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1. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY   HAROLD O. GARAO, RCRIM

2.     The investigators could not rely on their memories in which photograph would serve as a sort of artificial memory for them. Remembering all the things they had examined or investigated would be impossible after several years before the case is presented in court. They need to preserve the things they had examined and investigated for future references and court presentation. INTRODUCTION:

3.   To provide the participants working knowledge on how to document/ preserve the crimes scene through photography, the basic operation of the SLR camera, the different techniques on how to take photograph on the different types of crime scene and the preparation of photographic evidence for court presentation.   LESSON GOAL:

4.   After this lesson, the participants will be able to: Define the different terms use in this lesson. Discuss the importance and uses of photography in crime investigation. Enumerate the different processes involved in photography. LESSON OBJECTIVES:

5.   After this lesson, the participants will be able to: Discuss the basic operation of a camera or the Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera and its accessories. Discuss the proper procedure on how to take a photograph of a crime scene, suspect and victim for identification. LESSON OBJECTIVES:

6.     Forensic – derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gather for public discussion. Forensic Photography – deals with the study of notion of photography, its application to law enforcement work and the preparation of photographs for court presentation.   Definition of Terms:

7.     Photograph – is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials (film and paper). Photography – is derived from the Greek words, “ phos ” or “photos” - which means “light” and “ grapho ” which means “writing” or “ graphia ” – to draw. Sir John F.W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot. - is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the aid of a camera, lens and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produce photograph. Definition of Terms:

8. Police Photography – is the application of the principles of photography in relation to the police work and in the administration of justice. Picture – it is a generic term refers to all kinds of formed image. Derived from the latin word “ pictura ” meaning “a painting” or “pictus” which means “painted one”. Negative – a material showing a negative(latent) photographic image on transparent material used for printing positive picture (photograph) as a result of chemical process.

9.     Camera – a light tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image; a means of holding a film to record the image/ and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is. Film – a cellulose tape embedded with sensitized solution capable of recording images thru light. Definition of Terms:

10. Infra-Red Photography – is the art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by the naked eye by means of infra-red light. Ultra-Violet Photography – is the art or process of photographing unseen objects by the naked eye with the use of ultra-violet rays and filters. Definition of Terms:

11.     Lens – a medium or system which converges or diverges light passing thru it to form images. Macro Photography – is photographing of object at greater that 1:1 ratio up to nine (9) times magnification. It is the making of enlarge copies of prints such as photographs of tampered serial number of firearms, engine number and chassis number of motor vehicle and the like. Definition of Terms:

12.     Micro Photography – is the art or process of photographing minutes objects and magnified by means of the microscope and enlarge from 10 times up. Mug-shot – is the process of taking photographs of the suspect/s in full length, half body, right and left side views, and two quarter views. To unidentified cadavers, include marks on the victim’s body especially tattoo/scar for identification. Definition of Terms:

13. Uses of photography For Personal Identification – is considered to be the first application of photography in police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system. For Communication – photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph. For Record Purposes – considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.

14. Uses of photography For Preservation – Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retained as is for a long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly. For Discovering and Proving – photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as: The use of Magnification Photomicrography – taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the physical evidence.

15. Photomicrography Photomacrography – taking a magnified(enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extend tube lens (macro lens) to the camera. Microphotography – is the process of reducing into a small strip of film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking. Macrophotography – used synonymously with photomacrograph

16. Telephotography – is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the long focus and telephoto lens. PROCESS PRODUCT Photomicrography Photomicrograph(shows minute detail) Photomacrography Photomacrograph (enlarge photograph) Microphotography Microphotograph (deduced image) Macrophotography Macrophotograph (image of far distance object)

17. For Court Exhibits – almost evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference as to where it came from. Evidence presented in court once accepted became knows as Exhibit. Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution. Crime Prevention – with the use of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring. Used of artificial light such as x-ray, ultra and infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone

18. Police Training – modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training as well as in other agencies. Reproducing and Copying – with the use of photography any number of reproductions of the evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original. Used of artificial light such as x-ray, ultra and infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone

19. Different views In photographing General View/Overview – taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows the direction and location of the crime scene.

20. Different views In photographing Medium or Mid-range View – is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.

21. Different views In photographing Close-up View – is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is designed to show the details of the crime.

22. Different views In photographing Extreme Close-up View – commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as photomacrography and photomicrography.

23. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY (1700) Camera Obscura – the forerunner of modern camera.

24. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY (1782) Johann Schulze – a German Doctor, made the discovery that sunlight would blacken chalk that has been treated with a solution of silver nitrate. - his discovery led to the development of film and become a basis of modern photography that lights affect certain silver compounds.

25. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY (1800) William Herschel – Most encyclopedias and physics books credited the great British astronomer Sir William Herschel with the discovery of Infrared radiation in 1800. - First use the word “Photography” - 1839 birthyear of Photography

26. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY (1826) Joseph Nicéphore Niépce – French Inventor - He made the first successful invention of photograph by capturing an image in a metal plate coated with an asphalt compound exposed with light and placed in a solution that brought out the picture and dissolved the unexpected portion thereby fixing the image. - produce the first permanent photographic image on a summer day in 1826. - in 1829, he became partner of Louis Mande Daguerre, a French theatrical designer. But before they successfully finish a developing process, Niépce died. - the photographic image was with a camera obscura.

27. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY Alhazen (Ibn Al-Haytham) - he invented the first pinhole camera, also known as the Camera Obscura

28. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1839 – Louis Daguerre (Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre) - he revealed a successful process of developing which gains wide acceptance - developed a more convenient and effective method of photography, naming it after himself the Daguerreotype - Daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process - Daguerre was able to reduce exposure time to less than 30mins and keep the image from disappearing afterwards - Daguerreotype created a lasting image, one that would not change if exposed to light

29. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY Henry Fox Talbot (Father of Modern Photography) - the inventor of the first negative from which multiple positive prints - He perfected this paper-negative process and called it a Calotype, in Greek which means a “beautiful picture” - He Invented the Mouse Trap Camera - the author of Calo or Talo System - the calotype, introduced in 1841; a negative-positive process using a paper negative.

30. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1847 Niepce de Sain-Victor - Cousin of Joseph Niepce, was originally famous in photograph for having developed photographic negatives made of albumen on glass. Albumen- the white of an egg

31. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1850 Louis Deserie Blaquart -Evart - Introduced a printing paper coated with albumen as binding medium.

32. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1851 Frederick Scott Archer - An English Chemist, introduced the wet collodion process to hold the silver compounds on glass which results in a much faster reaction of light. *Collodion Process - mostly synonymous with the "collodion wet plate process", requires the photographic material to be coated, sensitized, exposed, and developed within the span of about fifteen minutes, necessitating a portable darkroom for use in the field.

33. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1870`s Dr. Richard Leach Maddox Gelatin-based dry emulsion began to replace the wet collodion plates.

34. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1877 William Abney - an English photo-chemist, gave practical directions for manufacturing emulsions. - He invented copper bromide-silver nitrate intensifications. In 1880, he introduced hydroquinone as a developer. * Hydroquinone - used for black and white film developer component, that builds density in combination with other developer.

35. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1880`s George Eastman - Founder of the Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York. - He introduced the flexible roll-up film and later a hand held roll up film camera. A camera that is easy to carry and use. The company also offered service for processing of film which makes it for amateur photographer not to think of how to process them. This marks the popularity of photography as a hobby

36. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1889 – Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films. 1890s – Experiments have been made with new printing techniques to make their photograph look like a painting. Various darkroom techniques and multiple exposures where also developed. 1924 Leica Camera – a miniature of 35mm camera was introduced in Germany. This camera has flexibility and variety in taking pictures. It can make sharp image, detailed pictures under different conditions. It is the forerunner of todays 35mm cameras.

37. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1930 – the development of electronic flash by Dr. Harold Edgerton (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) this one is the most important developments in photography. 1935 – from early 1900s experiments, Kodachrome slide film was finally introduced and became the first popular and affordable color film 1940s – Color-negative film was used 1947 – Edward Howard Land, an American Scientist developed the instant film and his “Polaroid Land Camera”. In just a matter of a second, image is readily formed in an instant film after shoot has been made.

38. History OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1843 – the first Facsimile (fax) Machine was patented. 1920 – photograph can now be transmitted across Atlantic through underwater telegraph cable. The first digital transmissions of photograph. 1950 – both the United States and former Soviet Union were engaged in a space race. 1980s(Sony Corporation of Japan) – introduced a consumer electronic camera (the Mavica Magnetic Video Camera). This camera can record images on two-inch floppy disks which can be played on a television or video monitor.

39. 1990 (DCS-100) – A digital camera house in a modified Nikon SLR body was introduced by Kodak. This is the first digital camera designed as a full professional system. This was very expensive and had to be attached to an external hard drive. Improvements were later made. In the same year Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) was introduced which is less expensive that CCD or DCS. 2000s Digital Camera– Greatly improved their image quality was equal to or better than that of film. The spread of digital later outsell film cameras.

40. Legal foundation of photographic evidence 1859 – Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs U.S. (regarding the authenticity of photograph in comparing signatures) 1874 – In criminal case introducing photograph as identification evidence ( Underzook vs Commonwealth) 1943 – Civil litigation Green vs City and County of Denver Colorado, involving spoiled meat in violation of health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to the public. 1960 – In criminal case, State vs. Conte, showing the graphic wound of the victim.

41. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPH LIGHT – is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186,000 miles per second. CAMERA – a light tight box designed to block unwanted light from reaching the sensitized material. LENS – is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collects the reflected light coming from the object to form the image. Types of Lens Concave - A concave lens is thicker at the edges and thinner at the center Convex - A convex lens is thicker at the center and thinner at the edges.  SENSITIZED MATERIAL – compound of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes.(Film and photo paper) Chemical Process – is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we call Photograph. Chemical Process of Photograph Developer - makes the latent image on the film or print visible. Stop/stop bath - stops the development process by diluting and washing the developer away with water Fixing - Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.

42. Light It is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,000 miles per second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in a certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibrations of the wave per second. Light Wavelength – is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron – is the unit of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter. Angstrom – is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten millionth part of milllimeter .

43. Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: reflected, transmitted, or absorbed (RAT Law) Reflected – once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted – when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through its medium. Absorbed – when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through. Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.

44. Colors of light found in visible spectrum Visible Spectrum – a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affect the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength ranging from 400-700mu. The Electromagnetic Spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic radiation, organized by frequency or wavelength.

45. color Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength Red (longest wavelength) 700mu Blue 450mu Green 550mu Complementary Colors Magenta (shortest wavelength) 700mu Cyan 450mu Yellow 550mu

46. Color mixing Color Addition R+B+G = W R+B = M M+Y = R R+G = Y M+C = B B+G = C Y+C = G Color Substraction W-R= C W-B=Y W-Y=B C-G=R W-G=M W-M=G Y-G=R W-C=R C-G=B Y-R=G

47. Primary and secondary colors This three primary colors in light are red, green, and blue. White light can be made by mixing red, blue, and green. The process of making colors by mixing primary colors of light is called addition, because one color is added to another. Color made by combining two primary colors are called secondary colors. They are yellow(red and green), cyan(blue and green) and magenta (blue and red). When the primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It is absorbed green and blue and reflects red.

48. Production of Colors: Absorption – colors of most ordinary objects are due to the fact that they do not absorb the same amount of light at each wavelength. Dispersion – colors may arise from differences in the refractive or being power of a transparent medium of light to another wavelength Fluorescence – when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength Interference – colors can be produced by interference of light waves in thin film Scattering – scattering of light in various direction Other Light Actions: Refraction – the bending of light, when light hits a certain medium which affects its velocity (motion)

49. b. Diffraction – it is the light action when light falls bends and falls around the object

50. c. Dispersion – the spread of light in various colors of different wavelength after it has refracted.

51. Midterm coverage

52. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION Types of Light Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light. Visible Light = Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye. Invisible Light = lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.

53. Photographic Rays a. X-ray =Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography. b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet) = Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”. c. Visible Light = Is the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes. d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red) = Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. (Sometimes referred to as heat rays)

54. Light Source Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight. Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight. Bright Sunlight = object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy. Hazy Sunlight = object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun. Dull Sunlight = object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.

55. Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight. These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered .

56. Bright sunlight object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy.

57. Hazy sunlight object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.

58. Dull sunlight object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.

59. Artificial Light - otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp. Continuous radiation Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focuses the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts. Fluorescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions. Infra-red Lamp Ultra-violet Lamp Light Source

60. Photoflood lamp Fluorescent lamp Incandescent bulb

61. Short Duration type Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs. Concurrent light - Light that is scattered Coherent light - Light that is aligned such as laser light Hologram - The formation of image trough the use of laser light Light Source

62. Flash Bulb Electronic Flash

63. SENSITIZED MATERIAL It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support

64. Parts of the Sensitized Material Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of Three layers ( Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening. Anti Halation Backing = Is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation. Base = Support the emulsion

65. Types of Film According to Use 1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus. 2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter. e.g. Kodakcolor , Fujicolor , Agfacolor Kodachrome, Fujichrome , Agfachrome .

66. Types of Film According to Spectral Sensitivity Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the light course. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM) Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light) Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light

67. FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed) This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is. ASA 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen ) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle as the ASA. Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

68. Photographic Paper Is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and become the photograph.

69. Types of Photographic Papers According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content) Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly developed. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly developed. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion.

70. CAMERA

71. CAMERA Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material. Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material

72. Essential Parts of a Camera Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given lens Focal Plane Shutter – located near the focal plane usually made from cloth curtain which opens on one side and closes on the other side. Central Shutter – one that is located near the lens leaves usually made of metal which opens from the center towards the sides closes vis-à-vis.

73. Other parts of camera Diaphragm - A diaphragm is a camera component within a lens comprised of overlapping metal blades (the iris) that open and close to change the size of the opening (they allow different levels of light to pass through to the sensor - thus controlling the aperture (or f-number) and depth of field of an image - and the aperture hole of the lens. Viewing System – is the part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) – designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure. Mirror – reflects the light towards the pentaprism. Pentaprism – a five-sided glass which reflects the light towards the view finder in order for the photographer to view the object about to be photograph. Shutter speed – is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.

74. Lens Aperture – the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.

75. Focusing – is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the object to be photographed. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clean image.

76. Types of the Camera View finder - it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera Single lens reflex camera - it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its interchangeability of the lens Twin Lens Reflex Camera - a type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the image View or press type - is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie making Folding Camera – a type of camera in which the lens and shutter mounted into body by means of an accordion pleated bellows which can be folded into camera for ease of carrying.

77. lens It is the image-forming device if the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of the image to be formed A medium or system which converges or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. Can be glass or transparent material which permits light to pass through and change the direction of light Daniel Barbaro – first to introduce the use of lens in the carrying

78. Classification of lenses According to the type of image to be produced Positive or Convex Lens - a convex lens characterized by the fact that it is thicker in the middle than the edge and forms a real image on the opposite side of the lens. It has a positive focal length and bends the rays together, which makes it a converging lens. Negative or Concave Lens - a concave lens characterized by the fact that it is thinner in the middle than the edge and forms a virtual image on the same side of the lens. It does not require focusing at all, as everything will be sharp, upright and clear, no matter how close or far away the object. It is also known as a diverging lens because of its power to diverge rays of light that passes through it. According to Degree of Corrections Meniscus lens – lens that has no correction Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration

79. Inherent lens defects Spherical Aberration – inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side. Coma – (also known as lateral aberration) – inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one that is transmitted sharp. Positive Coma – a kind of lens coma results in a star images near the outer edges of the viewing field seeming to have comet-style tail scattering radially towards its optical axis (center). Negative Coma – (scattering radially away from its optical axis) Curvature of field – the relation of the images of the different points are incorrect with respect to one another. Distortion – is a defect in shape not in sharpness. In can either be Pincushion Distortion (curving inward) or barrel (curving outward) Chromatic Aberration – Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red. Astigmatism – is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines. Flares – condition of the lens producing multiple images

80. Lens Characteristics 1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens sets to focus at infinite position. According to focal lenses, it may be classified as: Wide Angle or Short Focus – with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area coverage. (<35mm) Normal or Medium Focus – with focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. (>35<70mm) Long or Telephoto Lens – with the focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area coverage. Zoom Lens – lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system. A combination of Positive and negative lens.

81. 2. Relative Aperture – the fight gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens. Hyperfocal distance - is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field. Depth of Focus – refers to the distance toward and away from the film that the lens can be moved when at a given f-value, and have the object being photographed still appear in focus. Lens Characteristics

82. 3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance to form a sharp image. The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object. Lens Characteristics

83. CHEMICAL PROCESS - The process of making the latent image visible and permanent. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution) = Is the process necessary for reducing the siilver halides to form the image. Elon, Hydroquinone = used as main developing agents Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent. Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver halides.

84. Other chemicals used: Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serve as neutralizer Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging. Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing. Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the dodging board. Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph. Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of making a balance exposure.