Food And Livelihood Securities In Changing Climate Of The Himalaya Suresh Chand Rai

Food And Livelihood Securities In Changing Climate Of The Himalaya Suresh Chand Rai
Food And Livelihood Securities In Changing Climate Of The Himalaya Suresh Chand Rai
Food And Livelihood Securities In Changing Climate Of The Himalaya Suresh Chand Rai

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5. Human-Environment Interactions 9
Suresh Chand Rai
Food
and Livelihood
Securities in
Changing Climate
of the Himalaya

6. Human-Environment Interactions
Volume 9
Series Editor
Emilio F. Moran, Michigan State University, Bloomington, IN, USA

7. The
role of human interactions in the earth system. It welcomes titles on sustainability,
climate change and societal impacts, global environmental change, tropical defor-
estation, reciprocal interactions of population-environment-consumption, large-scale
monitoring of changes in vegetation, reconstructions of human interactions at local
and regional scales, ecosystem processes, ecosystem services, land use and land
cover change, sustainability science, environmental policy, among others. The series
publishes authored and edited volumes, as well as textbooks. It is intended for envi-
ronmentalists, anthropologists, historical, cultural and political ecologists, political
geographers, and land change scientists.
Human-environment interaction provides a framework that brings together schol-
arship sharing both disciplinary depth and interdisciplinary scope to examine past, present, and future social and environmental change in different parts of the world.
The topic is very relevant since human activities (e.g. the burn of fossil fuels, fishing, agricultural activities, among others) are so pervasive that they are capable of altering the earth system in ways that could change the viability of the very processes upon
which human and non-human species depend.

8. Suresh Chand Rai
Food and Livelihood
Securities in Changing
Climate of the Himalaya

9. Suresh Chand Rai
Department of Geography
Delhi School of Economics
University of Delhi
Delhi, India
ISSN 2214-2339 ISSN 2452-1744 (electronic)
Human-Environment Interactions
ISBN 978-3-031-22816-2 ISBN 978-3-031-22817-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22817-9
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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10. Preface
Climate variability/change is apparent from the observations of an upsurge in extreme
weather events, average global temperature, melting of ice and snow, coastal flooding,
and storm surge. It is a worldwide problem, and the Himalaya is subjected to it,
due to its exceptional geophysical and hydro-climatic conditions. Climate change
is expected to alter the existing vulnerability profile of the Himalaya. The Eastern
Himalayan region of India is harboring the largest number of endemic and endangered
species and is one of the significant biodiversity “hotspots” of the Indian subcontinent.
Livelihood in the villages of the Himalayan region mainly depends on subsis-
tence farming. “These farming systems have developed over the centuries as a comparative advantage to other livelihood options in the mountain areas.” There-
fore, in the Sikkim Himalaya, upland farming is a traditional integrated land-use system comprising forest, agriculture, horticulture, agroforestry, bee farming, seri- culture, poultry farming, and animal husbandry which will not only add to agricultural
production but also improve the quality of food. Since there have been a lot of spatio- temporal variations in agriculture, there is a necessity for in-depth research in this direction. Therefore, the Sikkim Himalaya has been selected for the present study
due to its heterogeneous geographical locations.
This study is constructed on both primary and secondary databases. The secondary
information was attained from published and unpublished records of the government
and semi-government organizations and NGOs. The primary data was collected from
the household surveys along an altitudinal gradient. The data have been processed and
analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques and presented in tabular, diagram-
matic, and map forms using GIS software. The whole study has been organized into
eight chapters. Chapter
1 describes the context, statement of the problem, review of
literature, objectives, hypothesis, methods of data collection and significance of the study, etc. Chapter
2 deals with the biophysical and socio-economic characteristics of
the area. Chapter 3 deals with climate variability and farmers’ perception. Chapter 4
is about spatio-temporal change delineation and forecasting of snow/ice-covered areas. Agricultural systems and agrobiodiversity have been described in Chap.
5.
Chapter 6 is about the analysis of food availability. Chapter 7 describes an analysis
v

11. vi
of livelihood security. Conservation of agricultural and sustainable livelihood has
been discussed in Chap. 8. Based on the critical analysis of the facts and figures in
the previous chapters, a summary and suggestions were given in the last.
I express my sincere thanks to the Director, G. B. Pant National Institute of
Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (An Autonomous Institute
under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of
India) who has generously sanctioned this major project for me. I am thankful to Dr.
R. C. Sundriyal, and Dr. G. C. S. Negi, the Scientists In-charge, of the ERP Project
for their continuous support during the project period. I also express my thanks to the
Head, Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi for
providing facilities. Special thanks are due to Dr. Prabuddh Kumar Mishra, Assistant
professor, Department of Geography, Shivaji College, University of Delhi for his
continuous help and support.
The entire fieldwork and collection of primary and secondary data have been done
by project fellows, especially Miss Nikita Roy Mukherjee and Mr. Aman Rai. I place on record my thanks and appreciation for their painstaking study villages where they
stayed for a considerable period and collected primary and secondary data. I am also thankful for my Ph.D. Scholars Dr. Pawan Kumar and Mr. Aakash Upadhyay for
their continuous support to finish this task. A special thanks to all the farmers who supported us during fieldwork.
Delhi, India Prof. Suresh Chand Rai

12. Contents
1 Introduction...................................................1
1.1 The Context...............................................1
1.2 Definition of Problem.......................................4
1.3 An Overview..............................................6
1.4 Hypothesis and Objectives...................................9
1.4.1 Hypothesis..........................................9
1.4.2 Objectives..........................................9
1.5 Methodological Approach...................................9
1.5.1 Data Collection......................................10
1.6 The Study Area............................................11
1.7 Significance of the Study....................................11
1.8 Structure of the Book.......................................12
References.....................................................12
2 Biophysical and Socio-economic Characteristics...................17
2.1 Background...............................................17
2.2 Physical Characteristics.....................................18
2.2.1 Location and Extent..................................18
2.2.2 Topography.........................................19
2.2.3 Slope...............................................21
2.2.4 Drainage Pattern.....................................21
2.2.5 Geology............................................21
2.2.6 Soils...............................................25
2.2.7 Climate.............................................27
2.2.8 Natural Vegetation...................................29
2.3 Cultural Characteristics.....................................30
2.3.1 History.............................................30
2.3.2 Demographic Characteristics..........................31
2.4 Infrastructure Facilities......................................36
2.4.1 Education...........................................36
2.4.2 Health..............................................38
vii

13. viii
2.4.3 Transport and Communication.........................38
2.4.4 Banking Facilities....................................39
2.4.5 Trade Flows.........................................39
2.4.6 Hydropower Projects.................................40
2.5 Land-Use/Cover Analysis...................................40
References.....................................................42
3 Climate Variability and Farmers’ Perception.....................43
3.1 Introduction...............................................43
3.2 Materials and Methods......................................44
3.2.1 IMD Data...........................................44
3.2.2 Questionnaire Survey.................................45
3.3 Results and Discussion......................................45
3.3.1 Assessment of Climate Variability......................45
3.3.2 Farmers’ Perceptions and Adaptive Capacity.............49
3.3.3 Policy Initiatives to Raise Adaptive Capacity.............56
3.4 Conclusion................................................58
References.....................................................58
4 Spatio-temporal Change Delineation and Forecasting
of Snow/Ice-Covered Areas......................................61
4.1 Introduction...............................................61
4.2 Materials and Methods......................................62
4.2.1 Data Source.........................................62
4.2.2 Methods............................................63
4.3 Results and Discussion......................................66
4.3.1 Snow Cover Index (S3)...............................66
4.3.2 Normalized Difference Snow Thermal Index (NDSTI)....69
4.3.3 Perennial Snow Index................................69
4.3.4 Time Series Analysis.................................72
4.3.5 Error Matrix.........................................73
4.4 Conclusion................................................74
References.....................................................76
5 Agriculture System and Agrobiodiversity.........................79
5.1 Introduction...............................................79
5.2 Agriculture Scenario of Sikkim...............................80
5.3 Agroecosystems of Sikkim...................................81
5.4 Analysis of Agrobiodiversity.................................83
5.4.1 Crop Diversity in Sikkim..............................83
5.5 Analysis of Cropping Patterns................................87
5.5.1 Food Crops.........................................87
5.5.2 Non-food Crops.....................................92
5.6 Cropping Pattern in Sampled Households......................106
5.6.1 Changes in Cropping Pattern..........................107
5.6.2 Farming Systems and Practices........................108

14. Contents
5.6.3 Functions of Farming Practices........................108
5.6.4 Agricultural Inputs...................................109
5.6.5 Reason Behind the Changing Pattern in the Yield.........110
5.7 Crop Diversification........................................110
5.7.1 The Pattern of Crop Diversification.....................111
5.8 Conclusion................................................114
References.....................................................115
6 Analysis of Food Availability....................................117
6.1 Introduction...............................................117
6.2 Methods..................................................118
6.2.1 Gross Food Availability...............................119
6.2.2 Net Food Availability.................................119
6.2.3 Carrying Capacity of Land............................119
6.3 Results and Discussion......................................120
6.3.1 Pattern of Consumption...............................120
6.4 Conclusion................................................123
References.....................................................124
7 Analysis of Livelihood Security..................................125
7.1 Introduction...............................................125
7.2 Methodology..............................................126
7.2.1 Logistic Regression Model............................128
7.2.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression.......................129
7.3 Results and Discussion......................................130
7.3.1 Agricultural Diversities for Livelihood..................130
7.3.2 Range of Livelihood Options..........................133
7.3.3 Factors Affecting the Livelihood Options................137
7.3.4 Econometric Analysis of Factors Affecting
the Livelihood Options................................137
7.4 Conclusion................................................142
References.....................................................143
8 Conservation of Agriculture for Sustainable Livelihood............145
8.1 Introduction...............................................145
8.2 SWOT Analysis for Conservation Agriculture..................147
8.3 Adoption of Conservation Agriculture.........................148
8.3.1 Minimum Mechanical Soil Disturbance.................149
8.3.2 Permanent Soil Cover with Crop Residues and Live
Mulches............................................151
8.3.3 Diversified Crop Rotation and Intercropping.............152
8.3.4 Organic Farming.....................................152
8.3.5 Soil Conservation....................................154
8.3.6 Integrated Pest Control and Management (IPCM).........159

15. x
8.4 Adoption of Conservation of Water...........................160
8.4.1 Low-Cost Micro-rainwater Harvesting Technology.......161
8.4.2 Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting.........................162
8.4.3 Efficient Irrigation Method............................163
8.5 Capacity Building Program..................................164
References.....................................................165
Summary.........................................................167
Bibliography......................................................175

16. List of Figures
Fig. 1.1Four dimensions of food security (after Gunaratne et al. 2021)...5
Fig. 2.1Location map of Sikkim Himalaya.........................19
Fig. 2.2Elevation map of Sikkim Himalaya.........................20
Fig. 2.3Slope map of Sikkim Himalaya............................22
Fig. 2.4Aspect map of Sikkim Himalaya...........................23
Fig. 2.5Drainage network and order of two watersheds of Teesta
basin in Sikkim Himalaya.................................24
Fig. 2.6Geological map of Sikkim Himalaya........................25
Fig. 2.7Lineaments map of Sikkim Himalaya.......................26
Fig. 2.8Soil map of Sikkim Himalaya.............................27
Fig. 2.9Land-use/cover map of Sikkim............................41
Fig. 3.1Agro-ecological zone map of Sikkim.......................46
Fig. 3.2Average annual maximum, average annual minimum,
and average annual temperature recorded at Gangtok
from 1985 to 2016.......................................48
Fig. 3.3Mean monthly precipitation data of Gangtok
from 1985 to 2017.......................................49
Fig. 3.4Average yearly precipitation data from 1985 to 2017...........49
Fig. 4.1Flow diagram showing the methodological approach...........64
Fig. 4.2The change in the extracted snow area applying
the S3 index in 2008.....................................67
Fig. 4.3The change in the extracted snow area applying the S3 index
in 2018................................................68
Fig. 4.4a
surrounding the snow-covered areas showing a grayscale
image of NDSTI.
through NDSTI surrounding snowy areas in Sikkim
surrounding the snow-covered areas reclassified image
for the year 2018........................................70
xi

17. xii
Fig. 4.5a
b
of the year 2017.........................................71
Fig. 4.6The general trend line based on the acquired areal extent
values of snow cover extracted from the S3 index from 1998
to 2018................................................73
Fig. 4.7The observed and forecasting trend line of snow cover
extent from the year 1998 to 2030..........................73
Fig. 8.1SWOT analysis.........................................148

18. List of Tables
Table 2.1Dominant soil groups prevalent over the physiographic
units in Sikkim Himalaya...............................28
Table 2.2Macro-ecological features of Sikkim Himalaya.............29
Table 2.3Population density of Sikkim Himalaya, 2011..............31
Table 2.4Sex ratio in Sikkim Himalaya, 2011......................32
Table 2.5Literacy rates (%) of Sikkim Himalaya, 1981–2011.........32
Table 2.6Religious (%) aspect of Sikkim Himalaya.................34
Table 2.7Percent contribution of different sectors to Sikkim’s GDP....37
Table 2.8Sectoral real growth rate of gross state domestic product
in Sikkim (%)........................................38
Table 2.9Occupational structure of Sikkim (%).....................38
Table 2.10Educational facilities in Sikkim, 2015–16.................38
Table 2.11Road network in Sikkim................................39
Table 2.12The percent of land under forest cover in Sikkim, 2015–16...40
Table 2.13The percent of other land-use/land covers area in Sikkim.....41
Table 3.1Trends of annual temperatures (°C) and precipitation
(mm) at Gangtok (1985–2016) using the Mann–Kendall
trend test and Sen’s slope estimator.......................49
Table 3.2Socio-economic status of the respondents.................51
Table 3.3Farmer’s perception of climate change....................51
Table 3.4Occurrence of climatic hazard...........................52
Table 3.5Proxy questions regarding climate change.................53
Table 3.6Adaptive strategies reported by the farmers................54
Table 4.1Details of satellite data acquired.........................62
Table 4.2The calculated S3 index values for the snow
and ice-covered regions of the respected years..............67
Table 4.3Error matrix table showing 3 different sample class
values for PSI........................................74
Table 4.4Accuracy assessment values of three different classes
for the PSI...........................................75
Table 5.1Agroecosystems of Sikkim Himalaya.....................82
xiii

19. xiv
Table 5.2Food and horticultural crops cultivated in the Sikkim
Himalaya............................................84
Table 5.3The concentration of food crops in Sikkim (net sown area)...87
Table 5.4The concentration of non-food crops in Sikkim (net sown
area)................................................93
Table 5.5Major crops grown in sampled villages...................106
Table 5.6Change in cropping pattern.............................107
Table 5.7Types of farming systems and practices...................108
Table 5.8Functions of farming practices..........................109
Table 5.9Agricultural inputs....................................109
Table 5.10Reason behind the changing pattern of yield...............110
Table 5.11Comparative study of crop diversification index
in different districts of Sikkim, 2015–16..................112
Table 5.12Crop diversification index of food and cash crops
in different districts of Sikkim, 2015–16..................113
Table 6.1District-wise consumption units (2015–16)................120
Table 6.2District-wise availability of giga calories of food crops,
2015–16.............................................121
Table 6.3District-wise carrying capacity of land in calorific value,
2015–16.............................................121
Table 6.4District-wise availability of food crops in monetary value
(billion rupees), 2015–16...............................122
Table 6.5District-wise carrying capacity of land in monetary value,
2015–16.............................................122
Table 6.6District-wise available consumption of giga calories
2015–16.............................................122
Table 6.7District-wise availability of monetary value, 2015–16........123
Table 7.1Socio-economic information of surveyed households
in different ecological zones of the study area, 2019.........127
Table 7.2Summary of the different variables considered in the study...131
Table 7.3Agricultural diversities of the households ( .........132
Table 7.4Sources of livelihood/income for the people of Sikkim
( ............................................134
Table 7.5Options of livelihood and numbers of respondents
( ............................................137
Table 7.6Logit regression for livelihood choices
between agricultural and non-agricultural activities
as different strategies for farmers in Sikkim................139
Table 7.7Multinomial logit regression for livelihood choices
among agriculture, non-agriculture, and both as different
strategies for farmers in Sikkim..........................140
Table 8.1Important factors of agricultural development and their
present status in different districts of Sikkim...............150

20. Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The Context
Climate  change  threatens  people  with  “food  and  water  scarcity,  increased  flooding, 
extreme  heat,  more  disease,  and  economic  loss.”  The  World  Health  Organization 
(WHO)  calls  climate  change  the  utmost  threat  to  global  health  in  the  twenty-first 
century.  Climate  change  is  likely  to  deteriorate  the  condition  in  the  major  parts  of 
the  world  which  have  already  faced  the  serious  problem  of  food  insecurity.  Higher 
rainfall  variability  has  substantial  consequences  for  food  safety,  the  livelihoods  of 
millions  of  people,  and  the  migration  of  decisions  of  vulnerable  households.  Climate 
variability/change,  directly  and  indirectly,  influences  several  facets  of  food  secu-
rity,  primarily  in  the  livestock  and  farming  sectors.  The  farming  sector  is  the  key 
source  of  income  and  engagement  for  about  70%  of  the  world’s  poor  in  the  country-
side.  Though,  the  livestock  sector  also  contributes  substantially  to  climate  change, 
accounting  for  18%  of  greenhouse  gases,  while  also  being  a  prime  source  of  soil  and 
water  pollution  (
https://datos.bancompundial.org).  Though  the  connection  between 
climate  change  and  food  security  is  complex,  most  studies  gave  emphasis  only  on  food availability.  Its  practical  impacts  also  were  reported  on  agrobiodiversity,  ecology, 
hydrology,  and  agriculture  in  numerous  studies  (Chakrabarty 
2016;  Salinger  et  al. 
1997;  Salinger 1994).  An  overall  increase  in  global  temperature  during  the  twen-
tieth  century  has  been  reported  in  various  studies  (IPCC 2013).  Interannual  climate 
changeability  has  also  been  noticed  in  several  parts  of  the  globe.  In  the  twentieth century,  the  overall  worldwide  terrestrial  precipitation  has  augmented  by  about  2% (Hulme  et  al. 
1998),  but  this  is  not  constant  temporally  or  spatially.  Changes  in  rainfall 
and  temperature  pattern  can  simply  change  the  hydrological  cycle  and  environmental processes  (Feng  et  al. 
2016).  According  to  IPCC  (2012)  report  the  timing,  intensity,
©  The  Author(s),  under  exclusive  license  to  Springer  Nature  Switzerland  AG  2023 
S.  C.  Rai, 
Human-Environment  Interactions  9, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22817-9_1 
1

21. 2
and  frequency  of  extreme  climatic  conditions  and  weather  variability  are  the  results 
of  changing  climate.  The  occurrence  and  intensity  of  drought,  flooding  events,  and 
heat  stress  are  projected  to  increase,  and  these  changes  will  create  environmental, 
agricultural,  and  economical  challenges  for  local  communities  all  over  the  world. 
Apart  from  the  environmental  impacts  of  climate  variability,  its  economic  cost  is 
also  a  foremost  task.  The  average  yearly  damage  caused  by  climate  variability  and 
extreme  events  has  increased  about  8  times  between  the  1960s  and  1990s,  globally 
the  cost  of  extreme  events  between  1980  and  2004  was  approximately  1.4  trillion 
US  dollars  (Mills 
2005).  Cost  varies  from  region  to  region  based  on  the  climate, 
biophysical  status,  development  level,  vulnerability  level,  etc.  However,  the  burden 
is  more  on  developing  and  less  economically  developed  countries  as  they  are  more 
susceptible  to  the  paraphernalia  of  climate  variation  (IPCC 2014). 
Climate  change  and  intense  events  also  influence  agricultural  yield,  quality,  and 
quantity.  Response  of  protein  content  in  crops  to  vagaries  in  the  mean  annual  change- ability  of  temperature  and  rainfall  has  been  observed  (Porter  and  Semenov 
2005; 
Hurkman  et  al. 2009).  Climate  change-induced  climate  variability  will  certainly 
increase  extreme  weather  conditions  and  severely  impact  agricultural  production.  Agrobiodiversity  is  an  outcome  of  both  natural  selection  and  human  interventions 
over  millennia.  It  has  been  developed  with  the  interactions  between  the  environments  and  genetic  resources,  and  by  management  systems  and  practices  used  by  farmers  (GIZ 
2015).  Various  research  has  shown  the  effects  of  climate  variability  on  agro-
biodiversity,  quality,  and  quantity  of  agricultural  production.  The  impact  of  climate  variability  has  been  observed  in  agriculture  in  India  too,  it  is  estimated  that  surface  warming  and  change  in  precipitation  may  drop  agricultural  yield  by  30%  by  2050 
(Kapur  et  al. 
2009).  Shift  and  crop  reduction  have  already  been  observed  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  (Ramulu 1996;  Boopen  and  Vinesh 2011). 
Climate  variability  is  a  foremost  apprehension  in  the  Himalayan  region  owing  to 
its  possible  effects  on  the  ecology,  environment,  and  economy  of  the  area.  Glaciers  in  the  Himalayan  region  cover  about  17%  of  the  global  mountain  area.  The  entire  area  of  the  Himalayan  glaciers  is  35,110  km
2
.  The  overall  ice  preserve  of  these  glaciers 
is  3735  km
3
,  which  is  equivalent  to  3250  km
3 
of  clean  water.  Himalaya  is  the  source 
of  the  major  nine  rivers  of  Asia,  i.e.,  Brahmaputra,  Ganges,  Mekong,  Irrawaddy,  Yangtze,  Trim,  and  Yellow,  and  is  the  lifeline  for  500  million  peoples  of  the  region, 
or  around  10%  of  the  total  regional  population  (IPCC 
2007).  The  glaciers  in  the 
Himalayan  area  are  said  to  be  melting  faster  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  planet.  For  example,  the  Gangotri  glacier  has  retreated  at  a  rate  more  than  three  times  faster 
in  recent  years  than  it  did  in  the  previous  200  years.  On  the  Tibetan  Plateau,  the  glacier  area  has  shrunk  by  4.5%  in  the  last  20  years  and  by  7%  in  the  last  40  years 
(CNCCC 
2007).  In  the  Himalayan  area,  increased  glacier  retreat  has  resulted  in  a 
broader  range  of  glacial  dangers  known  as  glacial  lake  outburst  floods  (GLOFs).  Nearly  200  possibly  dangerous  glacial  lakes  in  the  region  might  create  devastating 
floods  that  could  wipe  out  all  means  of  subsistence  in  one  fell  swoop  (Bajracharya  et  al. 
2007;  Aggarwal  et  al. 2017).

22. 1.1 The Context 3
The  effect  of  climate  variation  has  become  very  apparent  in  the  Himalayan  region. 
Sikkim  Himalaya  is  not  an  exception  where  climate  change  is  badly  disturbing  agri-
culture  and  related  ecosystems.  Environmental  degradation  in  the  Himalayan  region 
because  of  overuse  and  misuse  of  various  natural  resources  is  well  recognized.  The 
mountains  of  the  Himalayas  which  make  vital  contributions  to  the  ecological  sustain-
ability  of  the  region  are  threatened  by  increasing  population,  open  grazing,  defor-
estation  and  loss  of  biomass  cover,  and  overall  biodiversity.  Farm-based  activities  are 
important  livelihood  options  for  people  worldwide,  largely  depending  on  weather  and 
climate.  Agriculture  is  very  sensitive  to  variations  in  precipitation  and  temperature, 
and  the  destiny  of  the  local  communities  of  the  region  is  closely  tied  to  climate.  It  is 
self-evident  that  climate  change  will  have  significant  consequences  for  agriculture 
and  thereby  food  security.  Tiwari  and  Joshi  (
2012)  reported  that  the  farmers  have 
already  experienced  decreasing  water  supply  in  many  parts  of  the  Himalayas.  It  is 
also  experiential  that  the  carbon  on  the  earth’s  surface  and  in  the  atmosphere  due  to 
its  mobility  contributes  to  climate  change  (Scherr  and  Sthapit 2009).  Global  warming 
is  responsible  for  the  increase  of  the  world’s  average  annual  temperature  because  of 
greenhouse  gasses  (GHGs),  which  further  lead  to  climate  change.  A  dynamic  inter-
action  exists  between  various  biotic  (microbes,  flora,  and  fauna)  and  abiotic  (soil, 
water,  air)  elements  in  farming  operations,  and  any  disturbance  in  the  natural  balance 
may  impact  crop  productivity  through  damage  to  the  environment  (Rathore  and  Jasari 
2012).  Seasons  and  weather  are  becoming  increasingly  variable  and  extreme,  making 
it  difficult  for  the  farmer  to  decide  on  and  cultivate  a  specific  crop.  The  whole  agri- cultural  system  would  be  collapsed  if  climate  change  continues  (Harbinson 
2001; 
Lal 2001).  These  changes  are  not  only  a  potential  threat  to  food  security  but  also 
largely  determine  the  socio-economic  status  of  a  large  population  dependent  on  their  agricultural  livelihood.  The  accessibility  of  accurate  climatic  data  and  continuous  monitoring  has  improved  our  understanding  of  the  climate  arrangement  and  the 
features  affecting  climate  change.  However,  there  is  still  a  knowledge  and  data  gap  in  our  understanding  of  the  effects  of  climate  variability  on  agrobiodiversity. 
Mountain  farming  is  unsustainable  but  some  areas,  such  as  Ningnan  County  in 
China,  Ilam  district  in  Nepal,  and  H.P.  in  India,  have  experienced  a  speedy  change  because  of  the  adoption  and  implementation  of  environmentally  caring  and  mountain- specific  development  strategies.  The  mountain-specific  Research  and  Development, 
harnessing  the  comparative  advantages  of  high-value  cash  crops,  the  promotion  of  agro-based  industries,  and  off-farm  employment  are  the  focus  of  development  strate- gies  being  followed  in  these  parts  (Sharma  and  Sharma  1996).  The  ancient  cultivation 
of  the  large  cardamom  ( example  of  connecting  the  native  mountain  niche.  Large  cardamom  is  a  perennial 
high-value,  low-volume,  non-perishable  cash  crop  growing  beneath  the  forest  cover  on  marginal  and  barren  soils  and  is  a  hereditary  plant  of  the  Sikkim  Himalaya.  It  is  an  exceptional  example  of  the  ecological  and  economic  viability  of  a  traditional 
farming  system  based  on  indigenously  evolved  agroforestry  practices.  In  this  case,

23. 4
the  cash  crop  is  domesticated  and  then  developed  commercially  by  the  local  farming 
community.  The  net  result  has  been  the  availability  of  a  broader  range  and  a  higher 
quality  of  livelihood  options  leading  to  a  better  quality  of  life  (Partap 1995).  But  the 
question  remains  whether  agriculture  can  maintain  or  preferably  increase  produc-
tion  by  adapting  to  a  changing  climate.  The  most  recurrent  adaptive  measure  is  to 
introduce  new  crops,  change  the  dates  of  sowing  and  harvesting,  save  water  by  drip 
irrigation,  and  take  advantage  of  organic  fertilization  by  increasing  nitrogen  inputs 
to  fields  (Adams  et  al. 
1998;  Tol  et  al. 1998).  Such  adaptive  measures  will  have  a 
strong  influence  on  the  magnitude  of  estimated  climate  impacts  (Tol  et  al. 1998). 
Good  knowledge  of  the  issues  and  progressions  that  affect  farmers’  capability  to 
cope  with  and  adjust  to  seasonal  change  is  grave  to  the  development  of  acceptable, 
appropriate,  and  feasible  assistance  programs  (Below  et  al. 2015). 
Therefore,  a  good  understanding  of  climate  variability,  livelihood  options,  and 
factors  and  processes  contributing  to  agricultural  transformation  can  deliver  useful  policy  insights  for  devising  development  interventions  for  improving  the  standards  of  living  of  mountain  people  and  adaptive  measures  to  cope  with  the  changes.  The 
main  aim  of  the  study  is  to  develop  a  model  for  building  an  adaptive  system  to  climate  change  that  combines  local  tradition  and  indigenous  knowledge  with  up-to-
date  scientific  research  and  government  policies. 
1.2 Definition of Problem
The  World  Food  Summit  (1996)  defined  food  security  as:  “Food  security  exists  when  all  people,  at  all  times,  have  physical,  social  and  economic  access  to  sufficient,  safe  and  nutritious  food  which  meets  their  dietary  needs  and  food  preferences  for  an 
active  and  healthy  life.”  Bestowing  to  this,  there  are  four  main  elements  to  food  security,  i.e.,  food  availability,  access  to  food,  food  absorption,  and  stability,  only  the  first  is  routinely  addressed  in  simulation  studies  (Fig. 
1.1).  Hence,  adequate  food 
production  alone  is  not  enough  condition  for  a  country’s  food  security.  Food  security  is  one  of  the  foremost  apprehensions  linked  with  climate  change  that  affects  food  security  in  complex  ways.  The  Sustainable  Development  Goals  (SDGs)  aim  to  end 
hunger,  eradicate  poverty,  achieve  food  security,  and  improve  nutrition.  Food  security  continues  to  be  high  on  the  government  of  India’s  list  of  development  priorities  because  the  country’s  relatively  high  rates  of  economic  growth  have  not  to  a  reduction 
in  hunger  and  undernutrition.  About  twelve  Indian  states  fall  under  the  “Alarming”  category  of  the  “Global  Hunger  Index”  (Chakrabarty 
2016).  The  long-term  lessening 
in  the  prevalence  of  undernutrition  worldwide  has  reduced  since  2007,  because  of  “pressures  on  food  prices,  economic  volatilities,  extreme  climatic  events,  and  changes  in  diet,  among  other  factors”  (Wheeler  and  von  Braun 
2013).
Climate  change  is  becoming  one  of  Sikkim  Himalayas’  most  persistent  environ-
mental  issues.  Climate  change  is  already  influencing  biodiversity,  snow/ice  cover,  and  the  livelihood  assets  of  impoverished  and  vulnerable  groups,  according  to  evidence.

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