Fabric Structure and Design

Lecture Note

1. Fabric Structure and Design
By
Muktar Seid Hussen

2. Introduction
Type of Draft Plan
Fundamental Weaves
Plain Weave Derivatives
Twill Weave Derivatives
Miscellaneous Structures
Extra Warp and Extra Weft Figured Fabric
Color and Its Effect On Weave
CONTENTS
Fabric Analysis

3. INTRODUCTION
Fabric produced by three commonly used methods:
Weaving,
Yarn to fabric conversion by interlacing threads.
Knitting,
Yarn to fabric conversion by interloping threads.
Non-woven,
Fiber to fabric conversion by mechanical, chemical,
heat or thermal means.
Fabric classified in terms of structure are:
Woven structure,
Simple structure
Compound structure
Knitted structure,
Weft knitted structure
Warp knitted structure

4. Lace,
Hand made lace
Machine made lace
 Felt
Figure and design are put on the fabric, and the figured fabric
may be structural design or applied design.

5. WOVEN FABRICS
A woven cloth is formed by the interlacement of two sets of
threads, namely, warp and weft threads.
These threads are interlaced with one another according to
the type of weave or design.
The warp (ends) threads are those that run longitudinally along
the length of the fabric and the weft (picks or fillings) threads are
those that run transversely across the fabric.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF WOVEN STRUCTURE
Woven structures are classified into the following categories:
Simple structures
Compound structures
In case of simple structures,
There is only one series of warp and weft threads.
Threads interlace with one another perpendicularly.
All the neighbouring warp and weft threads are parallel to
one another,
Both plays equivalent role in fabric properties.
In case of compound structures,
There may be more than one series of threads,
(one set forms the ground and the other forms the figure)
Unlike the simple structures, the neighbouring threads need
not be parallel to one another.

7. METHODS OF WEAVE REPRESENTATION
Two kinds of interlacing are possible:
Warp overlap,
When the warp thread is lifted above the inserted weft.
Weft overlap,
When the inserted weft thread is above the warp thread.
There are two practical methods of weave representation.
Linear,
Each warp thread is represented by a vertical line and
each weft thread by a horizontal line.
The point of intersection of lines corresponding to a warp
overlap is marked by the dot,
The point of intersection corresponding to weft
overlap remains unmarked.
It is seldom used because the designer has to draw plenty
of horizontal and vertical lines, which is time consuming.

8. Canvas,
A squared paper is employed, on which each vertical space
represents a warp thread and each horizontal space represents
a weft thread.
Each square therefore indicates an intersection of warp and
weft thread.
To show the warp overlap, a square is filled in or
shaded.
The blank square indicates that the weft thread is
placed over the warp (weft overlap).
Several types of marks may be used to indicate the
warp overlap. The ‘x’ mark is most commonly used.

9. WEAVE REPEAT (REPEAT SIZE)
The repeat of a weave is a quantitative expression of any given
weave.
It indicates the minimum number of warp and weft threads for
a given weave.
It comprises of warp and weft repeat.
The size of the repeat may be even or uneven depending upon the
nature of the weave.
In elementary weaves such as plain, twill, satin etc. the repeat
size is normally even.
However in weaves such as honey comb, huckaback the repeat
size may be even or uneven.
For any weave the repeat size is the sum of the warp and weft floats.
Thus in case of 2/1 twill, the repeat size is 3x3.
It is common practice to denote one repeat of a weave on design
paper.

10. BASIC ELEMENTS OF WOVEN DESIGN
The three basic elements in a woven design are:
Design,
The design indicates the interlacement of warp and
weft threads in the repeat of the design.
It is made up of a number of squares, which constitute
the repeat size of a design.
The vertical direction of the squares indicate the ends
and the horizontal direction indicates the picks.
A blank in a square indicates that a warp goes below
the corresponding weft,
To show the weft overlap
‘X’ mark in the square indicates that the warp floats
above the weft,
To show the warp overlap

11. Draft or drawing plan,
The draft or drawing plan indicates the manner of
drawing ends through the heald eyes.
It also denotes the number of heald shaft required for a
given weave repeat.
The choice of the type of drafting plan depends upon the
type of fabric woven.
Peg or lifting plan,
The peg or lifting plan provides useful information to the
weaver.
It denotes the order of lifting of heald shafts.
In a peg plan the vertical spaces indicate the heald shafts
and the horizontal spaces indicate the picks.
The peg plan depends upon the drafting plan.

13. RELATION BETWEEN DESIGN, DRAFT AND LIFTING PLAN
The construction of any woven fabric depends upon the design, draft
and lifting plan,
These are very closely dependent upon one another.
Knowledge of inter dependence is very valuable to the designer
upon whose skill,
Several mechanical limitations of the loom may be imposed.
The drafting systems and lifting orders enables to introduce
variety into rigid mechanical systems of operation.
In normal practice the designer has to produce a range of designs for
looms with a known pattern scope.
Usually involves the draft and the lifting plan construction.
A similar procedure is adopted when the designer is asked to
reproduce a specific design from a sample.
The weave in the sample is analysed and a suitable draft and
lifting plan is derived.

14. TYPE OF DRAFT PLAN
The various drafts are classified as follows:
Straight draft
Pointed draft
Skip and sateen draft
Broken draft
Divided draft
Grouped draft
Combination draft

15. STRAIGHT DRAFT
This is the most common and simplest
types of draft plans.
In this kind of draft, the drafting order
progresses successively from first to the
last heald frame.
Thus, the first warp end of a weave is
drawn through the first heald shaft,
The second warp through the
second heald frame and so on.
One important feature of the straight
draft that distinguishes it from other
types of draft plans is that the peg or
lifting plan is same as the design.
Hence, it is sufficient to indicate
only the design.

16. SKIP DRAFT
The skip draft is suitable for a fabrics having
heavy warp thread density.
In this kind of draft plan, the number of
heald frames may be twice or more than the
minimum required for a weave.
Only to distribute the warp threads
more uniformly so as to prevent
abrasion of the threads due to
overcrowding.
The heald frames are divided into two
groups.
All odd numbered warp threads are
drawn through the first group of heald
frames and all even numbered warp
ends are drawn through the second
group of heald frames.

17. POINTED DRAFT
This is similar to a straight draft.
It is suitable for weaves,
Such as pointed twill, diamond
weaves and ordinary types of
honeycombs.
The straight draft is reversed after half
the repeat in warp way.
The number of heald shafts is about
half the repeat size of the weave.
The sateen draft serves the same purpose as the skip draft.
A skip draft is normally employed for weaves such as
plain and twill up to a repeat of 4.
Whereas the sateen draft is used for weaves having repeat
size of more than 5.

18. BROKEN DRAFT
A broken draft almost
resembles to the pointed
draft.

However, the pointed
effect is broken.

This type of draft is suitable
for weaves,

Such as broken twill
and herring bone twills.

19. DIVIDED DRAFT
This draft is used for
weaves having two series of
warp threads,
Such as terry, double
cloth, etc.
The two sets of warp
threads are divided into two
groups,
Which is called face
and back warps.
The first group is for 8
heald shafts and second for
9-12 heald shafts.

20. GROUPED DRAFT
These drafts are employed for the production of stripe and check
designs, in which the stripes have different weaves or their
combinations.
This draft is used for producing the fabric with two different
stripes.
The repeat of the draft is determined by the number of stripes and
the number of threads in each stripe.
The number of shafts in the draft depends upon the number of
stripes and the warp repeat of weave of each stripe.

21. COMBINED DRAFT
Various methods of drawing-in can be combined in one
draft for producing a certain type of fabric.
Two or more drafts described above can be applied
simultaneously,
For example, straight and skip or sateen, grouped
and divided, and so on.
Combined draft is the most complicated and can be
chosen only if there are some technological or
economical reasons.
The designer having a great experience can do it
properly.

22. FUNDAMENTAL WEAVES
Woven structure is the manner in which groups of warp yarns are
raised by the harness, to permit insertion of the weft yarn in the
given weave pattern,
Which affects the fabric durability and appearance.
Apart from the woven structure,
Fabric density (EPI / EPC & PPI / PPC)
Fabric weight
Yarn count (Yarn fineness & coarseness)
Yarn twist (Direction & amount of twist)
The THREE fundamental weaves are used for the majority of
fabrics,
Plain
Twill
Satin / Sateen

23. Each kind of the fundamental weave is determined by Repeat of
weave [R] and Shift [S].
Repeat is indicates the minimum number of warp and weft
threads for a given weave.
Warp repeat (R
o) and weft repeat (R
y)
Shift is indicates the distance from a painted square on a
thread to its corresponding painted square on its adjacent
thread.
The shift can be counted in warp way (S
o) and in weft
way (S
y),
(mostly in warp way)

24. The shift can be either positive or negative depending on the
direction of counting.
Counting from the left to right or from low to high
gives positive shift.
Counting from the right to left or from high low
gives negative shift.





Every warp and weft must have at least one warp or weft
overlap with in the repeat [R].

25. PLAIN WEAVE
Plain weave is the simplest and most commonly used type of
weave.
It found in a wide range of fabrics and also it has wide
range of application.
Variously known as “calico” or “tabby” weave.
Plain weave is usually denoted by fractions,
The numerator refers to the number of warp overlaps.
The denominator refers to the number of weft overlaps.
It requires TWO harness for 1/1plain weave,
Because the weave repeats every two ends and picks.
Weave repeat [R] = 2 and Shift [S] =1
But it requires four, six or more heald shafts when the
number of ends/cm becomes large with skip draft.

26. Plan diagram
Longitudinal
section diagram
Cross-section diagram
From the diagram,
The 3
rd
warp thread has the same movement
with the 1
st
, and the 4
th
same with 2
nd
.
Similarly, the 3
rd
weft thread is same with
the 1
st
weft thread; the 4
th
is same with the
2
nd
.
Thus, the weave repeats after 2 ends and 2
picks.

Repeat

27. Fabric with a plain weave is reversible,
Face and back are the same,
Unless one side is chosen as the face by finishing or
printing.
It can be classified as:
ƒ Balanced or Square plain weave
ƒ Unbalanced plain weave,
Which can be warp faced and weft faced plain
weave.

28. Balanced or Square plain weave:
ƒDensity of yarn
Linear density
Crimp
Unbalanced plain weave:
ƒ Warp faced plain weave,
EPC > PPC
Warp crimp < Weft crimp
Warp yarn is finer
ƒ Weft faced plain weave,
PPC > EPC
Weft crimp < Warp crimp
Weft yarn is finer
are the same

29. PLAIN WEAVE CHARACTERISTICS
It has firm construction,
Because it has maximum number of binding points.
The threads interlace on alternate order of 1 up and 1
down. (50% up and 50% down)
The thread density is limited,
Cloth thickness and mass per unit area are limited.
It ravels less than other weaves.
It has good wear resistance than others (abrasion resistance).
It has lower wrinkle resistance than others.
It has lower tear strength than others,
Because when tearing a plain weave fabric, the yarn breaks
once at a time.
It provides a good background for printed and embossed design,
Because it have a flat surface.

30. TWILL WEAVE
A distinct design for the twill weave is,
It can form a diagonal line.
Twill weave is usually denoted by fractions,
The numerator signifies the number of
warp overlaps whereas the denominator
refers to the number of weft overlaps
within the repeat.
Twill weave can be right-hand or left-hand
twill.
ƒIn the right-hand twill, the diagonals run
towards to the right wherein shift [s] = +1
ƒIn the left hand twill, the diagonals run
towards to the left wherein shift [s]= -1
The direction of the diagonal line can aid in
recognition of the face of the fabric.

31. Twill weaves are named according to the number of harness
required to make the design.
The simplest twill weave is either 1/2 or 2/1 twill,
are called three-leaf twill
3/1 or 1/3 twill are called four-leaf twill.
Twill weaves are classified as balanced or unbalanced,
According to the number of warp and weft yarns are
visible on the face of fabric.
The balanced twill,
e.g. 2/2 shows an equal number of warp and
weft yarns in the design.
Other twills are unbalanced,
 warp or weft face which produces a more
obvious twill line.

32. In case of balanced or square twill weave,
The density of yarn [EPC = PPC] is the same.
The linear density [Warp count = Weft count] is the same.
Diagonal angle lies at 45°.
2/2 Right-hand Twill
Weave

33. In case of unbalanced twill weave
Warp faced twill weave,
The density of warp yarn is higher. [EPC > PPC]
Weave with warp floats.
Diagonal angle will have steeper grading. [ > 45°]


Weft faced twill weave,
The density of weft yarn is higher. [PPC > EPC]
Weave with weft floats.
Diagonal angle will have a lower angle. [ < 45°]
E.g. ½ Twill
Warp Face 2/1
Twill Weave

34. DIAGONAL LINE OF TWILL
Diagonal line of twill fabric can be changed according to design.
In a twill weave the succeeding warp yarn to the right has the
corresponding interlacing,
One weft yarn higher the weave is 45 degree right hand
twill.
Two weft yarns higher or lower, a 63 degree twill weave is
produced.
Fabric with 45 degree twill weave has 45 degree diagonal line
only when yarns per inch in the warp and the weft are the same.
Usually there are more yarns per inch in the warp,
So that most 45 degree twill weaves have diagonals of more
than 45 degree.
The steepness of the diagonal can indicate strength
and durability in the fabric.

35. Degree of twill angle

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF TWILL WEAVE
The diagonally arranged interlacing of warp and weft,
Provide greater pliability and resilience than the plain
weave.
Twill has less binding points than plain.
Twill weave fabrics are more tightly weave because the yarns are
usually closely beaten,
Gives better cover than plain weave.
Not get dirty as quickly as the plain weave.
Making especially durable fabric.
Twill has more ends per unit area and picks per unit area than
plain cloth.
Gives more cloth thickness and mass per unit area.

37. Twill weave have,
Good aesthetic properties than plain weaves.
 And softer than plain weaves as well.
Fabric with these lines may become flattened by wear and
pressure,
 and thus become shiny.
Twill weave are commonly used in men’s suits and coats.

38. SATIN / SATEEN WEAVE
Satin/ sateen weave is a rearranged twill weave.
It is purposely interrupted in order to contribute to the smooth and
lustrous surface desired.
Interlacing points are arranged so as to allow the floating threads to
slip and cover the binding point of one thread by the float of the
other, which results maximum degree of smoothness and luster.
In a true satin weave each warp and weft yarn only interlace once in each
repeat of weave.
Satin weave fabrics have relatively long floats.
The sateen weave is denoted by a fraction.
The numerator is equal to the repeat of weave.
The denominator is equal to the shift (S
y) of overlaps.
Satin/Sateen weave can be classified:
Regular satin/sateen weave which fulfils the shift rule.
Irregular satin/sateen weave which doesn’t fulfil the shift rule.

39. REGULAR SATIN/SATEEN WEAVE
Shift Rules
Shift [S]>1
‘S’ should not be equal to the repeat
[R]
‘S’ should not be [R-1]
‘S’ must not be a factor of weave
repeat [R]
It should not be a multiple of the
factor
The smallest number of possible
threads is 5 [R≥5]
Satin is a warp faced rearranged twill and,
 sateen is a rearranged weft faced twill.
Thus satin is the reverse side of
sateen weaves.

41. In a warp face,
the face is predominantly warp yarn.
In a weft face,
the face is predominantly weft yarn.


Satin fabric is made from filament yarns,
with the warp yarns predominant on the face.
Satin fabrics are smooth and lustrous,
because lustrous filament yarns are used;
there are few interlacing points that gives long floats;
the face yarns are fine and closely packed.
SATIN FABRIC

42. Since the greatest lustre is in the length wise (warp)
direction,
garments using this fabric in warp direction show
lustre effect.
Satin weave fabric drapes well and,
 heavier than the twill weave.
The compactness of the weave gives the less porosity,
which makes the fabric warmer.
The long floats of the yarn provide lustre to the satin
weave fabrics.
They are responsible for the poor wearing quality
of many of these fabrics.

43. SATEEN FABRIC
Sateen fabric is a durable
cotton fabric,
usually with weft face
sateen weave.
It is not lustrous as satin
fabric,
as spun yarns are
used.
Since it is also heavier,
with thicker yarns.
It is not as drapeable
as satin fabric.

44. Regular sateen can not be constructed on four and six
threads,
Because there is no number which has not a common
factor with four and six.
However, there can be produced irregularly.
General rules for construction of irregular satin/sateen:
First, 50% of the picks are filled with its original shifting
number.
For the next pick we take shifting number as half the
number of repeat size.
The remaining picks are filled in according to the
original shifting number but in the opposite direction.
IRREGULAR SATIN/SATEEN WEAVE

45. Construct irregular sateen weave
with eight repeat by using general
rule

46. CHARACTERISTICS OF SATIN/SATEEN FABRIC
Both have a smooth and lustrous surface appearance.
Both have only one binding point in each end or pick.
 And have less binding points with more float lengths.
Both doesn’t have continuous twill diagonal lines due to
rearrangement on twill weave.
More thread density is possible in both warp face satin and weft
face sateen, and more mass per unit area is also possible.
Both have poor seam strength due to thread mobility.

47. COMPARISON OF BASIC WEAVE PROPERTIES

48. Exercise:
Construct twill weave for 3/3a, 4/2` 3/2a , 2/4a.
Construct 5/3 sateen, 8/3 satin, 11/3 sateen.
Construct design from a given draft and lifting plan.

49. Construction of design from a given draft and lifting plan as
follow:

50. DERIVATIVES OF FUNDAMENTAL WEAVES
These weaves are derived from plain, twill and sateen weaves and
retain their structural features.


The plain weave may be modified by extending it warp or weft
way or both.
The extension of the plain weave thus produces a rib effect.
A warp rib results from extending the plain weave in the
warp direction.
A weft rib structure results from extending the plain weave
in the weft direction.
A matt rib results from extending the plain weave in both
directions.
PLAIN WEAVE DERIVATIVES

51. These are produced by extending the plain weave in warp way
direction and can be constructed on regular and irregular basis.
The warp rib is denoted by a fraction.
The numerator shows the number of warp overlapping
and the denominator, the number of weft overlapping on
the same thread within the repeat.
The sum of the fraction numerator and denominator is
equal to the weft repeat.
WARP RIB

53. Constructed by extending the
plain weave in weft direction
and can be constructed on
regular and irregular basis.
The sum of the fraction
of numerator and
denominator is equal to
the warp repeat.
WEFT RIB

54. In both the warp and weft rib weaves:
The appearance of the cloth depends on the respective
thread settings, and to achieve good effects,
the weft rib can be enhanced with a high number of
picks per inch and a comparatively low number of
ends per inch.
the warp rib effect can be enhanced with a high
number of ends per inch and a comparatively low
number of picks per inch.
The prominence of the rib can be increased by suitable
use of coarse and fine yarns.
Rib weaves are used in extensively employed for window
blinds in railway and other vehicles, and upholstering
furniture.

55. MATT RIB
These weaves are also variously known as
hopsack or basket weaves.
The matt rib structures result from
extending the plain weave in both
directions.
In case of regular matt weave,
the plain weaves are extended equally
in the warp and weft directions.
In case of irregular matt weaves,
the plain weave is extended unevenly
or irregularly in the warp and weft
directions.
Matt weave finds extensive uses for a
great variety of fabrics such as dress
materials, shirting's, etc.

57. These weaves are derived from twill weaves and retain their
structural features.
Twill weave can be modified,
By extending the floats,
By changing the shifts,
By extending the float and changing the shift.
Both
As per the basic design of twill weave,
It would have many variations and type of twill weave
derivatives.
It has a great potential for the introduction of ornamentation
into the fabric.

TWILL WEAVE DERIVATIVES

58. ZIGZAG OR WAVY TWILLS
These are also known as pointed twills.
In these classes of twill weaves the twill progresses in
one direction and then reversed to the next direction.
The reversal of the twill may be done in a regular or
irregular manner.
Ideally, the direction of reversal should be done by
considering the series of threads which predominate the face
of the fabric.
Warp way reversal,
is done where the warp predominates over the weft.
Weft way reversal,
is done where the weft predominates over the warp.

60. HERRINGBONE TWILLS
This type of twill is reversed
as like pointed twills.
but does not come to a
point where it changes the
direction.
This type of construction
produces a distinct stripe
effect,
prevents the formation of
an extended float where
the weave turns.
In this aspect the herringbone
twills are considered to be
more advantageous than the
pointed twills.

61. BROKEN TWILL
These twills are constructed by breaking the continuity of any
continuous twill weave.
The continuity can be broken in either a regular or an
irregular order.
Generally somewhat similar in appearance to herring bone
twills, can be produced by breaking a regular twill.
There are two ways of obtaining broken twills.
1.Break and reversal method
2.Entering and skipping method
Break and Reversal method:
In this method first decide the break unit. (after how many
threads the twill will be broken)
Generally, it is half the number of threads in the repeat.
And then reverse the thread.

62. Example:
1.2/2 twill (Break point: half the number of threads)




2.4 /4 twill (Break point: 2 threads)

63. Entering and skipping method:
This method is applicable to twills that are composed of equal
warp and weft floats.
The first step is calculating the number of treads that will be
taken in order to enter.
For n / n twill, it will be (n + n) x 3
And then skipping a suitable thread in a repeat of the twill.
The most suitable number to skip is one less than
half the number of threads in the repeat of the twill.
(N/2 –1),
Where, N is the number of threads in the
repeat of the twill.
Example:
2/2 twill,
No. of threads will be enter = (2+2) x 3 = 12

64. No. of threads will be enter = (2+2) x 3 = 12





No. of threads will be skip = 4/2 – 1=1
Prepare another design from this by taking 2 ends and then
skipping one alternately.

65. COMBINATION TWILL
In these types of weaves two different types of twills are
combined together alternately.
The combination may be warp way or weft way.
Accordingly warp or weft faced twills may be used suitably.
These twills are constructed by two methods:
1.End and end combination
2.Pick and pick combination
In the first method the twill weaves are combined
end way and in the second method twill weaves are
combined in pick way.
The type of draft used here is the skipped draft.
The heald shafts are divided into two groups,
The first group controls the first design and the
second heald shaft controls the second design.

67. COMPOUND TWILLS
The compound twill is obtained by constructing two or more
parallel twill lines in the same area.
It has a fancy diagonal appearance.
The number of shafts for producing compound twill is equal to
its repeat.
The compound twill is denoted by fraction.
The numerators indicate warp overlaps
The denominators indicate weft overlaps.
The direction of the diagonal line is denoted by arrowhead.
The reinforced and compound twills retain the property of the
original twill,
Namely the equality of repeats on warp and on weft.
Compound twills are widely used in fancy fabrics due to its
interesting appearance.

68. Steps to draw compound twills:
Calculating the repeat R
using,
R
o = R
y = numerator +
denominator
Drawing the first end
according to the fraction
given.
Drawing the other ends
based on the first one and
shift.
Where, shift is ±1
Straight draft is often
employed to weave
compound twill.
Example

69. Exercise: Write name of structure for the given weave below.

70. REINFORCED TWILL
Reinforced twill weave is the simplest
twill weave derivatives,
Which can be constructed by
adding warp or weft marks beside
the original ones.
In order to obtain the reinforced twill,
Warp overlaps are added to the
single warp overlaps of the basic
weft face twill.
The simplest reinforced twill 2/2 which
is widely used in the weaving mills.
In producing this twill the same
four shafts can be used for making
the selvedge's on the warp repeat
weave.

71. DIAMOND AND DIAPER WEAVES
Both are a modified or development of the twill weave.
Diamonds are symmetrical about their vertical and horizontal
axis.
These can be produced with the point draft.
Diapers are symmetrical about their diagonal axes.
And these can use broken or herringbone draft.

72. To construct diamond:
Step 1: Construct the drafting plan.
Take a pointed draft.
Let us take a pointed draft on 6 healds and 12 ends
will be constructed as given in the figure. Here the
pointed twill is arranged horizontally.





Step 2: Construct the lifting plan.
Take the same pointed twill as taken in
drafting plan, but arrange it vertically.
 So the lifting plan will look like:

73. Step 3: Insert any design in the lifting plan.
By denoting it with O.

74. Step 4: Combine the draft and lifting plan to construct the
final design.

75. To construct diaper:
Step 1: Construct the drafting plan.
Take a broken or herringbone draft.
Let us take a herringbone draft on 4 healds and 8
ends will be constructed as given in the figure.
Here the herringbone twill is arranged
horizontally.





Step 2: Construct the lifting plan.
Take the same herringbone twill as taken in
drafting plan, but arrange it vertically.

76. Step 3: Insert any design in the lifting plan.
By denoting it with O.

77. Step 4: Combine the draft and lifting plan to construct the
final design.

78. Diamond effects:
Combining the peg plan of the vertical effect and the draft of the
horizontal effect a diamond pattern is achieved.
The large warp repeat can be obtained, however, on the limited number
of heald frame by using the point or broken with large repeat.
The diaper design differ from the diamond ones because they have a
diagonal axes symmetry.
Vertical weave effects with a straight draft,

79. Horizontal waved effects,
Returning a straight draft in the opposite direction will create
a point draft and does result in a horizontal waved effect if
programmed with a peg plan of the twill weave.

80. MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
Honey comb weave:
These weaves derive their name from their partial resemblance,
To the hexagonal honey comb cells of wax in which bees
store their honey.
These weaves give a cell like appearance to the cloth.
Are suitable for towels,
Because the structure have more thread float and rough
structure which readily absorbs moisture.
And also used for bed covers,
Because both warp and weft float quite freely on both
sides.
And also it can combined with other thread
insertion to secure decorative effects.
These weaves are generally produced in combination with a plain, twill,
satin or other simple weaves.

81. These weaves have two classes,
1)Ordinary honey comb
2)Brighton honey comb
Ordinary Honey comb:
Give similar effect on both sides of the fabric.
Makes it reversible fabric.
Can be woven using pointed drafts.
Brighton Honey comb:
Produce the cellular formation on one side of the fabric
only.
Makes it non-reversible fabric.
The number of threads in a repeat must be multiple of
four.
Can be woven in straight drafts.

82. Example: Let us make an ordinary honey comb weave
with 6 heald shafts and 10 ends.
Step 1: Make a pointed draft on 6 heald shafts and 10 ends.




Step 2: Make a pointed lifting plan with 6 heald shaft and
10 picks.

83. Step 3: Fill the peg plan in the shape of a half weft diamond as:





Step 4: Combine the draft and peg plan to form the final design
as:

84. Honey comb weave using half warp diamond





Honey comb weave constructed by taking double stitched
lines

85. Example: Let us make a Brighton Honey comb weave on twelve
threads.
Step 1: Make a 12 by 12 grid and inserting a single row of
marks in one direction,





Step 2: Insert a double row in other direction,

86. Step 3: Now add marks to the double row so as to form a
small diamond in the right and left corner of the design.
The size of diamond will be five threads where n is the
size of the repeat.

87. Step 4: Similarly add marks to double row at the top and
bottom of the diamond space to form five thread diamonds.

88. Huckaback weaves:
These weaves are generally associated with honey comb
fabrics and hence known as honeycomb effects.
In this weave, the structure is arranged in two areas.
Are a plain weave give firmness and hard wearing quality.
Are a long and loose float provides good moisture pickup.
A number of weaves are derived from these weaves,
Because it is suitable for producing thick and heavy
textures.
One of well known heavier varieties is “Grecians”.
Because it permits stripe and check effects to be brought
out in the fabrics.
The loom equipment required dobby loom fitted with a fast
reed mechanism.
This weave is largely used for cotton and linen towels for bath
rooms and glass cloths etc.

89. Example: Let us make a Huckaback weave on 10 ends and 6
picks.
Step 1: Make a 10 end and 6 pick grid and divide the grid in
to four equal parts.


Step 2: Draw the following motif in the lower left part.


Step 3: Drawing it in lower left corner, it will be come:

90. Step 4: Copy the same motif in the upper right corner.





Step 5: Now fill the remaining two parts with plain
weave.

91. Example: Let us make a reversible Huckaback weave on 10 ends
and 8 picks.
Step 1: Make a 10 end and 8 pick grid.


Step 2: The motif size will be,



Let us make this motif on 5x5 in the lower left
corner of the grid.

92. Copying this motif on the lower left corner of the grid.




Step 3: Now copy this motif on the upper right corner of grid
but with weft up were present it by ‘O’.




Here in the upper right corner the weft up is indicated
by ‘O’ and warp up is indicated by blank spaces.
Step 4: To make it truly reversible, we shift the motif in the
upper right hand corner by one pick.

93. Step 5: Now we fill the remaining portion with plain weave
‘O’ and complete the design.

94. Mock-leno weave:
These weaves are generally produced in combination with a
plain, twill, satin or other simple weaves or even with figuring,
To produce striped fabrics which have a very close
resemblance to true leno fabrics.
So that the weaves produce effects that are similar in
appearance with the gauze or leno styles.
These weave form an open structure with small holes or gaps
similar to leno weave fabrics.
And the fabrics produce an imitation of leno effects,
Due to this, the weaves are called mock leno weaves.
Used for window curtains
and dress goods.

95. Where leno weaves are a mesh-like fabric,
Which constructed by a pair of warp threads passed over
and under the filling yarns, creating a geometric pattern.
And used in households as a thermal blankets and curtains.

96. Example: Let us make a mock-leno weave on 10 ends and 6
picks.
Step 1: Prepare a grid representing 10 ends and 6 picks and
divide it in to four parts.


Step 2: Copy the following motif in the lower left quarter of
the grid.


Copying in the grid we get:

97. Step 3: Now copy this motif in the upper right quarter of the
grid.



Step 4: Now fill the remaining quarters with a weave that
work exactly opposite to the weave chosen for motif.
It means where there is warp up [a (x) mark] in the
motif, replace it with weft up ( a blank mark) and where
there is a blank in the motif, replace it with a (x) in the
remaining quarters.

98. Exercise:
1)Make a mock-leno weave with repeat (R) = 4.



2)Make a mock-leno weave with repeat (R) = 6.



3)Make a mock-leno weave with repeat (R) = 10.

99. Crepe weaves:
Crepe fabrics are characterized by a pebbly or crinkled surface.
Methods of getting crepe effect,
The crepe effect can be achieved by using crepe yarns.
 The crepe effect can be achieved by using crepe weaves.
 The crepe effect can be achieved by using some special
finishing processes.
Drawing one weave over the other by choosing at least two
weaves,
One of the weaves is very often sateen.
It is common to choose those with the same repeat.

101. EXTRA WARP AND EXTRA WEFT FIGURED FABRIC
In the case of ordinary fabrics where the figuring is formed by the
ground threads,
The removal of any figuring thread does affect the strength
and durability of the cloth.
In certain classes of fabrics the ornamentation or figuring is done
by using extra threads,
Which are made to interlace with the ground fabric at
intervals.
The notable feature of these fabrics is that the
withdrawal of the extra threads from the cloth leaves a
complete ground structure under the figure.
The introduction of the extra threads does not affect the
strength or durability of the cloth.
However, the extra threads are liable to come out due
to repeated use.

102. METHODS OF PRODUCTION
The extra threads may be introduced in the warp or weft way
direction or both.
By introduction of a separate set of warp threads in addition
to the ground warp threads.
By introduction of separate set of weft threads in addition to
the ground weft threads, and
By introduction of both separate warp and weft threads in
addition to the ground warp and weft threads.
Particularly extra weft figured ones, can produce attractive
designs in bright and contrasting colours.

103. The production of extra warp figured fabrics requires,
A separate warp beam in addition to the beam required for
the ground warp threads.
And also the take up rates for the two beams will be
different.
The producing extra weft figured fabrics requires,
The loom should be fitted with a multiple box mechanism,
Such as a 4*1, 4*2 or 4*4,
Depending on the weft colour requirement.
Generally a suitable ratio of ground to figuring threads is
selected.
The ratio may be 1:1, 1:2, 2:1 or 2:2 etc.,
Depending on the solidity or prominence of the
figure required.

104. FIGURING WITH EXTRA WARP THREADS
In these fabrics the design is formed by allowing the extra warp
threads to float on a ground structure.
Gives higher productivity.
Mostly utilized for continuous styles arranged one for
ground and one for extra warp.
Can be done with one, two or more colours.
Jacquard designs are less popular because off,
each different design frequently requires the harness to be
retied or modified,
which leads to drawing-in for new warps into the newly
retied harness.
So that, it increases the down time and the cost.
By using inferior quality materials for the figuring threads
the higher cost of production can be compromised.

105. Extra warp design by using a single colour:
‘A’ is the motif design of the extra warp threads.
‘B’ shows the ground weave, which is plain.
Other weaves can also be used for the ground.
The repeat size of the extra figure chosen below is 8 x 10;
The ratio of ground to figuring threads is 1:1.
Thus, the repeat size of the final design is 16 x10.
Other ratios can be chosen for the ground and figuring
ends, such as 1:2, 2:2 etc.

106. Extra warp design by using two colours:
‘A’ shows the figuring motif.
The two warps are shown by separate notations. ( x & )
‘B’ is shown the separation of the two figuring warps.
‘C’ shows the final design completed by insertion of plain
weave.
The ratio of the ground to figuring threads is 1:1.
The repeat size is 8 x 8.

107. FIGURING WITH EXTRA WEFT THREADS
In this case the figuring is formed by the weft yarn,
The figuring can be done using one, two or more extra weft
picks in addition to the ground cloth produced by the
interlacing of the warp with the ground weft in plain or in
some other simple weave order.
The machines must have the capacity to insert more than one
kind of weft.

108. The extra weft may be inserted either intermittently or
continuously.
Intermittently, the take up operates only during insertion
of the ground picks and becomes inoperative during the
insertion of extra weft picks.
Continuously, the take up operates continuously
considering both ground and extra picks for the take up.
Extra weft design by using a single colour:
‘A’ is shown the repeat size of the motif (10 x 8).
The convention has been reversed here,
The weft lift is indicated as ‘X’.
The ratio of ground to figuring picks is 2:2.
Other suitable ratios can be chosen, 1:2, 2:2, 2:4 etc.
The ground weave is shown as a plain,
Other weaves can be chosen.

110. Extra weft design by using two colours:
The two different colours of weft form the figuring threads,
‘A’ is shown the motif repeat on 8 x 8.
The two extra figuring wefts are indicated by different
notations (X & ).
‘B’ shows the separation of the two figuring wefts,
‘C’ is shown the final design.
The ratio of the ground to figuring threads is 2:2.
The convention is reversed here also as in the previous
case (X & indicate weft lift).

112. COMPARISON BETWEEN EXTRA WARP AND WEFT FIGURING

113. JACQUARD WEAVES
Jacquard machine are used for designs with several hundreds of
warp threads interlacing in different manner and with the same
number of weft threads in repeat.
In jacquard machine not only small groups of warp threads
are lift, but single threads as well.
Yarns woven into unlimited designs, often intricate,
multicolor effect.
Warp is individually controlled with each pick passage
creating intricate designs.
Commonly used for upholstery and wall hangings.

114. Preparation for designing the jacquard fabric,
The starting point of the preparations is to calculate the
number of threads in warp and weft repeat of the weave.
The warp repeat of the weave can be found multiplying the
warp density by the width of the pattern, and the weft repeat
can be found analogically.
 The warp repeat of the jacquard weave determined the
figuring capacity of the jacquard machine.

115. COLOR AND ITS EFFECT ON WEAVE
In the design of a fabric,
Luster and colour are two important aspects.
They have a considerable influence on the aesthetic
appearance of the fabrics.
Luster arises from the reflection of light from the
surface of a textile material.
Colour is due to the reflection of light by the
irregularities within fiber of a textile material.
In case of luster,
The light reflection is regular, as like of a mirror.
In case of colour,
The light reflection is diffuse, reducing luster, as in case of
dyed materials.

116. The degree of luster of a textile material is influenced by the
following factors:
The characteristics of the fibers
The manner of arrangement of fibers in the yarn
The type of weave
The type of finishing treatment
Visual effect of various color:
Each color creates a certain impression on the mind of the
observer.
Red:
Appears as a brilliant and cheerful colour, and gives
the impression of warmth.
It is a very powerful colour and appears to advance
towards the observer.

117. Blue:
Is a cold colour and appears to recede from the eye.
Yellow:
Is a very luminous colour and conveys the idea of
purity.
Orange:
Is a very strong colour and possesses warmth and
brightness,
But it is not so intense as yellow.
Green:
Is a retiring and rather cold colour, but appears cheerful
and fresh.
Purple:
Is a beautiful rich and deep colour, and for bloom/come
into flower/ and softness is unsurpassed.

118. Modification of pigment color can be done in the following ways:
By mixing with a different colour,
By mixing a colour with black, or
By mixing a colour with white.
There are two type of colour theory.
1. Additive Theory:
Black radiates no light.
White (sun) radiates all light.
Video is the process of capturing and radiating
light, therefore it uses Additive (Light) Theory not
Subtractive (Pigment) theory.
The primary colors in Additive Theory are,
Red (R)
Green (G)
Blue (B)
The primary colors add together to make white.

119. Light Theory is also called Additive Theory.
Light Theory is used in,
Television,
Theater lighting,
Computer monitors,
And video production.

120. 2. Subtractive Theory:
Black absorbs most light.
White reflects most light.
Colored Pigments absorb light and reflect only the
frequency of the pigment colour.
All colors other than the pigment colors are absorbed so
this is called subtractive colour theory.
The primary colors in Subtractive Theory are,
Cyan (C)
Magenta (M)
Yellow (Y)
Subtractive or Pigment Theory
is used in,
Printing, and
Painting.

121. Relationship between fabric characteristics and appearance of
color:
Textile materials may be dyed during any stage of their
processing such as fiber, sliver, roving, yarn or fabric.
The dyeing of the textile material at any stage has
its own effect on the colour appearance of the
finished cloth.
The type of dyestuff and its quality, etc., affect the
nature of the luster of the finished textile material.
The nature of the weave also has considerable influence on
the colour appearance.
Color and weave effect:
When a fabric is woven with a particular weave using two
or more colors in a particular pattern,
A colour and weave effect is produced.

122. In such an effect the weave tends to show a
discontinuity of the colors of the warp and
weft, and the colour shows on the face of the
fabric.
Irrespective of the warp or weft float.
Three important parameters are required to be
known,
The order of warp,
The order of weft, and
The weave.

123. FABRIC ANALYSIS
Fabric setting:
฀“Sett” indicates the spacing of threads in cloth which is the
number of threads per 1 cm. or per 10 cm.
ƒAny cloth is characterized by,
The number of warp threads or ends per cm ‘warp density’.
The number of weft threads or picks per cm ‘weft density’.
The density can be also expressed by the distance between the
axis of the adjacent threads,
i.e. thread spacing ‘s’, which is the reciprocal of the sett.

Where,
‘p’ is the number of threads per 100mm, and
‘s’ is the distance between centre to centre of the
threads in mm.

124. Cloth sett is usually given in pairs,
(Warp × Weft) or (P
o
× P
y),
ƒWhere,
P
o is the warp density, and
P
y
is the weft density.
Square-sett or balanced fabrics,
P
o = P
y
In designing a new fabric,
It is common to calculate the maximal possible density
which can be achieved for the given warp and weft
yarns.
The theoretical maximum density is obtained when
there is no space between the adjacent threads.

125. Linear density:
Yarns are brought and sold by weight, but the weaver is vitally
interested in the length.
Linear density describes the fineness or coarseness of yarns,
In terms of weight per unit length or length per unit weight.
It can use direct system [Tex and denier] or indirect
system[cotton count & worsted count].
Tex = (Weight in gram / Length in meter)*1000
Denier = 9 * Tex
Cotton count (N
e) * Tex = 590.5
Worsted counts (N
m)* Tex = 885.8
Worsted counts (N
m) = 1.5 * Cotton counts (N
e)
Linear densities of yarn in the fabric are often given in pairs,
(Warp x Weft) or (T
o
x T
y
),
 T
o and T
y is representing the warp and weft
linear density respectively.

126. Crimp of yarn:
Fabric is produced by interlacing of
warp and weft threads.
Interlacing causes the bending of
the threads round each other.
Due to this, the warp and
weft threads have a wavy
shape in the fabric.
The wavy shape or threads can be
estimated either by crimp, or by
take-up.
Crimp ‘C’, is calculated by
expressing the difference
between the straightened thread
length, L, and sample length, S,
as a percentage-of sample length.

127. Fabric cover:
One of the main characteristics of fabric is the density of yarns
or yarn spacing.
In filter fabrics, the density of yarns or yarn spacing is not
sufficient, because the space between the adjacent threads also
depends on the yarn thickness wherein the yarn diameter
should be taken into consideration.
Fabrics with the same density of threads may have different
spaces between the threads because of the difference in
diameters.
Fabric with different densities of threads may have the same
space between the threads when the smaller density is
combined with a greater diameter.
Therefore, the relative closeness of threads depends on the
density of threads and their diameters.

128. The projected view of the fabric is shown in the above figure,
Where, the warp spacing is S
o, the weft spacing S
y, the
diameter of warp thread d
o and that of weft d
y.
The fractional cover ‘e’, is defined as the fraction of the fabric
area covered by the threads,

129. It is common to calculate warp cover and weft cover factor
separately,

The cover reaches the maximum value when the threads cover the
whole fabric area,
It gives the scale from 0 to 1.
The warp spacing S
o gives P
o threads per unit length,


and number of weft thread per unit length is determined
as,

The warp and weft covers are,

130. Now,
e = P / P
max , that is the cover can be expressed as the ratio of
the actual density to the maximum theoretical density.
If P = P
max ,
The fractional cover equals 1, that means that the
threads cover the whole fabric area.
The cover can be calculated in percentage,
The percentage cover ‘e’ has a scale from 0 to 100 %.



In practice,
‘e’ can be greater than one due to the compression of
threads.

131. The fabric cover is the fabric area covered by warp and weft
threads to the total fabric area.
We can express the fabric cover as,


Using either the fractional cover or the percentage cover makes it
necessary to calculate the yarn diameter.
In practice, we usually deal with yarn count of linear density.
In cotton system of units the yarn diameter in inches is
calculated as,


Where,
N
e is the cotton count.

132. Substituting for ‘d’ in the formula of fractional cover gives as,



The ratio of threads per inch to the square root of the cotton is
called the cover factor ‘K’,



There is a certain relationship between ‘e’ and ‘K’,

133. Q
1
) A cotton fabric of plain weave has the following
characteristics:
Warp 25 tex, 28 ends/cm; weft 15 tex, 30 picks/cm;
density of yarn 0.91 g/cm3. Calculate the warp and
weft fractional covers, fabric cover, warp cover
factor and weft cover factor.

Q
2
) Calculate the warp and weft cover factors for the
following fabric: 60 denier nylon × 48s worsted;
96 × 72 thread per inch.

Q
3
) Calculate the cover factor corresponding to 80
threads/inch of 100 denier.