Forwarding & Routing Algorithms in IoT and Mobile Networks

The difference between forwarding and routing.
How routing decisions are made in IoT and mobile systems.
Compare routing algorithms for fixed (IoT) vs moving (mobile) nodes.
Challenges and optimization goals in both environments.
Routing and routing metrics

1. Forwarding & Routing Algorithms in IoT and Mobile Networks Prepared by: Dr. Osama Alshaki Lecture 4 10/16/2025 1

2. Outlines 10/16/2025 2 The difference between forwarding and routing . H ow routing decisions are made in IoT and mobile systems. Compare routing algorithms for fixed (IoT) vs moving (mobile) nodes. C hallenges and optimization goals in both environments.

3. Introduction Forwarding & Routing Algorithms is a core networking concept shared by IoT and Mobile Computing 10/16/2025 3

4. Introduction 10/16/2025 4 Both IoT and Mobile Computing rely on data packets moving between devices. Forwarding: Sending data hop-by-hop . Routing: Choosing the best path from source to destination . Example: IoT: Sensor → Gateway → Cloud Mobile: Smartphone → Base Station → Internet

5. Forwarding 10/16/2025 5 Forwarding = Moving packets between network nodes . Uses a Routing Table to find the next hop . Techniques: Unicast – One-to-one Multicast – One-to-many Broadcast – To all nodes

6. Forwarding Techniques 10/16/2025 6

7. Routing 10/16/2025 7 Routing = Deciding which path data should take. Uses algorithms to select optimal paths .

8. Routing Metrics 10/16/2025 8 1. Hop Count: The number of intermediate nodes a data packet passes through from source to destination. A lower hop count is a faster and more efficient route. 2. Latency: The time delay between sending and receiving data in a network. Lower latency ensures real-time communication and better IoT performance.

9. Routing Metrics 10/16/2025 9 3. Energy Level Indicates the remaining battery power of an IoT device or sensor. Routing protocols often prefer nodes with higher energy levels to extend network lifetime. 4. Link Quality Measures how reliable and strong the wireless connection is between two devices. It depends on signal strength, interference, and packet loss rate.

10. Routing Metrics 10/16/2025 10 Other Metrics: Signal Strength (RSSI) - Routing protocols often prefer nodes with stronger signal for faster transmission Mobility Speed: High mobility speed → node changes position quickly → link may break soon. Low mobility speed → node is more stable → link is more reliable.

11. IoT vs Mobile Networks 10/16/2025 11 Feature IoT Networks Mobile Networks Node Type Sensors, Actuators Smartphones, Laptops Movement Mostly static Highly mobile Topology Mesh , Star , Tree Cellular , Ad hoc Main Focus Energy saving Mobility & speed Examples ZigBee, RPL LTE, Mobile IP

12. IoT Network Topologies 10/16/2025 12 Star : Each node → Gateway (e.g., LoRaWAN ) Mesh : Nodes forward for each other (e.g., ZigBee) Tree : Hierarchical parent–child routing (e.g., RPL)

13. Why Routing is Important in IoT 10/16/2025 13 IoT devices = low power, limited memory Need multi-hop communication Efficient routing saves energy & bandwidth Key design goals: Reliability Energy Efficiency Scalability

14. Common IoT Routing Protocols 10/16/2025 14 RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks) It is a  Distance Vector Routing   Protocol   that creates a tree-like routing topology called the  Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph ( DODAG ) , rooted towards one or more nodes called the root node or sink node

15. Why Routing is Important in IoT 10/16/2025 15 In an RPL Network, each node acts as a router Each node examines every received IPv6 packet and determines the next-hop destination based on the information contained in the IPv6 header

16. RPL Modes 10/16/2025 16 Storing mode All modes contain the entire routing table of the RPL domain. Every node knows how to reach every other node directly. Ex: A room controller (router node) → knows all sensors under it and how to reach the main gateway.

17. RPL Modes 10/16/2025 17 Non-Storing mode Only the border router(s) of the RPL domain contain(s) the full routing table . All other nodes in the domain maintain their list of parents only and use this as a list of default routes towards the border router. A small temperature sensor (leaf node) → only knows its parent router.

18. AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) 10/16/2025 18 A routing protocol used in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and wireless sensor networks . It allows devices (nodes) to find routes to other nodes only when needed , instead of keeping full routing tables like traditional protocols.

19. AODV – How it works? 10/16/2025 19 1. Route Discovery : When a node wants to send data but doesn’t know the route, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) message. Neighbouring nodes forward the RREQ until it reaches the destination or a node that knows the route. 2. Route Reply: The destination (or an intermediate node with a valid route) sends back a Route Reply (RREP) message along the reverse path to the source.

20. LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) A routing protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) designed to reduce energy consumption and extend network lifetime. 10/16/2025 20

21. LEACH – How it works? 10/16/2025 21 Cluster Formation (Setup Phase): Nodes decide randomly whether to become Cluster Heads (CHs) for the current round. Each CH broadcasts an advertisement message. Other nodes join the nearest CH to form clusters. 2. Data Transmission (Steady-State Phase): Cluster members send their sensed data to the CH The CH aggregates and compresses the data. The CH then sends data to the Base Station 3. Rotation of Cluster Heads: After each round, new CHs are selected to distribute energy consumption evenly across the network.

22. Forwarding Techniques in IoT 10/16/2025 22 1. Multi-hop Forwarding Data is sent through multiple intermediate nodes before reaching the destination (e.g., base station). Used when devices are far apart or have low transmission power. Benefit: Saves energy and extends network coverage. Example: Sensor → Node A → Node B → Base Station

23. Forwarding Techniques in IoT 10/16/2025 23 2. Data Aggregation Intermediate nodes combine or summarize data from several sensors before forwarding. Reduces redundant transmissions and network traffic, saving bandwidth and energy. Example: A Cluster Head calculate the average temperature readings from nearby sensors and sends only one value .

24. Forwarding Techniques in IoT 10/16/2025 24 3. Priority Forwarding Some data packets are marked as high priority (e.g., emergency or critical alerts) These packets are sent first or through the fastest path , ensuring quick delivery. Example: Fire detection data is sent before regular temperature updates

25. Break.. 10/16/2025 25

26. Mobile Network Protocols (3G, 4G, 5G) 10/16/2025 26 GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol) Main routing protocol in 3G, 4G, and 5G. Create "tunnels" to encapsulate and transport user data and control signals between network nodes allowing for mobility and continuous internet connectivity

27. Mobile Network Protocols 10/16/2025 27 2. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) Purpose : Reliable delivery of signaling messages between base station and core (e.g., MME). Used in: LTE / 4G control plane ( The control plane manages the login, assigns IPs, and tracks your location between towers )

28. Mobile Network Protocols 10/16/2025 28 3. PFCP (Packet Forwarding Control Protocol) It is used to manage and control how user data packets are forwarded by configuring rules and enforcing quality of service (QoS) policies

29. Mobile Network Protocols 10/16/2025 29 4. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) An Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) — used inside one organization or network. It finds the shortest and most efficient path between routers using Dijkstra’s algorithm.

30. Mobile Network Protocols 10/16/2025 30 5. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) An Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) — used between different networks It decides how packets travel across the Internet between ISPs and large organizations. Example : When your ISP connects to another ISP to reach a website in another country, BGP decides the route your data takes

31. Modern Trends 10/16/2025 31 1. AI-Assisted Routing – Predict Best Paths Uses Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to analyze network data (traffic, congestion, energy, link quality). Predicts the best path for data packets before problems occur improving speed , energy efficiency , and reliability . Example : In a smart city, AI routing can predict congestion in one route and reroute IoT sensor data through a less busy path.

32. Modern Trends 10/16/2025 32 2. Edge Routing – Decisions Near Data Sources Moves part of the routing and processing to edge devices (close to where data is generated). Example : A factory’s IoT sensors send data to a nearby edge gateway, which quickly decides which packets to send to the cloud and which to process locally.

33. Modern Trends 10/16/2025 33 3. Secure Routing – Detect Fake or Malicious Nodes: Protects IoT networks from attacks like fake route advertisements or data interception. Uses authentication, encryption, and trust scoring to ensure data only travels through legitimate nodes. Example: If one IoT node starts sending abnormal traffic, the routing algorithm can isolate it from the network.

34. Conclusion 10/16/2025 34 AI and Machine Learning can optimize routing protocols by: Predicting best paths using traffic, mobility, and signal patterns. Adapting routes dynamically to reduce latency and congestion. Detecting faulty or malicious nodes for secure routing. Reducing energy consumption in IoT and sensor networks by choosing efficient paths. Enabling self-learning networks that improve routing decisions over time without manual tuning.

35. Thank You Q & A 10/16/2025 35