ♀. 2-2½ lines.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

77. This genus was named by Latreille from ἁλίξω, to crowd, or collect
together, from the fact of their nidificating in numbers on the same
spot.
The females closely resemble in form those of the genus Andrena,
but the males are very unlike both those of that genus and their own
females, for they all have long cylindrical bodies and very long
antennæ, much longer relatively than those of the former genus.
Although none of the species approach in size the larger ones of the
preceding genus, their extremes of specific size are as distant apart
as they are in that genus, the smallest being extremely minute.
Some of even the commoner species are very pretty when in fine
condition, and several of them have a rich metallic green or blue
tint, and in the majority the wings are iridescent with the brightest
and gayest colours of the rainbow. The numbers in which they
associate together upon the same spot varies considerably, and a
very few indeed burrow solitarily and apart from their congeners. In
burrowing they form a tunnel which branches off to several cells, the
excavations being as inartificial as are those of Andrena. Walkenaer
tells us in his memoir upon the genus Halictus, that they line their
cells with a kind of glaze, that they burrow in horizontal surfaces to a
depth of about five inches, and which they polish very smoothly
previous to covering it with their viscous secretion, and that the cells
are all oval, the largest end being at the bottom. He says also that
they burrow solely during the night, especially when the moon is
shining, when it is difficult to walk without treading upon them; so
numerous are they, indeed, that they look like a cloud floating close
to the surface of the ground. Although burrowing thus at night, it is
only during the day that they supply their nests with their provision
of pollen and lay their eggs. Each of their cells is furnished with a
small ball of pollen, varying in size with the species, but which never
entirely fills the cell, and is affixed intermediately between both
extremities, and upon the mass contained in each cell they deposit
their small egg, which is placed at the extremity of the lump of
pollen most distant from the entrance. The larva is hatched in about
ten days, when it changes into the pupa. Some doubt attaches as to

78. the length of time that the pupa remains before its transformation
into the imago, and also as to the period at which this takes place. A
peculiarity attends the appearance of the larger species. Some are
very early spring insects, among which is the Halictus rubicundus;
this I have seen in abundance on the first fine spring days collecting
its stores on the flowers of the chickweed. It is then in the very
finest condition, and it is really a very beautiful although a very
common insect, having a richly golden fulvous pubescence on the
thorax, an intensely black and glabrous abdomen, the apex of which
is fringed with golden hair. No males are now to be found at all. Yet
it is only some species, and these the larger ones, which are subject
to this peculiarity, for the smaller ones I have found burrowing
during the summer months in vertical or sloping banks with a sunny
aspect, whilst the males were hovering about both in the vicinity and
close by, sometimes either playing or fighting on the wing with the
very small Nomadæ, which infest these species parasitically, whilst
their females were sedulously pursuing their vocation. Gradually
these joyous spring insects lose their gayness and their brilliancy, as
do those which have followed in succession of development with the
growing year, and they become senile and faded and are lost as they
have progressively fulfilled their function. By this time the ragwort is
in bloom, and the thistle displays its pinky blossoms; now the males
are to be found numerously exhibiting themselves upon these
flowers, and also another equally fresh brood to those of the spring
and early summer, of females. My friend the late Mr. Pickering, who
was in the early days of the present Entomological Society, when it
held its meetings in Old Bond Street, its honorary curator, and who
was then and always, even when less leisure was afforded him from
professional duties, a most assiduous and diligent observer of the
habits of insects, propounded his theory, both in conversation and
before the meetings of the Society, although he never drew up a
paper upon the subject, that these females were then impregnated,
upon which they retired to a hibernaculum, and there remained until
the breath of a new spring brought them forth in all the beauty of
their gay attire, and that it was from their broods deposited thus in
the spring and early summer, that the autumnal insects were

79. developed. This theory is both plausible and possible, and I have no
doubt that it is the correct one; and thus is explained the total
absence of males at the time of the appearance of the females in
the foremost portions of the year; this habit we shall find also in the
Bombi.
The flowers they delight in, besides those previously named, are
among others the ribwort plantain, and the bramble, as well as the
Umbelliferæ and the flowers of the broom. The females possess two
remarkable distinctions of structure not found in any of the other
bees, which consist in an articulated appendage in the centre of the
front margin of the labrum, and a vertical cleft in the terminal
segment of the abdomen, both of which will necessarily have their
uses in the economy of the insect, although what these may be has
not been discovered.
They, like Andrena, are exposed to parasites and enemies. The
smaller species of Nomada infest their smaller kinds, and St. Fargeau
tells us that the Sphecodes are also parasitical upon them. The
smallest of the genus, which is indeed an exceedingly minute insect,
is subject to a very minute strepsipterous destroyer; whether this be
a genuine Stylops I am not aware, but the supporting insect being
so minute, in fact the smallest of our bees, how small must be the
enemy bred within it! Another genus of this order has been found by
Mr. Dale upon them, and which is figured as the genus Elenchus in
Curtis’s ‘British Entomology.’ The smaller species are also attacked,
upon their return home laden, by spiders and ants. Chryses and
Hedychra are bred at their expense, and some of the Ichneumons
attack them, as well as the fossorial Hymenoptera of the genera
Cerceris, Crabro, and Philanthus, and these latter carry them off
bodily to furnish their own nests with pabulum. Several of the
species exhale a rich balmy odour, and, like all the Andrenidæ, they
are silent on the wing, and their sting is innocuous and not painful.
The males are very eager in their amours, and are not easily
repulsed.

80. Some of the species vary slightly in the neuration of the wings,
and this being a rather numerous genus, although not nearly
approaching the extent of Andrena, it has been proposed to make
use of it for its division, but I think this is scarcely required, it not
being sufficiently abundant to cause any inconvenience, the species
being so distinctly marked in their specific differences by the aid of
the metallic brilliancy of several of them. I have therefore arranged
the species in the above list in connective order without intermission,
and have placed in juxtaposition those species which appear the
closest in affinity.
b. With two submarginal cells to the wings.
Genus 7. Macroéië , Panzer.
(Plate V. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
Gen. Char.: Head transverse, as wide as the thorax, flattish; ocelli
placed in a very open curve upon the vertex; face flat, but convex in
the centre beneath the insertion of the antennæ; clypeus very
slightly convex; labrum transverse, narrowly lunulate; mandibles
bidentate; cibarial apparatus moderately long; tongue very acute
and fringed with delicate down; paraglossæ barely half the length of
the tongue, and acute, their apex fringed laterally with down; labial
palpi inserted in a deep sinus, filiform, the basal joint the longest,
the rest diminishing both in length and substance; labium about half
the length of the entire organ, its inosculation emarginate; maxillæ
hastate, rather longer than the tongue; maxillary palpi six-jointed,
the basal joint the shortest, the third the longest, the remainder
diminishing gradually in length, and all declining in substance from
the basal joint. Thorax oval, rather pubescent; prothorax transverse,
curving to the mesothorax, whose bosses are inconspicuous;
scutellum transverso-quadrate; post-scutellum transverse linear;
metathorax truncated. Wingë with two submarginal cells, and a third
commenced, the second about as long as the first, and receiving
both the recurrent nervures, the first near its commencement, and
the second nearer its extremity; legs robust, with the posterior tibiæ

81. and plantæ densely clothed externally with short hair; the plantæ
broad; the second joint of the tarsus inserted at the lower angle of
the plantæ; claws bifid. Abdomen subtriangular, truncated at its base,
not longer than the thorax.
The MALE differs in having the antennæ as long as the thorax and
curved; the posterior coxæ very large and robust, the trochanters
small and triangular; the femora large and much swollen in the
centre, the posterior tibiæ very large and triangular and convex
externally, and the plantæ longer than the rest of the tarsus, and
slightly curved beneath longitudinally.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. labiata, Panzer, ♂ ♀. 4-4½ lines.
(Plate V. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
The name of this genus comes from μακρὸς, long, and ὦψ, face,
in allusion to the length of that portion of the head, although this
assumed discriminative characteristic is scarcely suitable; this again
constitutes another of the many instances wherein it would have
been much preferable to have imposed a name without any
significancy than one which is not thoroughly applicable. It is,
indeed, always dangerous to attach a name to a new genus which
has reference to some individual peculiarity, for it may eventually
exhibit itself as limited to the one single species or sex to which it
was originally applied, as to every other subsequently discovered
species in the genus it may be inappropriate.
Nothing, so far as I am aware, is known of the habits of these
singular insects, which, I believe, have been caught only three times
in this country and then only the male sex.

82. The first, which is in the collection of the British Museum, was
brought by Dr. Leach from Devonshire; the second was caught in the
New Forest by the late John Walton, Esq., distinguished for his
knowledge of the British Curculionidæ, and who kindly presented it
to me for my collection when I was at the zenith of my enthusiasm
for the Hymenoptera, and with that collection it passed to Mr.
Thomas Desvignes, in whose possession it remains; and the third
was caught by Mr. Stevens, at Weybridge, in Surrey. Why I enter so
particularly into these circumstances is, that the genus is extremely
peculiar both for scientific position and for structure. In the latter the
male is extremely like the male of Saropoda and its female is more
like the female Scopulipedes among the Apidæ than one of the
Andrenidæ, especially in the form of the abdomen and of the
intermediate and posterior legs, as well as in the length of the claws
and the low insertion of the posterior joints of the tarsi upon their
plantæ, a peculiarity not occurring in another genus of the
Andrenidæ.
I have no doubt, also, that they are very musical in their flight and
are, perhaps, as shrill-winged as is Saropoda; whereas one of the
great characteristic specialities of the Andrenidæ is their silence. This
genus, although restrained within the circuit of the subnormal bees
by the structure and folding of its tongue, has so much of the habit
of one of the true Apidæ that it almost prompts the wish to
resuscitate the circular systems and place it within its own circle in
analogical juxtaposition to Saropoda in the circle of the Apidæ,
where they might impinge one upon the other. It is not often that so
rare an insect is at the same time so curious and so suggestive.
Having been found, there is no reason why it may not be again
found with due and patient diligence; my own experience has taught
me how easy it is even in well-hunted ground to make rarities
common, within almost a stone’s throw of the metropolis, at
Hampstead, Highgate, and Battersea, from which localities in the
course of my entomological career I have introduced to our fauna
many novelties, one of which was certainly a remarkable discovery,
from the last spot named, which it is worth recording. A quantity of

83. soil had been removed from the City where an artesian well was
being bored, and consequently from varying depths, and carted
thence and cast upon the edge of the river-bank at Battersea. The
following season, from this soil, a thick and prodigious quantity of
the common mustard plant shot up, and when in flower I happened
to be collecting near the spot on the day of our gracious Queen’s
coronation, when I captured multitudes of a splendid large Allantus,
entirely new to the British fauna, and a choice addition to
collections. This ground had been hunted at all seasons through all
botanical and entomological time, and neither had the mustard plant
been found there before nor had the insect. Whence did they both
come? These observations have certainly nothing to do with the
subject in hand, beyond suggesting that with untiring energy in the
vicinities indicated where Macropis has been already found it may
possibly turn up in abundance.
Genus 8. Daëyéoda , Latreille.
Melitta ** c, partly, Kirby.
(Plate V. fig. 3 ♂ ♀.)
Gen. Char.: Head transverse; vertex glabrous; ocelli placed in a
curved line; antennæ short, filiform, geniculated, the scape thickly
bearded with long hair and scarcely half the length of the flagellum;
face and clypeus densely pubescent, the latter slightly convex;
labrum transverse, linear, slightly rounded in front; mandibles
arcuate, bidentate, the teeth acute and robust; cibarial apparatus
moderately long; tongue long, very acute, and fringed with delicate
hair; paraglossæ about one-third the length of the tongue, very
slender, and acute; the labial palpi inserted upon the junction of the
labium, very slender, filiform, of uniform thickness, the joints
subclavate, the basal joint considerably the longest, the second joint
also long, the two terminal joints much shorter and decreasing in
length; labium about the length of the tongue, its inosculation
acutely triangular; maxillæ hastate, as long as the tongue; maxillary
palpi six-jointed, rather more than half the length of the maxillæ,

84. slender, the basal joint the most robust, the second the longest, the
rest declining both in thickness and length. Thorax oval, densely
pubescent, the divisions indistinct from its density; scutellum
lunulate; metathorax subtruncate; wings with two submarginal cells
and a third commenced, the second receiving both the recurrent
nervures, the first close to its commencement and the second just
beyond its centre; legs slender, pubescent, especially the tibiæ and
plantæ, the hair upon the posterior pair being extremely dense and
long, and each hair twisted minutely spirally; their coxæ,
trochanters, and femora also covered with long hair; claws bifid, the
inner tooth very short. Abdomen oval, the basal and fifth segments
densely hairy, the superior surface glabrous and shining, excepting
where the white decumbent bands broadly edge the three
intermediate segments.
The MALE differs in being more densely pubescent, especially upon
the abdomen, which is not glabrous, and in not having the antennæ
geniculated; the bands of the abdomen are fulvous, and its legs are
longer and more slender, and it is sexually less hairy, although still
considerably so.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. hirtipes, Fab., ♂ ♀. 6-7 lines. (Plate V. fig. 3 ♂ ♀.)
Swammerdamella, Kirby.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
This genus is named from the extreme hairiness of its posterior
legs, ποῦς, hairy, ποῦς, ποδὸς, foot or leg. It is one of the most
elegant of our native bees, both in form and the extreme congruity
of its habiliment. This is unfortunately but a bridal raiment, for
almost as soon as the arduous duties of maternity supervene these
bright garments fade, and the workday suit immediately shows the
wear and tear produced by the labours of life. The male flaunts

85. about longer in the freshness of his attire, but he is usually the
assiduous companion of his spouse, although he does not participate
in her toils. They are late summer insects, and form their burrows
upon banks having a southern aspect; these they excavate deeper
than does Andrena, and smooth and polish them internally. They
generally prefer spots intertangled with shrubs, and at the mouth of
the cylinder they tunnel they heap up the extracted soil, to use a
portion for closing it when their task is accomplished. In the course
of this process, especially if a cloud pass over the sun, they will
come forward to the aperture. They collect large quantities of pollen,
for which the hair upon their posterior tibiæ and plantæ is
excellently well adapted both by its length and the additional storing
power it possesses in each individual hair being spirally twisted,
although they are unprovided with the furniture of hair upon the
femora and coxæ found in the genus Andrenæ. Thus nature likes to
vary its mode of accomplishing the same object. The details of their
nursery processes are not known. For their protection their sting is
very virulent, and also actively employed, as they have many
enemies, especially amongst the fossorial Hymenoptera, whom they
stoutly resist to the extent of their strength. We are not aware of
any special parasites that infest them. They are semi-gregarious in
their habits, for where they occur any quantity of them may be
taken. They are found in their season in the southern counties, the
Isle of Wight, and in several parts of Kent and its eastern coast, and
even as near London as Charlton. They seem to prefer the
composite flowers, having a great liking for the bastard Hawkweed
and the Dandelion. A fine series of them forms a great ornament to
a collection.
Subfamily 2. Aéidæ (Normal Bees), Latreille.
Syn. Aéië, Kirby.
Tongue always folded back in repose.
Maxillary palpi varying in the number of the joints.
Section 1. Solitary.
Subsection 1. Scoéuliéedeë (brush-legged).

86. a. Femoriferæ (collectors on entire leg).
† With two submarginal cells to the wings.
Genus 9. Panurguë , Panzer.
(Plate VI. fig. 1 ♂♀.)
Aéië * a, Kirby.
Gen. Char.: Head transversely subquadrate; ocelli in a triangle on
the vertex, which, as well as the face, is convex, the latter between
the antennæ carinated as far as the clypeus; antennæ short,
subclavate, the second joint of the flagellum considerably the
longest, the remainder equal; clypeus slightly convex; labrum
transversely quadrate, convex; mandibles acutely unidentate;
cibarial apparatus long; tongue half its entire length, gradually
acute, and fringed laterally with delicate hair; paraglossæ slender,
acute, membranous, not quite half the length of the tongue; labial
palpi more than half the length of the tongue, the basal joint longer
than the two following, the remainder gradually decreasing in
length, all conterminous; labium half the length of the cibarial
apparatus, broad; maxillæ slender, subhastate, as long as the
tongue; maxillary palpi six-jointed, the basal joint robust, subclavate,
as is the second joint, but more slender, the remainder filiform,
gradually declining in length. Thorax oval; prothorax inconspicuous;
mesothorax with a deep central groove; bosses protuberant;
scutellum and post-scutellum lunulate; metathorax gibbous; wings
with the marginal cell slightly appendiculated, two submarginal cells
and a third commenced, the second receiving both the recurrent
nervures, the first close to its commencement and the second
beyond its centre; the legs densely pilose, the posterior pair having
their coxæ and trochanters beneath, their femora in front, above,
the tibiæ and plantæ all round, covered with long hair; claws bifid.
Abdomen ovate, the base subtruncate, the basal segment having a
deep central impression at its base, the fifth segment fringed with
short dense hair, the terminal segment with a triangular plate
carinated in the centre, and fimbriated laterally, and all very slightly
constricted.

87. The MALE scarcely differs, except in having the head rather more
globose and more pubescent; and the legs, although still hairy, much
less so than in the female.
NATIVE SPECIES.
1. Banksiana, Kirby, ♂♀. 4-5¼ lines.
ursinus, Curtis, iii. 101. (Plate VI. fig. 1 ♂♀.)
2. calcaratus, Scopoli, ♂♀. 3-4 lines.
ursinus, Kirby.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Πανοῦργος signifies one excessively industrious, at least as it is
applied here, although it has other less meritorious meanings, but
these insects can scarcely be considered more energetic than any of
their associates; perhaps the contrast made between the bright
yellow pollen and their lugubrious vestment might give the idea of
very active collecting, they being usually, upon returning from their
foray, almost entirely disguised in the produce of their excursion.
They are rather remarkable insects from their intensely black colour
and their compact active forms; their square head and short clavate
antennæ give them a sturdy business-like appearance. They also are
silent on the wing, but being at the very van of the present
subfamily, forming as it were the advanced picket of the Apidæ, it
may be considered suitable that they should retain, by way of partial
disguise, some of the characteristics of the preceding subfamily. In
many respects, therefore, they closely approach Dasypoda: thus
their legs are similarly furnished with hair, relatively as long and
having the same spiral twist, and their whole habit is that of one of
the Andrenidæ, excepting that their clavate antennæ, and the
folding of their tongue in repose, separate them from that subfamily.
They are local insects, but extremely abundant when fallen upon. I
used to find the first species upon an elevated plateau, on the south
side over-hanging the Vale of Health and its large pond at

88. Hampstead. Every Dandelion, for a wide circuit in the vicinity, was
crowded with individuals—assiduously collecting, in the case of
females, but basking in sunny indolence, and revelling in the
attractions of the flower, in the case of males, and, at the same time,
their burrowing spot, which was not larger than half-a-dozen square
yards, was swarming with them, coming and going, burrowing and
provisioning. Very numerous, but not so numerous as themselves,
were their pretty parasite, the Nomada Fabriciana, fine specimens of
both sexes of which I have constantly captured; and a remarkable
singularity pertaining to the latter is, that some seasons it would
totally fail, and another season present itself sparsely, when, after
these lapses, it would recur in all its primitive profusion, although
the Panurgus was every season equally present. Both these insects
are found during the months of June and July, especially about the
middle of the former. In their burrows, which they perforate
vertically, they usually enclose about six cells, each being duly
provisioned and the egg deposited, when each is separately closed
and the orifice of the cylinder filled up. This species is also found in
Kent and Surrey, and I have no doubt they might be discovered in
most of the southern counties. The smaller species, which is a good
deal like a little Tiphia, is remarkable for the peculiarity of the male
having a projecting process upon its posterior femora, whence it
derives its specific name, calcaratus, which is hardly consistent, as it
is not quite the right place for a spur. This smaller species is also
found in Kent, Hampshire, and at Weybridge, in Surrey, and in the
Isle of Wight. As well as in the Leontodon, it likes to repose in the
flowers of the Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium).
b. Cruriferæ (collectors on the shanks and tarsi).
† With two submarginal cells to the wings.
Genus 10. Eucera, Scopoli.
(Plate VI. fig. 2 ♂ ♀.)
Aéië ** d 1, Kirby.

89. Gen. Char.: Head transverse; vertex concave; ocelli in a curve, and
very high up; face flattish; clypeus very convex, hirsute, and
fimbriated; labrum transverse-ovate, and emarginate in front;
mandibles very obtusely and inconspicuously bidentate; tongue very
long and slender, and gradually acuminating, transversely striated;
paraglossæ slender, membranous, very acute, and about two-thirds
the length of the tongue; labial palpi membranous, and about the
length of the paraglossæ, the basal joint linear, broad, longer than
the rest united, the second about half its length and acuminate, the
two terminal ones are very short and equal, and articulate within the
apex of the second joint; labium less than half the length of the
tongue, its inosculation concave; maxillæ two-thirds the length of
the tongue, subhastate; maxillary palpi six-jointed, short, less than
one-third the length of the maxillæ, the basal joint robust, the rest
filiform, and gradually decreasing in length and substance. Thorax
very pubescent, which conceals its divisions; metathorax truncated;
wings with two submarginal cells, the second receiving both the
recurrent nervures, one near each of its extremities; legs setose,
especially the tibiæ and plantæ, which, in the posterior pair is very
dense on the exterior of the tibiæ, and both externally and internally
upon the plantæ, the following joints of the posterior tarsi inserted
beneath, and within the extremity of their plantæ; the claw-joint
being longer than the two preceding, and the claws acutely bifid.
Abdomen oval, convex above, subtruncate at the base, where it is
thickly pubescent, the other segments glabrous on the disk; the fifth
segment fimbriated with decumbent short hair, and the terminal
segment having a central triangular plate at the sides of which it is
rigidly setose.
The MALE differs in having the antennæ longer than the thorax,
filiform, but with their several joints curved, the curvature increasing
towards the terminal joints, the integument of the whole of the
flagellum consisting of a congeries of minute hexagons, the edges of
which are all raised, and the whole resembling shagreen; the legs
have the usual sexual slighter and extended development, and are
necessarily less setose; it is also deficient in the transverse whitish

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