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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
Krishna Mohan Singh
Sushanta Dutta
Sudhakar Subudhi
Nikhil Kumar Singh Editors
Fluid
Mechanics and
Fluid Power,
Volume 4
Select Proceedings of FMFP 2022

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
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Fakher Chaari, National School of Engineers, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Francesco Gherardini
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Vitalii Ivanov, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Machines and Tools,
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Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering and Applied Science, Monterey, CA,
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Krishna Mohan Singh
Sudhakar Subudhi
Editors
Fluid Mechanics and Fluid
Power, Volume 4
Select Proceedings of FMFP 2022

Editors
Krishna Mohan Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Sudhakar Subudhi
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Sushanta Dutta
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
Nikhil Kumar Singh
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-99-7176-3 ISBN 978-981-99-7177-0 (eBook)
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Contents
Combustion
Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel
Injector Using Diesel and Diesel–Ethanol Blend......................3
Aiswarya A. Satheesan, Nikhil Prasad, Nevin Nelson, S. Niranjan,
and Anjan R. Nair
Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation and Plasma Pyrolysis
Process for Lignite Coal: A Comparative Study......................17
Sidhartha Sondh, Darshit S. Upadhyay, Sanjay Patel, and Rajesh N. Patel
Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single
and Multiple Injection Strategies...................................27
Ketan V. Warghat, Aditya Tiwari, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak,
B. Saravanan, and Pankaj S. Kolhe
Change in Vortex Breakdown Mode and It’s Inﬂuence on Flame
Shape of a Co/counter Concentric Swirling Streams..................41
Atanu Dolai, Prasad Boggavarapu, and R. V. Ravikrishna
Entrained Dust Combustion in Pre-Heated Air.......................53
Mohd. Tousif, A. Harish, and V. Raghavan
An Experimental Investigation into the GDI Spray Characteristics
of Ethanol and Lemon Peel Oil.....................................67
G. M. Nayak, B. Abinash, B. Yogesh, V. W. Ketan, P. S. Kolhe, and B. Saravanan
Numerical and Experimental Performance Comparison
of a Typical Swirl Co-Axial Injector for a Cryogenic Combustor.......81
R. Sujithkumar, K. Chenthil Kumar, K. R. Anil Kumar,
T. Jayachandran, and Kowsik Bodi
v

vi
Analytical Modelling of Effect of Steam Dilution on Hydrogen
Combustion and Application to a Typical Nuclear Reactor
Containment......................................................95
Aditya Karanam, Vishnu Verma, and J. Chattopadhyay
Thermal Performance of a Single-Layer Porous Radiant Burner
with Biogas as Fuel: A Numerical Study.............................109
Ayush Painuly and Niraj K. Mishra
Numerical Validation and Benchmarking of Hydrogen Flame
Propagation in a Vertical Acceleration Tube Experimental Facility.....119
Aditya Karanam, Vishnu Verma, and J. Chattopadhyay
Detailed Chemical Kinetics Mechanism for Condensed Phase
Decomposition of Ammonium Perchlorate...........................133
Jay Patel, Prathamesh Phadke, Rohit Sehrawat, Arvind Kumar,
Arindrajit Chowdhury, and Neeraj Kumbhakarna
Onset of Thermoacoustic Oscillations in an Annular Combustor
with Flames Stabilized by Circular Discs............................145
Balasundaram Mohan and Sathesh Mariappan
Development of Advanced Fuel Injector Concepts for Compact
Lean-Burn Gas-Turbine Combustors................................157
Ayush Divyansh, Preetam Jamod, and K. P. Shanmugadas
Experimental Study on GDI In-Cylinder Combustion Quality
of Ethanol and Lemon Peel Oil.....................................171
B. Abinash, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak, V. W. Ketan, P. S. Kolhe, and B. Saravanan
Numerical Study on Soot Formation of Methyl Methacrylate Pool
Flames with Coﬂow Air............................................185
Argha Bose, D. Shanmugasundaram, and V. Raghavan
Impact of Computational Domain and Cell Type on Large Eddy
Simulations in OpenFOAM for a Turbulent Partially Premixed
Flame............................................................197
Sandeep Lamba and Krishna Kant Agrawal
Exergy Analysis of Deﬂagration Wave Propagating in Autoignitive
H2 Mixture for Constant Pressure Boundary Conditions..............213
Rahul Patil and Sheshadri Sreedhara
Numerical Investigation of Combustion Dynamics in a
Multi-element Combustor Using Flamelet Approach..................225
Abhishek Sharma, Ashoke De, Varghese M. Thannickal, T. John Tharakan, and S. Sunil Kumar

Contents vii
Experimental Investigations on Emissions and Performance
of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Butanol–Pentane–Gasoline
Blends............................................................241
Parag P. Mangave, Vishal V. Patil, Nilesh D. Pawar, and Ranjit S. Patil
CFD Analysis of Afterburner with Convergent–Divergent Nozzle
for Various Air–Fuel Ratios........................................253
Gurrala Srinivasa Rao
Computational Analysis of the Thermo Hydrodynamic
Characteristics in a Can-Type Gas Turbine Combustor...............269
Mohit Bansal, Satyam Dewivedi, and Abdur Rahim
Experimental Study of Acoustic Phenomenon in a Closed
Combustion Chamber.............................................279
A. Ananthakrishnan, Siba Prasad Choudhury, S. Syam,
and Ratan Joarder
The Effect of Lean Premixed Combustion on Thermoacoustic
Instability in a Swirl Combustor....................................289
Subhash Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, and Sheshadri Sreedhara
Computational Modelling of MMH/NTO Combustion
in a Multi-element Triplet Injector Combustor.......................301
Abhishek Sharma, Varghese M. Thannickal, T. John Tharakan, and S. Sunil Kumar
Microﬂuidics
Novel Tree Branching Microchannel Heat Sink Under Variable
and Constant Fluid Volume Approaches.............................319
Sangram Kumar Samal and Sandip Kumar Saha
Two-Dimensional, Magnetic Actuation of Ferroﬂuid Droplet
on an Open-Surface Microﬂuidic Platform...........................333
Debiprasad Chakrabarty, Niladri Chakraborty, and Ranjan Ganguly
Numerical Analysis of Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
in Microchannel Heat Sinks Designed for Uniform Cooling............345
Shivayya C. Hiremath, Rohit Kumar, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf,
and Manmohan Pandey
Numerical Investigation on Hydrodynamics of Lubricant-Infused
Hydrophobic Microchannel with Transversely Oriented Cavities.......357
Adarsh R. Nair, K. Nandakumar Chandran, and S. Kumar Ranjith
Effect of Microstructures in the Flow Passage on the Flow
Dynamics of Microchannel.........................................369
A. Rajalingam and Shubhankar Chakraborty

viii
Combined Effect of Heterogeneous Zeta Potential on Microchannel
Wall and Conductive Link in Induced Charge Electrokinetic
Micromixing......................................................381
Anshul Kumar Bansal, Ram Dayal, and Manish Kumar
Analysis of Sperm Cell Kinetics in Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
Fluid Medium Within a Microﬂuidic Channel........................395
Dhiraj B. Puri, Vadiraj Hemadri, Arnab Banerjee,
and Siddhartha Tripathi
Conjugate Heat Transfer Analysis of U-Bend/Turn Microchannel:
A Computational Approach........................................409
Jyoti Ranjan Mohapatra and Manoj Kumar Moharana
Experimental Investigation of Fluid Flow Behaviour in Parallel
Microchannel Using Micro-PIV.....................................425
Rohit Kumar, Chandan Nashine, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf, Mohd Sakib Hussain, and Manmohan Pandey
Study of Path Selection of a Droplet in a Symmetric Y-Microchannel
Using a Uniform Electric Field......................................437
Satya P. Pandey, Sandip Sarkar, and Debashis Pal
Microﬂuidic Solute Transport by Interference of Oscillatory
Thermal Marangoni Effect and Patterned Wall Slip..................449
Shubham Agrawal, Prasanta K. Das, and Purbarun Dhar
Analysis of Micro-nozzle Flow Using Navier–Stokes and DSMC
Method and Locating the Separation Plane Based on Modiﬁed
Knudsen Number.................................................461
Ashok Kumar, Manu K. Sukesan, and Shine S. R.
Parametric Study on the Primitive Lattice Using the Pore-Scale
Simulation to Characterize the Flow and Heat Transfer
Performance......................................................475
Surendra Singh Rathore, Balkrishna Mehta, Pradeep Kumar, and Mohammad Asfer
Experimental and Numerical Studies on Liquid Bridge Stretching
in Uni-port Lifted Hele-Shaw Cell for Spontaneous Fabrication
of Well-Like Structures............................................491
Makrand Rakshe, Sachin Kanhurkar, Amitabh Bhattacharya, and Prasanna Gandhi
Numerical Investigation on Inertial Migration of Spherical Rigid
Particle in the Entrance Region of a Microchannel....................501
K. K. Krishnaram and S. Kumar Ranjith

Contents
Dynamics of Electrically Actuated Carreau Fluid Flow
in a Surface-Modulated Microchannel...............................513
Subhajyoti Sahoo and Ameeya Kumar Nayak
Heat Transfer Analysis of Peltier-Based Thermocycler
for a Microﬂuidic-PCR Chip.......................................527
Nikhil Prasad, B. Indulakshmi, R. Rahul, and Ranjith S. Kumar
Effect of Viscosity on the Margination of White Blood Cells
in an Inertial Flow Microﬂuidic Channel............................543
Dhiren Mohapatra, Rahul Purwar, and Amit Agrawal
Experimental Investigation of Two-Phase Immiscible Liquid Flow
Through a Microchannel...........................................553
Rohit Kumar, Chandan Nashine, Arman Mohaddin Nadaf,
Harish Kumar Tomar, and Manmohan Pandey
Elastohydrodynamics of Electromagnetically Actuated Deformable
Microﬂuidic Systems...............................................563
Apurba Roy and Purbarun Dhar
Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Ferroﬂuid in Partially
Heated Closed Rectangular Microchannel Tube Under
Non-uniform Magnetic Field.......................................577
Ramesh Kumar, Shivam Raj, and S. K. Dhiman
Numerical Investigation on the Effect of Reynolds Number
on the Droplet Bypass Through T-Junction Using Lattice
Boltzmann Method................................................591
T. Sudhakar, Arup K. Das, and Deepak Kumar
Bio-ﬂuid Mechanics
Blood Flow Modeling in Stenosed Arteries Using CFD Solver..........605
Priyambada Praharaj, Chandrakant Sonawane, and Vikas Kumar
Highlighting the Importance of Nasal Air Conditioning
in Septoplasty Using Virtual Correction Tools: A Numerical Study.....619
Kartika Chandra Tripathy and Ajay Bhandari
Thrombosis Modelling in a Stenosed Artery..........................633
Prateek Gupta, Rakesh Kumar, Sibasish Panda, and Mohammad Riyan
Gold Nanoparticle-Antibody Bio-Probe Analysis: Synthesis,
Conjugation, Characterization and Dot Blot Assay on Paper..........643
Prateechee Padma Behera, Shubham Kumar, Monika Kumari,
Pranab Kumar Mondal, and Ravi Kumar Arun

x
A Computational Analysis of the Impact of Blood’s Viscoelastic
Properties on the Hemodynamics of a Stenosed Artery................655
Sourabh Dhawan, Pawan Kumar Pandey, Malay Kumar Das,
and Pradipta Kumar Panigrahi
Effect of Induced Helicity on the Hemodynamics of Carotid Artery
Passage...........................................................671
L. Rakesh, Arun Kadali, K. Prakashini, and S. Anish
Numerical Simulation of Flow in an Idealized Intracranial
Aneurysm Model to Study the Effect of Non-newtonian Blood
Flow Rheology....................................................685
Suraj Raj, S. Anil Lal, and Anjan R. Nair
On the Replication of Human Skin Texture and Hydration
on a PDMS-Based Artiﬁcial Human Skin Model......................699
Aditya Ranjan, Vijay S. Duryodhan, and Nagesh D. Patil
Simulation of Lateral Migration of Red Blood Cell in Poiseuille
Flow Using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics.......................709
Justin Antony and Ranjith Maniyeri
Effect of Stenosis Severity on the Hemodynamics of an Idealized
Straight Arterial Tube.............................................723
Pawan Kumar, Somnath Roy, and Prasanta Kumar Das
Microdevice for Plasma Separation and in Vitro Quantiﬁcation
of Plasma Proteins.................................................735
Tony Thomas, Neha Mishra, and Amit Agrawal
White Blood Cell Separation and Blood Typing Using a Spiral
Microdevice.......................................................745
Sanjay Mane, Vadiraj Hemadri, Sunil Bhand, and Siddhartha Tripathi
Effect of Arterial Flow on Heat Transfer During Magnetic
Hyperthermia Application.........................................755
Subeg Singh and Neeraj Kumar
Flow Separation and Pressure Drop Analysis for Blood Flow
in Symmetric Stenosed Arteries of Various Shapes....................767
Anamika Maurya, Janani Srree Murallidharan, and Atul Sharma
Comparative Study of Uniform and Pulsatile Blood Flow Through
Single Stenosed Carotid Artery.....................................781
Swapnil Rajmane and Shaligram Tiwari
Image-Based Retinal Haemodynamics Simulation of Healthy
and Pathological Retinal Vasculature................................797
Shivam Gupta and Ajay Bhandari

Contents
Numerical Study on the Effect of Exercise on Various
Conﬁgurations of Stenosis in Coronary Artery.......................809
Siddharth D. Sharma, Piru Mohan Khan, Suman Chakraborty,
and Somnath Roy
Effect of Aging on Passive Drug Diffusion Through Human Skin.......823
Aditya Ranjan, Vijay S. Duryodhan, and Nagesh D. Patil
Computational Investigation on the Empirical Relation
of Murray’s Law..................................................837
Mudrika Singhal and Raghvendra Gupta
Investigation of Impulse Jet Dispersion Mechanism of Needle-Free
Drug Delivery Device..............................................847
Priyanka Hankare, Sanjeev Manjhi, and Viren Menezes
Analysis of 2D Human Airway in Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Model............................................................855
Vivek Kumar Srivastava and Aman Raj Anand
Effects of Stenosis Proﬁle on Hemodynamic and Mass Transport
in Axisymmetric Geometries: A Numerical Study....................865
Ankani Sunil Varma and K. Arul Prakash
Experimental and Numerical Study of Flow Through Ventilator
Splitter...........................................................875
Aniruddh Mukunth, Raj Shree Rajagopalan, and Naren Rajan Parlikkad
Bioconvective MHD Flow of Micropolar Nanoﬂuid Over
a Stretching Sheet Due to Gyrotactic Microorganisms
with Internal Heat Generation/Absorption and Chemical Reaction.....891
P. Vimala and R. Dhivyalakshmi
Machine Learning in Fluid Mechanics
Application of Machine Learning for Forced Plume in Linearly
Stratiﬁed Medium.................................................909
Manthan Mahajan, Nitin Kumar, Deep Shikha, Vamsi K. Chalamalla, and Sawan S. Sinha
Comparative Study of Future State Predictions of Unsteady
Multiphase Flows Using DMD and Deep Learning....................923
Neil Ashwin Raj, Danesh Tafti, Nikhil Muralidhar, and Anuj Karpatne
Deep Learning Approach to Predict Remaining Useful Life
of Axial Piston Pump..............................................937
Md Adil and Pratik Punj
Machine Learning-Assisted Modeling of Pressure Hessian Tensor......949
Deep Shikha and Sawan S. Sinha

About the Editors
Prof. Krishna Mohan Singh
Industrial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research
interests include the areas of computational mechanics, development of novel
parallel algorithms, meshfree methods, shape and topology optimization, ﬂuid
dynamics, DNS/LES of turbulent ﬂows, CAE, computer-aided analysis and design
of thermo-ﬂuid and multi-physics systems, computational ﬂuid dynamics, modeling
and simulation of ﬂow and heat transfer in turbomachines, transport and energy
systems.
Prof. Sushanta Dutta
Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research interests
are in the areas of experimental ﬂuid mechanics, experimental heat transfer, optical
measurement techniques, active and passive control of ﬂow ﬁeld, wake dynamics,
turbulence study, Schlieren, HWA, PIV, LCT, PSP, microﬂuidics and heat transfer
augmentation using phase change material.
Prof. Sudhakar Subudhi trial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His research inter- ests are in the area of experimental heat transfer and ﬂuid mechanics, heat transfer
enhancement of natural and forced convection in water/nanoﬂuids, natural ventilation and unconventional energy systems.
Dr. Nikhil Kumar Singh and Industrial Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee. His
broad research interests include direct numerical simulations of two-phase ﬂows and phase change, computational ﬂuid dynamics and heat transfer, numerical methods and turbulent ﬂows.
xiii

Combustion

Numerical Analysis on the Effect
of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector Using
Diesel and Diesel–Ethanol Blend
Aiswarya A. Satheesan, Nikhil Prasad, Nevin Nelson, S. Niranjan,
and Anjan R. Nair
Abstract
efﬁciency and low emissions combustion. The ﬂow inside an injector impacts the
process of spray, combustion, and exhaust. The nozzle shape and spray determine the
atomization and the outlet engine emissions. The results were obtained for spray char-
acteristics of diesel and ethanol–diesel blend in a nozzle injector with aspect ratios
varying from 1, 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6. Parameters, such as spray penetration length, spray
angle, and spray characteristics including the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), the De
Brouckere diameter, the mean diameter and volume, and particle velocity, were inves-
tigated and revealed a strong dependence on modiﬁcations in the aspect ratio of the
nozzle oriﬁce. Simulation of atomization model was carried out and compared using
discrete phase model (DPM) using computational ﬂuid dynamics (CFD) modeling.
Additionally, validation from the experiment ﬁnding results is also provided. Ellip-
tical C was observed to have a minimum SMD up to 28.04% and a minimum De
Brouckere diameter up to 28.63%. Ethanol–diesel blend showed best spray param-
eters when considering the macroscopic spray properties and the drop size distri-
bution. Moreover, under non-evaporative conditions, the tested fuel ethanol–diesel
Blend exhibited better spray characteristics and better cavitation phenomenon of
12.13% at higher aspect ratios than at lower ones. In addition, elliptical nozzle spray
had a higher spray cone angle than circular nozzle spray.
Keywords ·Spray simulation ·Elliptical nozzle
A. A. Satheesan (B)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Trivandrum 695016, India
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Nelson
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bishop Jerome Institute (Afﬁliated to A P J Abdul Kalam
Technological University), Kollam, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
K. M. Singh et al. (eds.),
in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_2
3

4 A. A. Satheesan et al.
1 Introduction
Diesel engines are frequently utilized as the primary power source for the road
transportation sector. Because of their outstanding thermal efﬁciency, operational
dependability, and durability, the greater understanding of effective fuel use and auto-
motive pollution reduction, which led to enhanced modern direct injection engines
like strengthening the spray breakup and generating smaller droplets, has greatly
assisted research on the ﬂuid behavior of fuel injection nozzles [
1].
Atomization and fuel spray properties in direct injection engines are critical,
particularly for gas emissions and combustion efﬁciency; these factors signiﬁcantly impact the spray’s shape, atomization quality, engine performance, and emission
characteristics. So, the jet breakup inside the chamber also inﬂuences the subsequent processes of ignition, combustion, and pollutant generation. Therefore, it’s crucial to
consider the fuel injector nozzle effect and the features of the spraying technique with different fuel types. The injector nozzle is a crucial component in a diesel engine. The elliptical oriﬁce diesel nozzle has the potential to improve spray quality and
air– fuel mixing [
2].
Liquid sprays have been the subject of extensive research due to their actual
relevance and the challenges in predicting their behavior from basic principle. While
some sprays are composed of several short pulses and may never reach a steady state,
others are continuous and stable, at least after a brief start-up transient.
Alcohols, like other oxygenated fuels, enhance complete combustion and reduce
particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxides (CO), and unburned hydrocarbon emis- sions (HC) [
3]. Reduced SMD and larger spray angle was achieved by implementing
elliptical-shaped sprays. Further study can be done on the impact of alternative fuels
on the spray, performance, and regarding diesel engines’ emission characteristics,
which affect engines parameters performance and emissions
2 Literature Review and Objective
Many researchers and pioneers worldwide have investigated diesel fuel injectors
and their inﬂuence. The discrete phase model (DPM) was developed to investigate
the cavitation process in fuel injectors and the macro spray characteristics of three
different types of nozzle spray shapes using diesel and hybrid biofuel blends at various
injection pressures and backpressures. The ﬁndings of the nozzle simulation study
showed that the nozzle spray morphology had a greater inﬂuence on the cavitation
area than the fuel type [
4].
A numerical analysis on the fuel spray behavior and ﬂuctuation of spray character-
istics in internal combustion engines were investigated, and it was observed that the fuel spray is impacted by the cavitation phenomena in diesel engines. More bubbles
are generated when cavitation is severe [
5].

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 5
An experimental study on the biodiesel spray liquid-phase behaviors of elliptical
and circular nozzles revealed that under steady-state conditions, the elliptical nozzle
spray liquid-phase penetration is smaller than the circular one [6]. The elliptic oriﬁce
diesel nozzle can improve spray and air–fuel mixing quality, signiﬁcantly impacting
diesel engine combustion and emissions. In all view planes, the elliptical spray had a
wider spread of particles than the circular spray, and the circular oriﬁce’s spray cone
angle was consistently smaller than that of the elliptical oriﬁce [
7].
The spray liquid breakdown behavior of a diesel nozzle with non-circular cross-
sectional geometries was investigated experimentally under evaporative conditions, and the impact of varied injection pressures and bulk temperatures. In both geometric
cases, the study demonstrated that injection pressure has less impact on the pene- tration of liquid spray. Increasing the ambient temperature, on the other hand, can reduce spray- liquid penetration [
8]. Since ethanol is an oxidized fuel, the oxygen
level of the mix fuel rises, increasing the thermal efﬁciency of the engine’s brakes. The thermal efﬁciency increased by 3.63% while the cylinder pressure increased by 0.46%, when the ethanol content reached 20% at full load [
9].
An efﬁcient approach for determining the true extent of vapor zones and turbulence
intensity was devised using a comprehensive model for cavitating ﬂow in conjunction
with the CFD-ACE+ code was introduced. Cavitation ﬂow involves phase transition.
And was shown to be sensitive to the development and motion of vapor bubbles,
turbulent oscillations in pressure, velocity, and the quantity of non- condensable
gases dissolved or consumed in the operating liquid [
10].
Numerical simulation of spray was modeled to study the effect of cavitation on
the quality and characteristics of spray, such as penetration length and Sauter mean
diameter of the nozzle’s speciﬁc geometry. Smaller droplets produced by this spray
will improve and help accelerate combustion, enhance power and torque, and reduce
outlet emissions [
11].
The CFD-programmed software CONVERGE incorporates a recently developed
primary breakdown model (KH-ACT) for detailed engine simulations. KH-ACT takes into account the effects of the turbulence and cavitation created inside the
injector nozzle. The conical and hydroground nozzle inner nozzle ﬂow impacts of oriﬁce geometry were analyzed. The analysis indicated that the reduced vaporization rate and air–fuel mixing could cause an earlier ignition of the nozzle downstream
[
12].
The aspect ratio of the elliptical nozzle improved the aerodynamic and penetra-
tion characteristics differently, but the optimum/maximum allowable aspect ratio for
better aerodynamic characteristics was not reported. Only two types of fuel (diesel/
biofuel) were used to characterize the fuel injector nozzle effect. The mechanism of
the liquid fuel breaking up, atomization, and size of the droplet is unclear near the
nozzle’s exit.
The objective of the study is to investigate the effect of fuel spray characteristics
and variation for two types of fuels: Diesel and the combination of diesel and ethyl alcohol (ethanol), using numerical simulation approaches and to numerically evaluate the relationship between the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), De Brouckere diameter

6 A. A. Satheesan et al.
D[3, 4], mean diameter, and volume spray parameters relation to the aspect ratio of
the nozzle and the cavitation phenomenon.
3 Physical Model and Domain
The project aims to understand the spray characteristics inside a diesel injector nozzle
with preliminary assumptions of unsteady 3D incompressible turbulent nozzle ﬂow
and obeying no-slip conditions (ﬂuid velocity at the walls equals the wall velocity)
were run with a commercial ﬂuid dynamic code.
The discrete phase model (DPM) was introduced to study the fuel injector process
and the macro spray characteristic of the injector. The Ansys Design modeler does
the 3D model of the elliptical diesel injector. The commercial CFD software Ansys
Fluent 2020 R1 performs the numerical simulation. The Standard
the viscous model.
3.1 Governing Equations
The problem considered is the spray simulation of a diesel injector by varying the aspect ratios of the oriﬁce and also different fuels are used. The analysis is going to be carried out on an incompressible ﬂuid with unsteady-state condition. The governing
equations for the 3D continuous ﬂow of the fuel in the injector consist of the conti- nuity, momentum, and energy equation that solved the Navier–Stokes equations. The equations are listed as follows:
Continuity equation
D
Dt
+
Conservation of momentum
ρ
D
Dt
υ
2
υ
3.2 Geometry Details
The injector is coupled with an injection chamber (exit diameter a nozzle hole to length diameter ratio of 0.280. The 3D design was drawn using
ANSYS Workbench 20.0 using design modeler.

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 7
Diesel ﬂuid with a density of 730 kg/m
3
and a viscosity of 0.0024 kg/ms is chosen
as the fuel. For diesel–ethanol blend, the viscosity is 0.0018 kg/ms, and the density
is 807 kg/m
3
. The droplet surface tension is 0.026 and 0.0306 N/m for diesel and
diesel–ethanol blends, respectively. A singular spray jet is modeled, and the injection
takes from the center of the inlet.
3.3 Grid Independence Study
The optimum number of grids must be speciﬁed in order to execute additional
research and calculations. The calculated results ought to be grid-independent and
never ﬂuctuate as the number of cells changes (Table
1).
For four distinct body sizes, grid independence research was conducted. From 0.2
and 0.02 body sizing onwards, the penetration length is steady. In the case of SMD, there was no signiﬁcant modiﬁcation when the number of nodes and elements were
increased beyond 336,176 and 323,752, respectively. As a result, body sizes of 0.1 and 0.01 were found to be appropriate (Figs.
1 and 2).
Table 1
Body sizing
→
Body sizing → No. of nodesNo. of elements Penetration length (m) Overall SMD (m)
0.4 0.025 11,506 10,200 0.008035 2.253e
0.2 0.02 61,321 57,780 0.00814 2.7743e
0.1 0.01 336,176 323,752 0.00814 2.971e
0.05 0.005 2,065,186 2,021,8650.00814 3.00e
Fig. 1 with no. of elements

8 A. A. Satheesan et al.
Fig. 2
From the above ﬁgures, it is clear that SMD does not vary when number of
elements is increased from 323,752. Therefore, further calculations and analysis,
body sizing of 0.1 and 0.01 is taken for the geometry.
3.4 Mesh Generation
Mesh is generated using inbuilt meshing program inside ANSYS 20.0 in three dimen-
sions. Cells are used to create a structured mesh that becomes ﬁner as it moves from
the cylinder’s edge to its core. The mesh quality was found to be 0.95 which implies
the model is having a good mesh quality.
The number of nodes and elements in the geometry after meshing are 336,176
and 323,752, respectively, chosen after obtaining results from the grid independence study plotted for penetration length versus the number of elements.
3.5 Boundary Condition
In the present geometry, the left side is deﬁned as the inlet and the right side is deﬁned as the outlet. The remaining surface is deﬁned as the wall (Tables
2 and 3).
Table 2
conditions
Inlet pressure100 MPa
Outlet pressure1MPa
Wall No slip condition
Working ﬂuid i Diesel
ii Combination of diesel and ethanol

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 9
Table 3
simulation
Parameter Quality
Injection pressure 100 MPa
Outlet pressure 1MPa
Mass ﬂow rate 3e
Injection duration 1s
Injection type Surface
4 Results and Discussion
See Graphs 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Graph 1 SMD for aspect ratio 1
Graph 2
SMD for aspect ratio 1.2

10 A. A. Satheesan et al.
Graph 3
SMD for aspect ratio 1.4
Graph 4 SMD for aspect ratio 1.6
4.1 Effect on Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)
The smaller the SMD, the evaporation and atomization process accelerates also it
resulting in uniform size distribution and increased number of droplets. Therefore, it
is of beneﬁt to mixture formation. Due to diesel’s higher density, stronger intermolec-
ular forces produce poor atomization. The difference in fuel viscosity and density is
mostly responsible for the SMD variations between the fuels. Diesel exhibits larger
droplet sizes than ethanol–diesel mixtures. Ethanol–diesel blends always have lower
SMD and De Brouckere values than pure diesel. They get smaller as the quantity of
diesel increases, while it randomly varies for variation in aspect ratio (Table
4).

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 11
Table 4
obtained for various aspect
ratios
Aspect ratio Spray angle
1 12.32°
1.2 14.05°
1.4 15.33°
1.6 16.30°
Fig. 3
aspect ratio 1
Fig. 4
aspect ratio 1.2
4.2 Effect on Spray Angle
An important parameter of fuel sprays is the angle of the spray’s edge as it leaves
the injector hole. For single sprays, the two lines tangent to the spray’s margins,
extending from the injection point, constitute the spray angle. Lower aspect ratios
result in smaller spray angles, while higher aspect ratios, in comparison, result in
wider spray angles. The particle residence time is tracked to determine the spray
angle for the cases of a Circle, Elliptical A, B, And C, respectively is shown in
Figs.
2, 3, 4 and 5. The circle’s spray angle was found to be 12.32°, whereas the
maximum spray angle was found to be 16.30° for Elliptical C.
4.3 Effect of Cavitation
Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9 show the variation of pressure contour for circular injector
nozzle and Elliptical A, B, and C cases, respectively. The pressure contour shows

12 A. A. Satheesan et al.
Fig. 5
aspect ratio 1.4
that in all cases of aspect ratio, cavitation bubbles ﬁrst have been generated, close
to the nozzle inlet’s sharp corners. Then, the ﬂow of spray transfers these bubbles
downward in both an axial and radial direction. The main cause of this phenomena
is the development of low-pressure zones. Because of the abrupt change in ﬂow
direction near sharp corners, even negative values were detected (Fig.
10).
Fig. 6
aspect ratio 1.6
Fig. 7

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 13
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
The formation of cavitation inside the nozzle can be enhanced by an increase in
aspect ratio. The cavitation intensity was more intensive for Elliptical B and C as
compared to other nozzle shapes for the same injection time

14 A. A. Satheesan et al.
Fig. 10
5 Conclusions
The present study aims to investigate the spray characteristics and fuel droplet atom-
ization performance of the test fuels—diesel and biodiesel, by varying the aspect
ratios. The spray characteristics of diesel and ethanol–diesel blend were determined
numerically.
The investigation led to the following conclusions:
i. The variation of aspect ratio in diesel injector is recognized to play an important role in spray characteristics and formation.
ii. Increasing the aspect ratio enhances turbulence, which causes cavitation in the chamber, hence, increasing the spray angle.
iii. Due to lower viscosity and density, a lower SMD reduction of up to 28.04% for the ethanol–diesel blend is observed. De Brouckere Diameter also showed a similar trend, declining by 28.63%.
iv. The spray cone angle was observed to be inﬂuenced by the aspect ratio of the elliptical nozzle shape with minimum spray angle in circle being 12.32° and maximum spray angle of 16.30° in case of Elliptical C.
v. Fuel with higher viscosity, i.e., diesel, does not easily breakup in to smaller droplets. The smaller size of the droplet can improve spray atomization and air–fuel mixing, which is possible in the case of ethanol–diesel blend.

Numerical Analysis on the Effect of Aspect Ratio in a Diesel Injector … 15
References
1. Som S, Longman DE (2012) Inﬂuence of nozzle oriﬁce geometry and fuel properties on ﬂow
and cavitation characteristics of a diesel injector. Fuel Inject Autom Eng 14:112–126
2. Chen PC, Wang WC (2013) Spray and atomization of diesel fuel and its alternatives from a single-hole injector using a common rail fuel injection system. Fuel 103:850–861
3. Iliev S (2018) Comparison of ethanol and methanol blending with gasoline using engine simulation. Biofuels Challenges Opport
4. Bannikov M (2015) Effect of alcohol additives on diesel engine performance and emissions. Mater Methods Technol 9:8–19
5. Shervani-Tabar MT, Sheykhvazayeﬁ M, Ghorbani M (2013) Numerical study on the effect of the injection pressure on spray penetration length. Appl Math Model 37:7778–7788
6. Yu S, Yin B, Deng W, Jia H, Ye Z, Xu B, Xu H (2018) Experimental study on the spray characteristics discharging from elliptical diesel nozzle at typical diesel engine conditions. Fuel 221:28–34
7. Yin B, Xu B, Jia H, Yu S (2020) The effect of elliptical diesel nozzles on spray liquid-phase penetration under evaporative conditions. Energies 13:2234
8. Wang Z, Li L (2020) Effects of different ethanol/diesel blending ratios on combustion and emission characteristics of a medium-speed diesel engine. Processes
9. Singhal AK (2002) Mathematical basis and validation of the full cavitation model. J Fluids Eng CFD Res Corp J Fluids Eng 124:617–624
10. Shervani-Tabar MT et al (2012) Numerical study on the effect of the cavitation phenomenon
on the characteristics of fuel spray. Math Comput Modell 56:105–117
11. Som S, Ramirez AI et al (2010) Effect of nozzle oriﬁce geometry on spray, combustion, and
emission characteristics under diesel engine conditions. Fuel 90:1267–1276
12. Sun Y, Hooman ZGK (2019) Cavitation in diesel fuel injector nozzles and its inﬂuence on atomization and spray. Chem Eng Technol 42:6–29

Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation
and Plasma Pyrolysis Process for Lignite
Coal: A Comparative Study
Sidhartha Sondh, Darshit S. Upadhyay, Sanjay Patel, and Rajesh N. Patel
Abstract
ical processes for process parameter optimization. The present study is a comparative
study of the gasiﬁcation and plasma pyrolysis process of lignite coal. Three temper-
atures (1023, 1123, 1223 K) are selected for the gasiﬁcation process and a similar
is done for the plasma pyrolysis (1223, 1323, 1423 K). The obtained results are
compared with the experiment literature available. The RMSE approach was used
for checking the accuracy of the model. The accuracy was observed to be appreciable.
The composition of the syngas is compared for all the cases. It was observed that
the concentration of hydrogen and carbon monoxide is found to be rich in plasma
pyrolysis with an average of 43.4% as compared to 13.5% for gasiﬁcation. The
plasma pyrolysis process offered better results compared to the gasiﬁcation process
as it offered a higher H
2/CO ratio and (H2 + 2 ratio also
increased for the plasma pyrolysis process with an increase in temperature.
Keywords ∙Gasiﬁcation ∙Pyrolysis ∙Plasma
pyrolysis
∙Thermochemical process
1 Introduction
Thermochemical processes such as gasiﬁcation and pyrolysis are commonly known
for energy generation and waste treatment. Due to the huge initial investment and
complex process, it is not feasible to carry out experimental research on all the ther-
mochemical processes together. In such an instance, computational ﬂuid dynamics
(CFD) emerges as a potential tool for researchers [
1]. It also helps in optimizing
S. Sondh (B) ∙
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Patel
Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad,
Gujarat, India
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
K. M. Singh et al. (eds.),
in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_3
17

18
the designs and other parameters for such processes without involving any major
investments [2]. The CFD can also be a useful tool in making the thermochemical
processes environment-friendly. Different cases can be simulated to ﬁnd an effec-
tive method for limiting pollutant emissions and improving the overall health of the
environment.
Gasiﬁcation is a widely used thermochemical process for energy production using
biomass, coal, municipal solid waste (MSW), etc. [3]. The pyrolysis process also
offers the option of energy generation from the above-mentioned feedstocks [4]. The
absence of oxygen in the pyrolysis process makes it a more suitable option due to
the limited formation of harmful products such as carbon dioxide (CO
2), SOx,NOx,
PAHs. ANSYS Fluent V17.0 software is used to carry out the simulations of the
lignite coal gasiﬁcation and pyrolysis at different temperatures. The experimental
results of lignite gasiﬁcations are compared with the CFD simulation results for both
processes.
The syngas or producer gas obtained from these thermochemical processes is a
mixed gas comprising carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H
2), CO2, methane (CH4),
etc. This mixed gas is very valuable and can be used as fuel for cooking and energy generation in the form of electricity and heat [5].
2 Literature Review and Objective
Thermochemical processes are the new way of handling wastes and obtaining useful
products. The processes are effective options for meeting the energy demand of the
country. Gasiﬁcation is a globally used technology for generating energy from coal
[
6]. In the gasiﬁcation process, the coal is partially oxidized due to the controlled
presence of air, oxygen, steam, and CO
2. Since the presence of oxygen is limited,
the process is always under the control and can be solved for different equivalent ratios [7]. The other process considered in this research is pyrolysis. The process
of pyrolysis is a new technology that is used for purposes such as waste treatment, energy generation, and oil generation. Pyrolysis is majorly subdivided into three major categories: slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and ﬂash pyrolysis [
8]. However,
another category of thermal plasma pyrolysis is also practiced in the industry [9].
The type of feedstock and reactor also inﬂuences the thermochemical process. The feedstock can be any waste, biomass, coal, plastics, etc. There are many types of
reactors which include downdraft, updraft, ﬂuidized bed, etc. [
10]. In this research,
ﬁxed bed downdraft reactor is chosen for the analysis.
CFD is an effective tool that is widely used to predict the results of thermochemical
processes. Much research focusing on thermochemical processes has been effectively modeled using the CFD tools for optimizing various process parameters. The present
research is focused on modeling the two thermochemical processes—gasiﬁcation and plasma pyrolysis of lignite coal. The processes are modeled for three temperatures 1023, 1123, and 1223 K for gasiﬁcation whereas that of plasma pyrolysis is 1223,
1323, and 1423 K. The operating temperature range of plasma pyrolysis is higher than

Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 19
the gasiﬁcation due to the high working temperature. The mixed gas obtained from
both processes is analyzed and compared with the experimental data available. The
study highlights the importance of CFD in the optimization of process parameters.
3 Materials and Methods
The fuel for the gasiﬁcation process was chosen to be lignite coal. The ultimate and proximate analysis for the coal was also conducted and it is mentioned in
Table
1. The experiments on lignite coal gasiﬁcation were carried out at three different
temperatures 1023, 1123, and 1223 K.
The composition of the syngas was analyzed using the gas chromatography facility
for the syngas sample for each temperature run. These sample data are used to compare and verify the simulation results obtained from the ANSYS Fluent software.
3.1 CFD Modeling
The geometry of the reactor was modeled using the Parametric CREO 3.0 software.
The next step in the simulation process is to create the mesh in the reactors. The
meshing is done on the model to make a problem more approachable and conve-
nient using the ﬁnite element techniques. It breaks the whole domain into small
elements and solves the problem at each node. The meshing of the reactor is done
in ANSYS ICEM software. For the surface mesh, all triangular elements are used
(23,256 elements) Fig.
1, whereas, for the volume generation, hexahedral elements
are used (179,821 elements) Fig. 2. The orthogonal quality of all the elements was
duly found to be acceptable (> 0.3).
Table 1
ultimate and proximate
analysis data
Ultimate analysis
a
Proximate analysis
b
Carbon 37.80 Volatile matter42.07
Hydrogen 4.93 Ash 15.11
Nitrogen 1.625 Moisture 11.79
Sulphur 0.141 Fixed carbon
c
31.03
Oxygen 40.394
a
Test method IS 1350 (Part II)-1970
b
Test method IS 1350 (Part I)-1984
c
By difference

20
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
volume mesh
3.2 Problem Setup
The ANSYS Fluent Package was used to model and set up the problem. The process
of gasiﬁcation is complex involving thermochemistry input. For deﬁning a problem
in Fluent, suitable boundary conditions and operating conditions are to be identiﬁed.
The process temperature, turbulence model, species model, and reactions involved
are a few of the parameters that need to be properly deﬁned for obtaining real-life
cases.

Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 21
Table 2
Parameters Operating condition
Gasiﬁcation Plasma pyrolysis
Temperature ( 1023, 1123, 1223 1223, 1323, 1423
Pressure ( 101,325 101,325
Gravity (
2
9.81 9.81
Turbulence model k
(realizable)
k (realizable)
Species model Species transport (chemkin
mechanism import)
Species transport (chemkin mechanism import)
Reaction type Volumetric reactions/particle
reactions
Volumetric reactions/particle reactions
Power input (kW) – 18
There were three runs each carried out for both the thermo-chemical processes
process. The operating parameters for the processes are shown in Table 2.
The species transport model (STM) is used for deﬁning the chemistry of the ther-
mochemical processes. A chemkin mechanism is deﬁned as consisting of 9 species
and 5 elements for the gasiﬁcation process as shown in Fig. 3. All the standard gasi-
ﬁcation reactions are used, and the activation energy is provided. The reaction rate is taken as default due to insufﬁcient data.
3.3 Boundary Conditions
An important step in the modeling process is deﬁning the boundaries of the domain.
Also, the input parameter at that boundary is deﬁned for obtaining a real-life problem
environment. Table
3 shows the boundary conditions added for the gasiﬁcation case,
whereas Table 4 represents the boundary condition for the plasma pyrolysis runs.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Syngas Composition
The CFD simulation results were compared with the experimental results obtained from the literature [
11]. The major parameter for the validation was the syngas
composition as obtained at different temperatures. The gas composition as obtained
from CFD simulations is CO
2,CO,H2,CH4, and N2 in the case of gasiﬁcation,
whereas CO
2,CO,H2, and CH4 were obtained in the plasma pyrolysis process.

22
Fig. 3
for lignite coal gasiﬁcation
Table 3
conditions for gasiﬁcation
SurfaceBoundary condition Input parameter
Fuel inlet Mass ﬂow inletM
OutletPressure outletPgauge =
Walls Stationary wallNo slip boundary condition
Air inletMass ﬂow inletM

Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 23
Table 4
Surface Boundary condition Input parameter
Fuel inlet Mass ﬂow inlet M
Outlet Pressure outlet Pgauge =
Walls Stationary wall No slip boundary condition
Electrodes Wall Electric potential (ON)
V
R
2
Table 5
gasiﬁcation simulation results
at different temperatures
Syngas 1023 K 1123 K 1223 K
CO2 0.043 0.002 0.020
CO 0.081 0.052 0.055
H2 0.040 0.007 0.014
CH4 0.011 0.002 0.005
N2 0.084 0.023 0.008
The accuracy of the results was calculated by the root mean square error (RMSE)
approach with reference to the experimental literature available. The results were
acceptable and are shown in Table 5.
Figure 4 shows the comparison of the results obtained from the CFD simulation of
lignite coal gasiﬁcation with the experimental literature. The values obtained closely match the experimental literature available. The H
2 and CO concentration is observed
to be increasing with the increase in temperature, whereas the concentration of CO
2
is observed to be decreasing as the temperature increase. The (H2 +
determines the ﬂammability of the syngas and it also increases with the increase in temperature.
Fig. 4
gasiﬁcation simulation
versus experimental
literature results

24
4.2 Plasma Pyrolysis
The plasma pyrolysis process was simulated for three temperatures and it was
observed that the quality of syngas increases with the increase in temperature as
shown in Fig.
5. At a higher temperature, the (H2 +
the CO
2,CO, H2, and CH4, there is a small percentage of a group of higher order
hydrocarbons such as C
2H2,C4H4, etc., are found.
The pattern of some of the important ratios such as CO/CO2 and H2/CO is also
observed for both the gasiﬁcation and plasma pyrolysis process. It is found that both these parameters increase with the increase in temperature. The (H
2 +
also increases with the increase in temperature. From Table
6, it is quite evident that
the quality of syngas from the plasma pyrolysis process is much better than that of the gasiﬁcation. The value of all three parameters is much higher than that of the
gasiﬁcation process.
Fig. 5
Table 6
from CFD simulation
H2/CO (H2 + CO/CO2
Gasiﬁcation simulation
1023 K 0.48 0.28 0.76
1123 K 1.09 0.26 0.69
1223 K 0.96 0.27 0.76
Plasma pyrolysis simulation
1223 K 8.07 0.88 1.43
1323 K 7.09 0.89 3.06
1423 K 4.76 0.84 2.23

Numerical Simulation of Gasiﬁcation and Plasma Pyrolysis Process … 25
Fig. 6
4.3 Plasma Pyrolysis Versus Gasiﬁcation
The results obtained from the simulation of the plasma pyrolysis process and gasi-
ﬁcation at the same temperature of 1223 K are shown in Fig. 6. From the ﬁgure,
it is visible that there is a major variation in the H
2 and CO concentration for the
two processes. Due to the absence of air and oxygen in the pyrolysis process, the
N
2 content is observed to be zero in the result. The concentration of the CO2 is also
less in the plasma pyrolysis process as compared to the gasiﬁcation process which
makes it comparatively more environment-friendly. Since plasma pyrolysis majorly
occurs at a higher temperature, the concentration of CO
2 will be further limited.
5 Conclusions
The thermochemical processes can be used effectively for syngas generation which is an alternative fuel. The CFD simulation offered comparable results with the exper-
imental literature which validates the modeling approach used for simulation. The concentration of H
2 is found to be more than 60% in the plasma pyrolysis simula-
tions. The (H
2 +
CO/CO
2 ratio increased with an increase in temperature. The syngas performance
parameter H
2/CO was observed to be 6.64 for the plasma pyrolysis process and 0.844
for the gasiﬁcation process. These parameters deﬁne the quality of syngas and it was noted to be better for the plasma pyrolysis process.
Acknowledgements
nology (GUJCOST), Department of Science and Technology, Gujarat, India, for funding the project
(GUJCOST/2020-688 21/880).

26
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Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered
CI Engines with Single and Multiple
Injection Strategies
Ketan V. Warghat, Aditya Tiwari, B. Yogesh, G. M. Nayak, B. Saravanan,
and Pankaj S. Kolhe
Abstract
emissions. The present study utilizes a various injection strategies such as single
injection, 30° BTDC and 50° pilot injection, paired pilot injection, and split injec-
tion on the performance and emissions. There are two conditions for a single pilot
injection: the ﬁrst is a 20% pilot injection at 30° BTDC, and the second is a 20% pilot
injection at 50° BTDC. A twin injection approach uses a pilot of 5% at 50° BTDC
and another 15% at 30° BTDC. Performance metrics like BTE, BSFC, and IMEP
are determined at a compression ratio of 18:1 for 1000 RPM. The split injection
condition produces a lower NO
x, CO, and UHC emission. The pilot operation at 50°
produces more CO and NO
x emissions. Applying the second law of thermodynamics
analysis to the CI engine, exergetic efﬁciency is assessed for various injection strate-
gies, with split injection exhibiting the most optimal engine performance along with
controlled emissions.
Keywords ·Injection timing ·Performance analysis ·Emission and
availability
Abbreviation
Ain Input availability
Acw Availability at cold water
AefﬁciencySecond law efﬁciency
AexhaustAvailability at exhaust
BSFC Brake-speciﬁc fuel consumption
BTDC Before top dead centre
BTE Brake thermal efﬁciency
CI Compression ignition
K. V. Warghat (B)
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, IIT Hyderabad, Telengana 502284, India
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
K. M. Singh et al. (eds.),
in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7177-0_4
27

28 K. V. Warghat et al.
CO Carbon monoxide
CRDI Common rail direct
ECU Electronic control unit
HRR Heat release rate
LHV Low heating value
NOx Nitrogen oxide
RPM Revolution per minute
SOI Start of injection
TDC Top dead centre
TO Throttle opening
UHC Unburned hydrocarbon
Nomenclature
Cpex Speciﬁc heat of exhaust [J/Kg K]
cpw Speciﬁc heat of water [J/Kg K]
mex Mass ﬂow rate of exhaust [Kg/s]
mf Mass ﬂow rate of fuel [Kg/s]
mw Mass ﬂow rate of water [Kg/s]
Po Ambient pressure [bar]
Pexo Exhaust pressure [bar]
To Ambient temperature [K]
Texo Exhaust temperature [K]
Twi Inlet water temperature [K]
Two Outlet water temperature [K
1 Introduction
CI engines are essential to society’s needs, be it public transport, goods vehicle, or
power generator for power backup. However, as the population increases, the neces-
sity for automobiles rises, resulting in rising pollution, which needs to be controlled.
Performance and emissions are affected by various factors; injection timing and
strategy are one of them could be optimized. In general, diesel engines operate
primarily in lean conditions, resulting in increased thermal efﬁciency and higher
exhaust pollutants, such as smoke and particulate matter. The lean burning condition
gives higher unburned hydrocarbons in diesel engines. Higher combustion tempera-
ture leads to the breakage of nitrogen bonds to monoatomic, resulting in more NO
x.
In multiple injection techniques, a small amount of fuel is injected as one or two pilot
injections during the compression stroke prior to the main injection. This results in

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 29
a substantially better fuel–air mixture than the conventional single main injection
strategy.
Several studies investigated the effect of injection timing on the combustion
process. MacMillan et al. [1] experimentally investigated the effect of pilot injection
timing and fuel quantity in a single cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine at cold idle
conditions. It was observed that increasing the number of pilot injections results
in proper stability and ruggedness at low-temperature conditions, with the highest
stability at the triple pilot condition at different speeds and injection timing. Single
pilot and twin pilot injection conditions show almost similar heat release rates. Suh
[
2] reported the effect of multiple injection strategies on low CR engines using
different emissions and performance parameters in a single-cylinder CI engine. It was revealed that the two pilot injections give higher pressure data with a maximum heat release rate reduction. Multiple injections improved combustion efﬁciency with
lower UHC and a slight increase in CO emissions. In a heavy duty 6-cylinder water cooled engine, Yuo et al. [
3] conducted experiments on some injection techniques,
including pilot and post injection with a blend of n-butanol. They concluded that with
a blend condition of 10%, both single and multiple injections give similar perfor-
mance result, whereas pilot injection reduces soot with an increase in CO emission.
Post injection also reduces soot, but the main injection and pressure must be adjusted
carefully. Liu et al. [4] experimentally studied the effects of injection timing and
quantity in a six-cylinder engine using diesel/CNG. CO emissions are higher than
single diesel combustion, and UHC and soot particles reduce signiﬁcantly as the
diesel quantity increases.
The maximum useful work that could be extracted by the interaction of a system
with its surrounding considered as a reversible process to achieve thermal, mechan- ical, and chemical equilibrium is deﬁned as the system’s availability in a given state [
5]. Sahoo et al. [6] performed the availability study on a four-cylinder diesel engine to
calculate the ideal throttle opening (TO) at various load and RPM conditions. They concluded that the ideal engine operating conditions for 70, 80, and 90% engine loads are 2000 rpm at 50% TO, 2300 rpm at 75% TO, and 3250 rpm at 100% TO
respectively.
Ismail and Mehta [7] studied the availability of various fuels with their chemical
composition and found that availability destruction decreases with an increase in
oxygen content in the fuel. The preheating of fuel helps in reduction of availability
destruction. Therefore, the qualitative information of a system could be utilized to
comprehend the engine performance and emission in detail.
From the literature, it can be inferred that the timing, quantity, and number of
the pilot injections all play a signiﬁcant role in the combustion process such as
performance, emissions, and power. The effectiveness of any process can be evaluated
by its availability which gives maximum energy that can be extracted. This study
investigates different injection strategies on engine performance and emission. All
the strategies show a slight difference on performance, with a signiﬁcant impact in
emission parameters.

30 K. V. Warghat et al.
Fig. 1
schematic
2 Material and Method
2.1 Experimental Setup
The present study utilizes a twin-cylinder optical research engine with an operational
range of 400–1300 RPM. One of the twin-cylinder is a thermodynamic cylinder,
whereas the other is optical access to study the inside combustion. In this experiment,
only a thermodynamic cylinder with a toroidal bowl piston top is used, which helps
in compact and faster burning. The engine has a common rail direct injection system
with a CRDI driver module and CRDI kit, which controls injection pressure, timing,
and duration. The compression ratio ranges from 6.7 to 18. The schematic diagram
of experimental study is shown in Fig.
1. Fuel injection pressure ranges from 200
to 1000 bar. CRDI module is operated by an open ECU system provided by legions
brothers, which helps with the injection timing and pressure variation. Data acqui-
sition software shows all the output parameters, such as air–fuel ratio, in-cylinder
pressure, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel consumption. A Kistler made piezoelec-
tric pressure transducer monitors in-cylinder pressure connected at the cylinder head.
The detailed engine speciﬁcation is provided in Table
1. For the performance analysis,
different loading conditions employed on engine with hydrodynamic dynamometer. Engine exhaust is connected to an AVL gas analyzer to read the exhaust emissions like NO
x, CO, and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC).
2.2 Methodology
The experiments are carried out at 50 and 80% of maximum load conditions of
constant 1050 RPM. Table 2 represents the different injection techniques at different

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 31
Table 1
Parameters Va l u e s
No. of cylinders 1of2
Stroke (mm) 100
Bore (mm) 94
Compression ratio 18:1
Speed range (RPM) 1050
Injection pressure (bar) 500
Table 2
Injection type Injection timing
1 Single main injection 100%@9° BTDC
2 One pilot 30 20%@30° BTDC
3 One pilot 50 20%@50° BTDC
4 Twin pilot 5%@50° BTDC and 15%@30° BTDC
5 Split injection 50%@5° BTDC and 50%@5° ATDC
injection angles investigated in this study. An injection timing of 9° BTDC is consid-
ered optimal among test cases run at various injection timings. The performance
data such as BTE, BSFC, and IMEP are collected at a steady engine condition for
several cycles to determine the performance. A piezoelectric pressure sensor is used to
acquire in-cylinder pressure. Inside combustion pressure is recorded for 100 consec-
utive cycles to average on each test point. Heat release rate (HRR) and pressure rise
rate are computed using the pressure data. The engine’s exergetic efﬁciency at various
injection strategies is evaluated by availability analysis. The exhaust emission data
are collected from the gas analyzer (AVL DIGS 444N).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Combustion Analysis
The combustion performance of an engine can be evaluated based on pressure and
HRR of the run test conditions. Figures 2 and 3 depict the combustion pressure and
HRR under different injection strategies at different loading conditions.
The split injection exhibits the lowest pressure curve with two peaks at 50% load
condition in Fig. 2 because of late injection with a lesser amount of fuel injected,
which results in a delay in the combustion process resulting in lesser pressure. It
should be noted that the similar peak pressure is observed in the pilot conditions.
The burning of pilot fuel raises the temperature and pressure inside the combustion

32 K. V. Warghat et al.
Fig. 2
chamber before the main injection, which reduces the ignition delay. The maximum
HRR is observed during early pilot injection over single injection. The reason is that
the accumulation of the pilot fuel and combined burning with the main injection
results into a rapid combustion phase. However, a lower HRR is observed in 30°
BTDC and twin pilot compared to single injection and single pilot at 50° BTDC
due to increased pressure and temperature prior to the main injection. Furthermore,
the combustion pressure and the HRR are lowest with the split injection technique
because of the retardation in the SOI timing and the discontinuous combustion. The
SOI timing in the split injection technique is retarded to limit the combustion noise
from the engine.

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 33
Fig. 3
The pressure curve and HRR for the 80% load condition are shown in Fig. 3.
The twin pilot injection shows a higher maximum pressure for high load conditions
compared to the single pilot and single injection. The pressure is expected to be
higher at high load due to the higher temperature, which results in a lower ignition
delay. Single main injection results in higher HRR than other strategies as it performs
diffusion mode combustion, in contrast to other strategies which integrate premixed
and diffusion combustion processes. Two HRR peaks are shown in the split injection
system, where one peak shows a rapid combustion phase, and the other shows a
mixing controlled combustion phase, which happens due to the second injection
after TDC.

34 K. V. Warghat et al.
3.2 Performance Analysis
It is well known that the Brake thermal efﬁciency (BTE) indicates the conversion
of chemical energy into work. Figure 4 shows BTE at different injection strategies
for two load conditions. It should be noted that the improved BTE can be seen at
high loads, as it generates more heat during combustion. For high load conditions, a
single main injection gives maximum BTE, and single pilot at 30° BTDC shows a
minimum; BTE decreases as the pilot move toward TDC, where early pilot injection
provides the proper mixing and combustion. A slight variation in BTE is observed
for all injection strategies for medium load conditions.
Similarly, BSFC represents the amount of fuel is utilized to produce per KW of
brake power. Figure 5 shows the BSFC at different loading and injection conditions.
It should be noted that the BSFC corroborates with the BTE in Fig. 4. Single main
injection gives better BSFC at medium load compared to other condition. A reduced BSFC is observed in advanced pilot injection for all the load conditions.
The indicated mean effective pressure can be referenced to the pressure acting on
the piston during its stroke to produce the same amount of work. At higher IMEP, a better performance could be expected. Figure
6 shows the IMEP at different injection
and load conditions; it shows that the twin pilot condition gives maximum mean
adequate pressure compared to other conditions as sufﬁce fuel mixture is expected,
resulting in a higher mean pressure. In general, IMEP decreases as the injection timing
advances toward TDC, where main heat release is generated during the compression
stroke. Note that the split injection condition gives the least effective pressure.
Fig. 4

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 35
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
injection strategy and load
condition
3.3 Emission Analysis
Emissions are calculated in terms of NOx, CO, and HC. Figure 7 shows the variation
of CO emission at different injection and loading conditions; a single injection gives
lower CO emission over multiple injections because of the multi-stage combustion
events. Thus, a lower combustion temperature causes a reduced CO oxidation rate.
Early single pilot injection shows the highest CO emissions at higher load condi-
tions. However, at medium load, a minimal variation in emissions is observed for all
injection strategies.
HC emissions are primarily due to unburned fuel escaping after combustion due to
wall quenching or lower in-cylinder temperatures. Early pilot injection at 50° BTDC

36 K. V. Warghat et al.
Fig. 7
emission at different
injection strategy and load
condition
gives higher HC emissions over other conditions, as shown in Fig. 8. Higher HC at
early pilot injection is due to wall quenching, which remained unburned during the
combustion process. The twin pilot injection gives lower HC than the single pilot due
to the amount of fuel injected at two stages, which helps in the combustion process.
It is known that the NOx emission signiﬁcantly depends on the combustion temper-
ature. The higher the temperature, the higher the NO
x production could be expected.
Fig.
9 shows NOx emissions for different injection and loading conditions. A single
main injection gives maximum NO
x emissions compared to other conditions due
to the higher in-cylinder temperature. For injection at single pilot injections, early pilot injection gives slightly higher NO
x compared to late pilot injection. Twin pilot
injection gives better NO
x compared to single pilot as dividing fuel injection into two
parts promotes homogeneity of charge with lower combustion temperature. Further- more, spilt injection gives minimum NO
x due to late ﬁrst injection resulting in lower
in-cylinder pressure and temperature.
Fig. 8
emission at different
injection strategy and load
condition

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 37
Fig. 9 x
emission at different
injection strategy and load
condition
3.4 Availability Analysis
The performance analysis carried out in this study is based on 1
st
law of thermody-
namics. The injection strategy of single pilot and split injection gives the promising
results in terms of performance and emission. Therefore, the qualitative information
of both the strategies needs to be investigated. The 2nd law of thermodynamic deter-
mines the exergetic efﬁciency of the system, where optimum injection strategy could
be evaluated. The availability of in-cylinder is known to rise in terms of chemical
exergy during the injection period. However, the exergetic losses such as exhaust
heat and engine cylinder convective losses, and exergetic destruction brought on by
chemical reaction cause the total in-cylinder availability to drop. Figures
10 and 11
represent the total in-cylinder availability for 50 and 80% load condition at different
injection strategies, respectively. Figure 12 represents the second law efﬁciency at
different injection strategies, 80% load condition gives signiﬁcantly higher exergetic
efﬁciency than the 50% load condition. In addition, BSFC in Fig. 5 emphasizes
the exergetic efﬁciency for higher load. The exergetic efﬁciency in split injection is higher compared to the single pilot injection, where chemical exergy destruction is expected to be lower due to low emission.
Ain =
∗
1 f ∗

/ (1)
Acw = (m w/ ) ∗

c pw ∗ (Two − wi) + 0 ∗
∗
cpw ∗ (T wi/wo)
(2)
Aexhaust = ex + [(m ex / ) ∗ 0 ∗ {(ceex ∗ (T o/exo)) − ex ∗ (P 0/exo)}](3)
Adestroyed = in − (Ashaft + cw + exhaust) (4)
Aefﬁciency =

1 destroyed /in

∗
(5)

38 K. V. Warghat et al.
Fig. 10
different load condition 50%
load condition
Fig. 11 different load condition at 80% load condition
Fig. 12 different injection strategy and load condition

Availability Analysis of Diesel-Powered CI Engines with Single … 39
4 Conclusions
This paper investigated the different injection strategies in a CRDI combustion
engine. The performance, emission, and availability analysis discussed in detail.
The following observation is withdrawn from this study.
• The CRDI engine test is performed at ﬁve different injection strategies with different injection timing for two load conditions.
• Single pilot at 30
whereas twin pilot injection gives higher in-cylinder pressure at high load. HRR is highest at single and single pilot injection at 50
• BTE is lowest at single pilot at 30 to TDC, BTE lowers. In tested injection strategies, a single injection delivers a lower BSFC with improved BTE. However, an early single pilot injection results
in a greater IMEP.
• Single pilot injection at 50
Besides, a split injection produces lower emissions compared to other strategies.
• Thermodynamic second law efﬁciency at different injection strategies are studied. Though single pilot injection shows better BTE and lower BSFC but due to emis- sion losses, split condition gives better exergetic efﬁciency compared to other
strategies.
Acknowledgements
Ministry of Education, India, for their constant support and ﬁnancial assistance. We also thank
Jagadish for his assistance in the IC Engine Laboratory.
References
1. MacMillan D, LaRocca A, Shayler PJ, Morris T, Murphy M, Pegg I (2020) Investigating the
effects of multiple pilot injections on stability at cold idle for a di diesel engine. SAE Int J
Engines 2:14
2. Suh HK (2011) Investigations of multiple injection strategies for the improvement of combustion and exhaust emissions characteristics in a low compression ratio (cr) engine. Appl Energy 88(12):5013–5019
3. Yao M, Wang H, Zheng Z, Yue Y (2010) Experimental study of n-butanol additive and multi- injection on HD diesel engine performance and emissions. Fuel 89:2191–2201
4. Liu J, Yang F, Wang H, Ouyang M, Hao S (2013) Effects of pilot fuel quantity on the emissions characteristics of a CNG/diesel dual fuel engine with optimized pilot injection timing. Appl Energy 110:201–206
5. Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG (2006) Second-law analyses applied to internal combustion engines operation. Prog Energy Combust Sci 32:2–47

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Arras). It was seriously engaged against the British offensive until May 8–9.
3. About May 28 it returned to the Hindenburg Line between Moeuvres and
Havrincourt.
Flanders .
4. On July 12 it left this sector for Flanders, where it was sent into reserve
near Winckel-St. Eloi. It did not take part as a whole in the British attack of
July 31. On August 1 the entire division was engaged in the sector of
Zonnebeke, where it launched a violent counterattack, in the course of
which it lost heavily.
5. The 221st Division was relieved from the Ypres front during the night of
August 3–4, but left some units in line until the 10th. Transferred to
Champagne, it went into line east of Auberive on August 17, without having
had any rest. It there filled up its effectives (with replacements comprising
a large proportion of the 1918 class). Its activity was not manifested there
except by a few raids.
Cambrai .
6. On November 7 the division left the Champagne front, was transferred to
Belgium, and remained at rest at Deynze until November 23. On this date it
was taken by railroad to the Cambrai front, attacked by the British troops.
Sent into line between Bourlon and Fontaine-Notre Dame on the 27th, it
took part in the German counterattack. Relieved on December 7, it rested
for a month in the vicinity of Douai.
RECRUITING.
The division was very mixed. The 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, originating
in the Guard depots, was recruited from the entire Province of Prussia; the
41st Infantry Regiment (from East Prussia) was one of the regiments of the
Prussian Army which had received the most replacements because of
losses; the 60th Reserve Infantry Regiment comprised a majority of

Westphalians and men from the Rhine Province, but also a large number
from other corps districts.
VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE.
The 221st Division always gave a good account of itself in the battles in
which it took part. The 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, especially, in the
course of the attacks of November, 1916, showed great tenacity on the
defensive and great vigor on the offensive.
The morale of the 221st Division was good in November, 1917. The general
commanding the division and the major commanding the 41st Infantry
Regiment both received the order “Pour le Merite.”
1918.
Battle of Picardy .
1. The division continued to hold the sector near the Arras-Cambrai road
until shortly before the March offensive. It was withdrawn, given a short
rest, and attacked on the 21st at Queant. In two days it advanced as far as
Ervillers (north of Bapaume). From the 25th of March to April 16 it rested in
close support.
2. On April 16 the division was engaged the second time in the battle. It
entered south of Arras in the Boyelles sector and remained there until May
25, when it was relieved by the 5th Bavarian Division.
3. The division rested and trained for almost two months in the locality east
of Douai (Bruille, Somain, Aniches). The 45th Regiment, coming from the
Macedonian front, replaced the 1st Reserve Ersatz Regiment, which was
dissolved. Toward the end of July the division marched by stages to Noyon.
It was held in reserve west of that place from July 30-August 8.
Battle of the Santerre and Second Battle of Picardy .

4. On August 9 the division was engaged at Arvillers-Hangest. In two days
it was thrown back on Andechy, west of Roye. It was re-formed to the
north and then to the southwest of Nesle (Aug. 11–17). It was reengaged
on the 18th, and between that and the 27th fought north and south of the
Avre near Roye (St. Mard-Sancourt). Again it was pushed back on the Canal
du Nord at Buverchy-Libermont (Aug. 26–27). Its retreat continued toward
Ham (Sept. 3–4) and St. Quentin (5th–8th). After that the division was in
line near Fontaine les Cleres and Dallon until September 28. About 1,000
prisoners were taken from the division in this last sector.
5. The division was reengaged almost immediately south of Joncourt,
Levergies, and Sequehart (Sept. 30). By October 10 it had reached Fresnoy
le Grand. It was withdrawn on the 10th and rested a week near Bergues
sur Sambre.
6. On the 18th it was engaged in the sector of the forest d’Antigny (near
Wassigny). It retreated across the Sambre Canal on the 19th and passed
into reserve. On the 24th it was reengaged near the Serre River (west of La
Ferte Chevresis). In the final retreat it fell back through La Herie la Vieville,
Laigny, and east of Vervins. It was in line on November 11.
VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE.
The division was rated as second class. It was used as an attack division in
the March offensive and as a counterattack division in the last three months
of the war. It was noted for its energetic higher command. When called in
to oppose the French attack near Roye in August, the division had a rifle
strength of 4,000. By the end of October this had been reduced to about
1,000. The 45th Regiment was reduced to four small companies by October
24. The 41st and 60th Reserve Regiments had but three companies to a
battalion.
The division fought very well in spite of its losses and fatigue in the final
months.

222d Division.

COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918
[35]
Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.
Infantry. 7. 193. 7. 193. 7. 193.
   81 Res. 81 Res. 397.
   397. 397. 81 Res.
Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 2 Res. Uhlan
Rgt.

Artillery. 278 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: 222 (?) Art. Command:
   278 F. A. Rgt. 278 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
2 Res. Co. 27 Pions. Pion. Btn.: 2 Res. Co. 2 Pion. Btn.
No. 27.
   2 Res. Co. 27 Pions.345 Pion. Co.
   345 Pion. Co. 432 T. M. Co.
   432 T. M. Co. 222 Tel. Detch.
   222 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
231 Ambulance Co. 231 Ambulance Co.
   162 Field Hospital. 162 Field Hospital.
   175 Field Hospital. 175 Field Hospital.
   322 Vet. Hospital. 322 Vet. Hospital.
Transport. 1071 M. T. Col. M. T. Col.
35.  Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.

HISTORY.
(81st Reserve Regiment: 18th Corps District—Hesse—Nassau. 193d
Reserve Regiment: 7th Corps District—Westphalia. 397th Reserve
Regiment: 2d Corps District—Pomerania.)
1916.
Formed about September 11, 1916, behind the front north of Verdun, the
222d Division took two of its regiments from existing divisions—the 81st
Reserve Regiment from the 21st Reserve Division, and the 193d Reserve
Regiment from the 192d Division. Its third regiment, the 397th, was formed
at Stenay from elements of the 16th and 53d Reserve Regiments (13th
Reserve Division), of the 159th Regiment (14th Reserve Division), of the
118th Infantry Regiment (56th Division), and especially from the 140th
Infantry Regiment (4th Division).
1. From September 15 to October 24, 1916, the 222d Division was at rest
in Alsace in the vicinity of Rouffach.
Somme.
2. Entrained on October 25, it was transferred to the vicinity of Cambrai by
way of Sarrebruecken, Aix la Chapelle, Brussels, Tournai. About November
5 it went into action on the Somme front near Lesboeufs, Le Transloy, and
remained in line until December 7–8.
3. After a few days of rest it was sent by railroad into the Laonnois.
Detraining at St. Erme between December 15 and 29 it took over the sector
of the Ville aux Bois (southeast of Craonne), which it occupied until
February 15, 1917.
1917.

1. Upon its release the 222d Division was employed in defensive works
behind the Aisne-Oise front (north of La Fère, St. Gobain, Laffaux,
Chavignon).
Aisne.
2. About March 16, 1917, it was engaged east of Soissons (Vregny-Combe
Plateau); counterattacked on March 21 north of Missy sur Aisne; retired in
the direction of the Laffaux Mill-Jouy-Aizy (at the beginning of April) and
fought on this front April 18 to 21.
The 193d Infantry Regiment, sent as reenforcement troops to Soupir,
suffered serious losses there and retired by way of Ostel on April 20.
3. The 222d Division, having established its position between Laffaux Mill
and Malmaison Farm, was again severely tried during the attacks of May 5
and 6.
4. Withdrawn from the Aisne front on May 13, it was sent to rest in the
area Marle-Vervins and reorganized.
5. At the end of June the division took over its former sector (Laffaux),
where the attack of July 8 was the only important action in which it took
part during this time, which lasted until the beginning of August.
6. After a short rest in the vicinity of Montigny, it came back into line (Ailles
—north of Hurtebise) about September 5 and remained in this sector until
November 2. At this time it took part in the withdrawal and occupied new
positions north of the Ailette.
7. On November 28, the 222d Division was relieved in the sector of
Chermizy and sent to rest at Laon and in the vicinity of Marle (one month’s
training).
8. At the end of December it occupied the front Brancourt-Anizy.
RECRUITING.
The 81st Reserve Infantry Regiment and the 193d Infantry Regiment were
recruited in the Rhine districts (Hesse-Nassau, Rhine Province, and

Westphalia). Many elements from these same regions were in the 397th
Infantry Regiment in addition to Pomeranians.
VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE.
Although it had suffered only slight losses since the beginning of November,
1917, the 222d Division was exhausted by a stay of more than seven
months in the different sectors of the Aisne. It is a mediocre division
(January, 1918).
During its rest in December the division received continual but moderate
training, like the maneuvers of peace times. (Interrogation of prisoner, Feb.
4, 1918.)
Ailette .
1. This was a very quiet sector and the division remained here without
incident until the Somme offensive was well under way. However, the
division took part in the attacks of April 7 and 8, when the enemy
endeavored to squeeze out the new salient of Coucy le Château, which was
developed by the progress of the main advance toward Montdidier. It
suffered heavily in several attacks but gained little ground.
Montdidier .
2. About the 3d of May the division was withdrawn and sent to the front
southeast of Montdidier, where the main battle line had stabilized, but
where infantry was still continuing, and during the night of the 9th–10th
relieved the 206th Division in the Assainvillers sector. However, the sector
soon grew quiet. The division remained in line and took part in the battle of
the Oise on June 9, advancing via Courcelles to Mery. The division made
but little headway (it will be remembered that this whole offensive failed)
and suffered heavy losses in several days of hard fighting. It was relieved
by the 11th Division about the 8th of July and went to rest near Coucy le
Château.

Soissons .
3. During the night of the 25th–26th the division reenforced the front near
Nouvron (northwest of Soissons). Here it was subjected to the full weight
of the attack of the 18th of August and was driven back to Audignicourt
and the Ailette. After having suffered very heavy losses (1829 prisoners), it
was withdrawn about the 27th and went to rest near Laon. About the
middle of September it was disbanded, the 81st Reserve Regiment going to
the 21st Reserve Division, the 193d Regiment going to the 14th Division,
and the 397th Regiment going to the 45th Reserve Division.
VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE.
The 222d was rated a second-class division. It took little part in offensive
operations but was not incapable of putting up a tenacious defense. In
June two of its regiments threatened to leave the trenches if they were not
relieved, but the difficulty seems to have been smoothed over though there
was no relief until July 8. It is interesting to note that the divisions receiving
regiments when the 222d was disbanded were all second-class units.

223d Division.

COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918
[36]
Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.
Infantry. 67. 144. 67. 144. 67. 144.
   173. 173. 173.
   29 Ers. 29 Ers. 29 Ers.
Cavalry. 2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.
(2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.).
2 Sqn. 3 Res. Drag.
Rgt.
Artillery. 280 F. A. Rgt. Art. Command: (z) Art. Command:
   280 F. A. Rgt. 280 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
343 Pion. Co. (223) Pion. Btn.: 5 Co. 23 Pions.
   5 Co. 23 Pions. 343 Pion. Co.
   343 Pion. Co. 433 T. M. Co.
   433 T. M. Co. 223 Tel. Detch.
   223 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
232 Ambulance Co. 232 Ambulance Co.
   164 Field Hospital. 164 Field Hospital.
   170 Field Hospital. 176 Field Hospital.
   176 Field Hospital. Vet. Hospital.
   Vet. Hospital.
Transport. M. T. Col. M. T. Col.
36.  Composition at the time of dissolution, October, 1918.

HISTORY.
(144th Infantry Regiment: 16th Corps District—Lorraine. 173d Infantry
Regiment: 16th Corps District—Lorraine. 29th Ersatz Regiment: 14th Corps
District—Grand Duchy of Baden.)
1916.
The 223d Division was concentrated at Mulhousen at the beginning of
October, 1916. Its regiments formerly belonged to other divisions. The
144th Infantry Regiment was taken from the 3d Division on the Verdun
front; the 173d from the 34th Division, then at Thiaumont; the 29th Ersatz
from the 39th Bavarian Reserve Division, on the Lorraine front.
1. Entraining at Mulhousen on October 26, 1916, the 223d Division was
transferred to the north by way of Sarrelouis-Treves-Aix la Chapelle-
Louvain-Brussels-Valenciennes, and detrained north of Cambrai on October
28. During the night of November 11–12 it came to the Ancre front (Serre-
Grandcourt) and lost heavily there.
2. Relieved about November 25, it was sent to rest in the area east of
Cambrai. Elements of the 173d Infantry Regiment were sent on detached
service south of Bapaume (Ligny-Tilloy).
1917.
Champagne .
1. At the end of January, 1917, the 223d Division left the Cambrai area for
Champagne. It occupied the sector north of Rheims (Witry les Rheims,
March and April).
2. About April 27 it was engaged south of Nauroy at Mont Cornillet and lost
heavily between April 30 and May 8.

Galicia .
3. Withdrawn from the Champagne front about May 18, the 223d Division
was transferred to Galicia. (Itinerary: Amagne (May 21)-Sedan-Thionville-
Sarrebruecken-Frankfort-Leipzig-Breslau-Cracow-Lemberg.) It detrained at
Zloczow, May 26.
4. At the beginning of July it opposed the Russian offensive in the vicinity
of Brzezany; on July 18, it took part in the Austro-German counterattack
and marched in the direction of Husiatyn, which it reached on the 30th and
remained in line there until the middle of December. It was sent in reserve
on this date, and prepared to leave for the Western Front, borrowing men
from the regiments of the 83d Division.
RECRUITING.
The 223d Division was recruited from Westphalia and the Rhine Province so
far as concerns the 144th and 173d Infantry Regiments. The 29th Ersatz
Regiment came from the Grand Duchy of Baden.
VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE.
The 223d Division may be considered good.
1918.
Battle of Picardy .
1. The division rested in a camp at Sissonne until March 19, after which it
was railed to La Fere, arriving there on March 21.
2. On the second day of the attack it was engaged near Tergnier-Chauny
and advanced to the Guiscard region by the 24th. Shortly after its
withdrawal from Guiscard (25th) it took over the Morlincourt-Appilly sector
on the Oise (east of Noyon) and held it until May 1.

East of Oise.
3. It rested near Guiscard during the first half of May. On the 15th it was
engaged in front of Noyon (Larbroye-Mont Renaud-Pont l’Eveque) until the
30th. It took part in the Oise offensive of June, crossing the river and
advancing in the Bois de Carlepont in the direction of Caisnes and Cuts. It
established itself on the line Bailley-Tracy le Val-Oise and held that sector
until the French attack of August 18.
Oise-Aisne.
4. The French attack of the 18th threw the division back on Salency. It was
relieved on the 22d and railed to Anizy le Chateau the same day. From
there it was taken to north of Soissons and reengaged on the 29th on the
line Chauvigny-Juvigny. In these two engagements the division lost 688
prisoners.
5. The division had lost heavily in March and in the August fighting. Its
morale was poor. The authority of the officers was low and desertions were
frequent. As a result the division was dissolved in September. Its effectives
were turned into the 52d, 103d, and 115th Divisions.
VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE.
The division was rated as third class. Prior to the March offensive it had
been regarded a good division.

224th Division.

COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918
Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.
Infantry. 19 Ldw. 216. 19 Ldw. 216. 19 Ldw.
   61 Ldw. 61 Ldw. 61 Ldw.
   429 Ldw. 429 Ldw. 429 Ldw.
Cavalry. (?) Sqn. 10 Mounted
Jag. Rgt.
4 Sqn. 10 Mounted
Jag. Rgt.
Artillery. 284 F. A. Rgt. 224 Art. Command: 224 Art. Command:
   284 F. A. Rgt. 284 F. A. Rgt.
    795 Light Am. Col.
    1015 Light Am. Col.
    1029 Light Am. Col.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
224 Pion. Btn.: 423 Pion. Btn.:
   2 Co. 27 Pions. 2 Co. 27 Pions.
   434 T. M. Co. 3 Landst. Co. 9 C.
Dist. Pions.
   Tel. Detch. 251 Searchlight
Section.
    224 Signal Command:
    224 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
234 Ambulance Co. 234 Ambulance Co.
   181 Field Hospital. 336 Field Hospital.
   330 Field Hospital. 324 Field Hospital.
   324 Vet. Hospital.
Transport. 794 M. T. Col.
   795 M. T. Col.
Attached. 1 Landst. Pion. Co. (8
C. Dist.).

HISTORY.
(429th Landwehr: 3d Corps District—Brandenburg. 19th Landwehr: 5th
Corps District—Posen. 61st Landwehr: 17th Corps District—West Prussia.)
1916.
Russia.
1. Upon its formation the 224th Division appeared on the Eastern Front
about October, 1916.
2. At this time it was near the 31st Division, north of Lake Narotch.
1917.
Volhynia -Sviniouki .
1. At the beginning of February, 1917, the composition of the 224th
Division appeared to be as follows: 19th Landwehr Regiment taken from
the 18th Landwehr Division; 61st Landwehr Regiment, from the 85th
Landwehr Division, and the 429th Landwehr Regiment, a new formation
(1916).
2. The 224th Division then occupied the sector of Sviniouki in Volhynia. It
remained there during the entire year of 1917, during the latter months
furnishing important replacements to the Western Front, to such a degree
that in November the companies of the 429th Landwehr did not have more
than 100 men left (Russian interrogation).
RECRUITING.
The 224th Division was recruited from Brandenburg and the eastern
Provinces of the empire.

VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE.
The division was on the Russian front from its formation and was of
mediocre combat value.
In December, 1917, in Volhynia, 50 men of the youngest classes were taken
from each company of the 429th Landwehr Regiment to be sent to the
Flanders front.
In January, 1918, the companies of the 61st Landwehr Regiment were
composed of men of the Landsturm. (Prisoner’s statement, Jan. 13.)
1918.
Volhynia .
At the beginning of March the division left the Sviniouki region and went via
Pinsk to Gomel.
Ukraine .
2. Toward the end of April the division was identified in the Vorojva region
(southwest of Koursk). On the 9th of September the division was identified
a little farther to the north in the Delgorod region.
Woevre .
3. On September 29 the division was relieved (probably by the 45th
Landwehr Division) and, entraining at Sadtowo, traveled via Kubiantz-
Kharkov-Kiev-Kovel-Kattovitz-Dresden-Frankfort on the Main-Saarbrueken-
Metz-Batilly, where it detrained on October 12. Resting here until the 16th,
it marched via Bruville-Mars la Tour-Chambley and relieved the 88th
Division during the night of the 16th–17th south of Dampvitoux. The
division was identified by prisoners on November 7 here and does not seem
to have been withdrawn before the armistice.

VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE.
The division was a very poor one. About the middle of the summer the best
men were chosen to be sent to the Western Front. They were paraded
before the commanding general and when they reached the place where he
was standing they dropped their guns and went back to the caserne. Later
when the whole division was to come to the west, the men were far from
satisfied, not being entirely consoled when they were informed that they
were to enter a quiet sector.

225th Division.

COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918
[37]
Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.
Infantry. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 18 Res. 5 Ers. 373.
   217 Res. 217 Res. 18 Res.
   373. 373. 217 Res.
Cavalry. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt. 3 Sqn. 13 Uhlan Rgt.
Artillery. 225 Art. Command: 225 Art. Command:
   47 F. A. Rgt. 47 F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
(225) Pion. Btn.: 259 Pion. Co.
   259 Pion. Co. 413 T. M. Co.
   344 Pion. Co. 225 Tel. Detch.
   413 T. M. Co.
   Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
259 Ambulance Co. 240 Ambulance Co.
   155 Field Hospital. 259 Ambulance Co.
   172 Field Hospital. 155 Field Hospital.
   265 Vet. Hospital. Vet. Hospital.
Transport.   M. T. Col.
37.  Composition at the time of the dissolution, September, 1918.

HISTORY.
(18th Reserve: 18th Corps Division—East Prussia. 217th Reserve: 7th Corps
District—Westphalia. 373d Infantry Regiment: 1st Corps District—East
Prussia.)
1916.
The 225th Division, including the 18th Reserve Infantry Regiment (from the
1st Reserve Division), the 217th Reserve Infantry Regiment (from the 47th
Reserve Division), and the 373d Infantry Regiment (from the 10th
Landwehr Division), was formed on the Eastern Front in the vicinity of
Wladimir-Volynski about September, 1916.
Roumania -Transylvania .
1. In November, 1916, the 225th Division was transferred to the Roumanian
Carpathians. It was there in December in the valley of the Uz.
1917.
Roumania .
1. During the first half of 1917 the 225th Division occupied the calm sectors
in the vicinity of Uz (Hills 1031 and 1640).
2. In July the 373d Infantry Regiment was transferred to the valley of the
Putna to withstand the Russo-Roumanian offensive. The division took part
in the Austro-German counterattack and established its positions near Ocna
in September and October.
France .

3. Relieved about November 11, it went to Bereczk, where it entrained on
the 18th for the Western Front. (Itinerary: Kronstadt (Brasso)-Budapest-
Vienna-Munich-Carlsruhe-Sarrebruecken.) It detrained on November 25 at
Vallieres-Vantoux, near Metz, and from there was transferred to the vicinity
of Vigneulles (Cote de Meuse).
Cotes de Meuse.
4. On December 4–5, it took over the sector of Chevalierswood, south of
Vaux les Palameix-Seuzey.
RECRUITING.
Two regiments were drawn from East Prussia (18th Reserve and 372d
Infantry Regiment), the 217th Reserve from Westphalia.
VALUE—1917 ESTIMATE.
The 225th Division which comprised drafts from Baden, Alsace, Westphalia,
East Prussia, and the Rhine was not homogeneous and was not considered
as a fighting division.
The 18th Reserve Regiment had a bad reputation. On January 6, 1917, it
refused to attack at Hill 1298 in Hungary. (Interrogation of prisoners Feb. 3
and Mar. 17, 1918.)
The division included a large number of Poles. However, men of the young
classes gradually replaced the older men, who still made up a large part of
the division in 1917; consequently, the combat value of the division may
have improved.
1918.
1. The division held the Woevre sector until the beginning of May. It
entrained at Jeandelize about May 15 and was railed by Sedan, Givet,
Dmant, Namur, Charleroi, Mons, and Cambrai. It detrained near Peronne
and marched toward the Avre front by Chaulnes, Rosieres en Santerre.

Battle of the Santerre .
2. It was engaged north of Moreuil (east of the Villers aux Erables-
Thennes) on May 22. The Allied attack struck the division and threw it back
on Beaufort, losing 2,358 prisoners. It was relieved on the 10th and rested
15 days. Reengaged on the 25th east of Albert (Contalmaison, Montauban)
the division again lost heavily. It was withdrawn on the 30th.
3. After its withdrawal the division was dissolved to the profit of the 1st
Reserve Division and 2d Division.
VALUE—1918 ESTIMATE.
The division was rated as third class. In the August fighting in Picardy it did
not make a strong resistance. In the two engagements in August the
division lost 3,593 prisoners.

226th Division.

COMPOSITION.
1916 1917 1918
[38]
Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.Brigade.Regiment.
Infantry. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw. 5 Ldw. 2 Ldw.
   9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. 9 Ldw. Rgt.
   439. 427. 427.
Cavalry. 1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag.
Rgt.
1 Sqn. 4 Mounted Jag.
Rgt.
Artillery. 64 Res. F. A. Rgt. (?) Art. Command:
    64 Res. F. A. Rgt.
Engineers
and
Liaisons.
(226) Pion. Btn.: 2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions.
   2 Ers. Co. 18 Pions.Searchlight Section.
   (?) T. M. Co. 430 T. M. Co.
   26 Searchlight Co. 226 Tel. Detch.
   226 Tel. Detch.
Medical and
Veterinary.
257 Ambulance Co. 257 Ambulance Co.
   Field Hospital. Field Hospital.
   262 Vet. Hospital. 262 Vet. Hospital.
Transport. 471 M. T. Col. 635 M. T. Col.
38.  Composition at the time of dissolution, May, 1918.

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Fluid Mechanics And Fluid Power Volume 4 Krishna Mohan Singh

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