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French Revolution and Napoleon.docx
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1
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Towards the end of the eighteenth-century France demonstrated a momentous event in
Europe. In France the idea of liberty, equality and Fraternity became the motto of the day
which ultimately led to a revolution that had done away the institutionalized constraints of the
old regime: In 1789 a revolution broke out in France and it had replaced the “old regime” of
that country by “modern society.”
The revolution not only brought about radical ideas to the French society but it also had
served as a model for expansion of social and civic ideas, freedom, human rights and liberty
to the rest of Europe. Due to the influence of the event in France, people elsewhere in Europe
therefore began to challenge old orders and subjections imposed up on them by autocratic
rulers of the centuries. It for example stirred up political movement in Ireland and Poland, the
Dutch, Italians and others.
The revolutions which swept away old institutions such as seigniorial charges up on the
lands, vestiges of feudalism, tax privileges etc. struggled for the emergence of written
constitutions, electrons and powerful legislatives. Denying the claims to special treatment of
the privileged groups, the revolution eagerly sought for equality before the law for all
persons. It also demanded uniformity for all regions of the nation. In this unit, we are going to
deal how the revolution came about? The measures taken and methods involved during the
course of the event, the reforms and challenges the revolutionaries enacted and faced with
and the ultimate outcome of the French Revolution will also be discussed.
BACKGROUND TO THE REVOLUTION
Before the revolution of 1789, France was one of the most powerful European nations. It had
greater wealth; power as well as it possessed remarkable intellectual and cultural resources.
In France, the idea of science, politics, education and particularly the movement of
Enlightenment had already advanced more than in any other nations.
The enlightenment is the intellectual movement of eighteenth-century Europe. It focuses
strongly on the socio-economic and political aspect of the society. Objecting prejudices,
dogmatism, superstition, absolutism or divine kingship, old feudal and church institutions
etc., the Enlightenment strongly advocates human advancement, optimism and freedom. It
stood against the assumptions like institutions are God given. They instead argued that
institutions are manmade and should be evaluated in terms of their function to the society. In
general, philosophers of the time who propagated the idea of Enlightenment opposed
exploitation and unjust doings. Since Enlightenment was more advanced in France than any
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Towards the end of the eighteenth-century France demonstrated a momentous event in
Europe. In France the idea of liberty, equality and Fraternity became the motto of the day
which ultimately led to a revolution that had done away the institutionalized constraints of the
old regime: In 1789 a revolution broke out in France and it had replaced the “old regime” of
that country by “modern society.”
The revolution not only brought about radical ideas to the French society but it also had
served as a model for expansion of social and civic ideas, freedom, human rights and liberty
to the rest of Europe. Due to the influence of the event in France, people elsewhere in Europe
therefore began to challenge old orders and subjections imposed up on them by autocratic
rulers of the centuries. It for example stirred up political movement in Ireland and Poland, the
Dutch, Italians and others.
The revolutions which swept away old institutions such as seigniorial charges up on the
lands, vestiges of feudalism, tax privileges etc. struggled for the emergence of written
constitutions, electrons and powerful legislatives. Denying the claims to special treatment of
the privileged groups, the revolution eagerly sought for equality before the law for all
persons. It also demanded uniformity for all regions of the nation. In this unit, we are going to
deal how the revolution came about? The measures taken and methods involved during the
course of the event, the reforms and challenges the revolutionaries enacted and faced with
and the ultimate outcome of the French Revolution will also be discussed.
BACKGROUND TO THE REVOLUTION
Before the revolution of 1789, France was one of the most powerful European nations. It had
greater wealth; power as well as it possessed remarkable intellectual and cultural resources.
In France, the idea of science, politics, education and particularly the movement of
Enlightenment had already advanced more than in any other nations.
The enlightenment is the intellectual movement of eighteenth-century Europe. It focuses
strongly on the socio-economic and political aspect of the society. Objecting prejudices,
dogmatism, superstition, absolutism or divine kingship, old feudal and church institutions
etc., the Enlightenment strongly advocates human advancement, optimism and freedom. It
stood against the assumptions like institutions are God given. They instead argued that
institutions are manmade and should be evaluated in terms of their function to the society. In
general, philosophers of the time who propagated the idea of Enlightenment opposed
exploitation and unjust doings. Since Enlightenment was more advanced in France than any
2
nation in Europe, its contribution to the French revolution was very great. Its genesis also
served as the basis for the later liberalism in Europe. Although France had emerged as
centers of such ideas in the eighteenth century, it had also been influenced by the revolutions
and movement in England and America.
During the old regime, the dominant social order or structure was the aristocratic feudal
system with in which everyone belonged to an “estate” or “order” of society. With such a
system the French had experienced inequality of rights or privileges. Since the middle ages,
the population was divided into the first estate, the second estate and third estate.
The first estate represented the clergy who were exempted from the chief tax: taille (land
tax). The church had also possessed about ten percent of the land and it again involved in the
prevailing social system. The income from the church properties was divided very unequally.
Much of its income was taken up by the aristocratic occupants of the higher ecclesiastical
offices.
The second estate in France had consisted of the nobility who had taken control of about
twenty-five to thirty percent of the land. They had almost monopolized important government
position, higher church offices, military position, parliament and other influential public
honors. They however were to enjoy such position after their resurgence since 1715. The
aristocracy in France had for example blocked royal plans of taxation with an attempt to
control the state policies as well.
The nobles like the clergy were exempt from the most important tax i.e. the land tax (taille).
This group or estate in general expanded their privileges at the expense of the monarchy and
out stripped those of most others of the French Society. Although their privileges could vary
from place to place, they were the possessors of certain important privileges.
The third estate, unlike the above two had no such special privileges. It represented the
commoners of the French society with an overwhelming majority of the nation’s population.
It included occupants of different sectors such as peasants; skilled artisans, shop keepers and
other wage earners who played an important role during the revolution. In fact there were
wealthiest business and professional classes as well. The peasants who represented about
eighty percent of the total population owned only about forty percent of the land. They, in
addition, were required to pay fees for the use of village facilities, tithes and other seigniorial
obligations.
The other elements of the third estate were not privileged like wise. Nevertheless, the
bourgeoisie or middle class who owned about twenty to twenty five percent of the land were
beneficiaries. Merchants, industrialists and bankers who dominated the resources in trade,
nation in Europe, its contribution to the French revolution was very great. Its genesis also
served as the basis for the later liberalism in Europe. Although France had emerged as
centers of such ideas in the eighteenth century, it had also been influenced by the revolutions
and movement in England and America.
During the old regime, the dominant social order or structure was the aristocratic feudal
system with in which everyone belonged to an “estate” or “order” of society. With such a
system the French had experienced inequality of rights or privileges. Since the middle ages,
the population was divided into the first estate, the second estate and third estate.
The first estate represented the clergy who were exempted from the chief tax: taille (land
tax). The church had also possessed about ten percent of the land and it again involved in the
prevailing social system. The income from the church properties was divided very unequally.
Much of its income was taken up by the aristocratic occupants of the higher ecclesiastical
offices.
The second estate in France had consisted of the nobility who had taken control of about
twenty-five to thirty percent of the land. They had almost monopolized important government
position, higher church offices, military position, parliament and other influential public
honors. They however were to enjoy such position after their resurgence since 1715. The
aristocracy in France had for example blocked royal plans of taxation with an attempt to
control the state policies as well.
The nobles like the clergy were exempt from the most important tax i.e. the land tax (taille).
This group or estate in general expanded their privileges at the expense of the monarchy and
out stripped those of most others of the French Society. Although their privileges could vary
from place to place, they were the possessors of certain important privileges.
The third estate, unlike the above two had no such special privileges. It represented the
commoners of the French society with an overwhelming majority of the nation’s population.
It included occupants of different sectors such as peasants; skilled artisans, shop keepers and
other wage earners who played an important role during the revolution. In fact there were
wealthiest business and professional classes as well. The peasants who represented about
eighty percent of the total population owned only about forty percent of the land. They, in
addition, were required to pay fees for the use of village facilities, tithes and other seigniorial
obligations.
The other elements of the third estate were not privileged like wise. Nevertheless, the
bourgeoisie or middle class who owned about twenty to twenty five percent of the land were
beneficiaries. Merchants, industrialists and bankers who dominated the resources in trade,
3
finance and manufacturing; and professional people such as lawyers, holders of public
offices, doctors and writers belonged to this group. They were collectively called bourgeois.
Although this group of the third estate had influential role in economic sector, they were all
excluded from social and political privileges. They were exempted from taxes but demanded
security and status as or against the nobility.
With such social structure or order, the old Regime in France occupies more than eighty
percent of the people as rural agrarian society. Unlike the other European countries, the
relation of the lord and the peasant was not a master and servant type. The peasants worked
for the nobles, either on their own land or on rented land. They worked as share croppers, or
hired themselves out to the lord or to another peasant. Nevertheless, the nobles hand hunting
rights, monopoly over the village hill, vestigial powers of jurisdiction etc in the manorial
court and other local police. There was also “eminent” property right to the owner of a
manor. The owner of the manor had the right to receive certain rents, payable annually as
well as transfer fees that were payable whenever the land changed owners through sale or
death.
In France there were also collective rights such as on fire wood or to run their pigs in the
commons, or pasture for cattle. There was thus no enclosure. But land was still a basic
property even for merchants. In short land in France was divided into the nobility, the church,
the bourgeoisies and the crown though the amount varied. It was also leased to peasants in
small parcels so that France became a country of small farmers. There was no “big
agriculture” like in England, Eastern Europe and in America. The manorial lord of France
made a living through receiving innumerable dues, quitrents and fees.
In the eighteenth-century changes occurred. The manorial lords encountered higher living
costs so that they revived the old dues on peasants’ leases and share cropping arrangements
declined in importance for peasants. When peasants came under such new pressure, they
began to resent the “feudal dues” more than ever. They gradually began to fell themselves as
real owner of the land so that peasants opposed the special income and status of the nobles.
Politically France’s old fashioned organization was becoming one source of trouble. There
were particular provinces which were added to the original domain. These provinces however
maintained the ancient laws and privileges. It therefore created discrepancies in taxes and
custom duties in the nation.
THE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION
It has been mentioned in connection with the back ground that in France different social
orders had existed for centuries. France had also entertained variations in privileges and
finance and manufacturing; and professional people such as lawyers, holders of public
offices, doctors and writers belonged to this group. They were collectively called bourgeois.
Although this group of the third estate had influential role in economic sector, they were all
excluded from social and political privileges. They were exempted from taxes but demanded
security and status as or against the nobility.
With such social structure or order, the old Regime in France occupies more than eighty
percent of the people as rural agrarian society. Unlike the other European countries, the
relation of the lord and the peasant was not a master and servant type. The peasants worked
for the nobles, either on their own land or on rented land. They worked as share croppers, or
hired themselves out to the lord or to another peasant. Nevertheless, the nobles hand hunting
rights, monopoly over the village hill, vestigial powers of jurisdiction etc in the manorial
court and other local police. There was also “eminent” property right to the owner of a
manor. The owner of the manor had the right to receive certain rents, payable annually as
well as transfer fees that were payable whenever the land changed owners through sale or
death.
In France there were also collective rights such as on fire wood or to run their pigs in the
commons, or pasture for cattle. There was thus no enclosure. But land was still a basic
property even for merchants. In short land in France was divided into the nobility, the church,
the bourgeoisies and the crown though the amount varied. It was also leased to peasants in
small parcels so that France became a country of small farmers. There was no “big
agriculture” like in England, Eastern Europe and in America. The manorial lord of France
made a living through receiving innumerable dues, quitrents and fees.
In the eighteenth-century changes occurred. The manorial lords encountered higher living
costs so that they revived the old dues on peasants’ leases and share cropping arrangements
declined in importance for peasants. When peasants came under such new pressure, they
began to resent the “feudal dues” more than ever. They gradually began to fell themselves as
real owner of the land so that peasants opposed the special income and status of the nobles.
Politically France’s old fashioned organization was becoming one source of trouble. There
were particular provinces which were added to the original domain. These provinces however
maintained the ancient laws and privileges. It therefore created discrepancies in taxes and
custom duties in the nation.
THE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION
It has been mentioned in connection with the back ground that in France different social
orders had existed for centuries. France had also entertained variations in privileges and
4
status among its society. Although many problems could have ignited the revolution, the
existence of different social orders with many related variations in privileges was one
contributory cause for the revolution. Specifically speaking the peasants for example had
resentment on the restrictions and imposition from the nobility or by the system. So were the
urban wages and artisans. The merchants and industrial class as well as the professionals on
their part had dissatisfaction on the existing order. They strongly opposed the status and
social privilege the nobles had enjoyed in France. The bourgeoisie and middle classes
however were gradually playing important role in France and were aspiring for positions in
the government. This had brought tensions and contradictions with the nobility due to issue
of interest. The monarchy on his part aspired to side the prosperous middle classes while he
prevented the nobility from an independent role in the government.
Under such situation, the monarchy failed to play a role that would go in line with the
prevailing socio-economic and political condition of the country. He instead attempted to
maintain these forces with in the established social and political systems. In short, the
inability of the monarchy to deal with new social realities and problems was one cause of the
revolution. The despotic power of the French crown that failed to reform or improve the
situation while the mass needed it so caused the revolution.
In the eighteenth century, in France like other parts of Europe, land was the basic source of
wealth and the possessor of the land was the master for those who required to work and to
live. In France, the king had gradually deprived the lords of their political power. The nobles
and the clergy were subjected to his authority though they were left at their highest social
order. Gradually however with the growth of commerce and industry, the bourgeoisie came
to assume important position particularly in the economy. On the other hand, the role of the
nobility and the clergy began to decline. According to some authority, this situation increased
discrepancy between the two bodies hence the Revolution occurred.
These back-ground factors were however exacerbated by immediate socio, economic and
political conditions. The impact of the intellectual movement had contributed at least
indirectly to the revolution. As mentioned above France was place of intellectual and cultural
movements. This could have definitely changed the political climate of the nation.
The economic crisis the country had suffered from the bad harvest of 1787 and 1788 and
depression in the manufacturing sector that caused food shortage, unemployment, price rise
for food and other necessities was one immediate cause of the revolution. The financial crisis
and the near collapse of government’s finance was another specific problem that kindled the
light on the revolution. The French parliaments had often pushed their own interest by
status among its society. Although many problems could have ignited the revolution, the
existence of different social orders with many related variations in privileges was one
contributory cause for the revolution. Specifically speaking the peasants for example had
resentment on the restrictions and imposition from the nobility or by the system. So were the
urban wages and artisans. The merchants and industrial class as well as the professionals on
their part had dissatisfaction on the existing order. They strongly opposed the status and
social privilege the nobles had enjoyed in France. The bourgeoisie and middle classes
however were gradually playing important role in France and were aspiring for positions in
the government. This had brought tensions and contradictions with the nobility due to issue
of interest. The monarchy on his part aspired to side the prosperous middle classes while he
prevented the nobility from an independent role in the government.
Under such situation, the monarchy failed to play a role that would go in line with the
prevailing socio-economic and political condition of the country. He instead attempted to
maintain these forces with in the established social and political systems. In short, the
inability of the monarchy to deal with new social realities and problems was one cause of the
revolution. The despotic power of the French crown that failed to reform or improve the
situation while the mass needed it so caused the revolution.
In the eighteenth century, in France like other parts of Europe, land was the basic source of
wealth and the possessor of the land was the master for those who required to work and to
live. In France, the king had gradually deprived the lords of their political power. The nobles
and the clergy were subjected to his authority though they were left at their highest social
order. Gradually however with the growth of commerce and industry, the bourgeoisie came
to assume important position particularly in the economy. On the other hand, the role of the
nobility and the clergy began to decline. According to some authority, this situation increased
discrepancy between the two bodies hence the Revolution occurred.
These back-ground factors were however exacerbated by immediate socio, economic and
political conditions. The impact of the intellectual movement had contributed at least
indirectly to the revolution. As mentioned above France was place of intellectual and cultural
movements. This could have definitely changed the political climate of the nation.
The economic crisis the country had suffered from the bad harvest of 1787 and 1788 and
depression in the manufacturing sector that caused food shortage, unemployment, price rise
for food and other necessities was one immediate cause of the revolution. The financial crisis
and the near collapse of government’s finance was another specific problem that kindled the
light on the revolution. The French parliaments had often pushed their own interest by
5
blocking new taxes and they in the eighteenth century had the role of defenders of “liberty”.
This led financial problems to the monarchy. The government due to costly wars and royal
extravagance had a lot of expenditures. In addition, there was costly magnificence of the
court of Versailles and the up keeping of the entire royal establishment as well as maintaining
the up armed forces.
There was also decline of revenues due to tax exemptions and tax evasions of privileged
elements. The lack of financial system or its complications created the financial problem to
the monarchy. The church, the nobles and the bourgeoisies were in many ways exempted
from taxes only the peasants were to pay the land taxes. All these brought about financial
collapse to the government which was in turn be an immediate cause for the revolution.
Now, Louis XVI and other responsible bodies attempted to tax the privileged classes. The
finance minister, Turgot, introduced a policy of nonintervention or laissez-faire to increase
economic growth. He also aimed at removing the restrictions in commerce in grain. He also
sought to abolish guilds and reducing expenses at court. Corvee was also to be replaced with
a small new tax on all holders of land. His attempt was however opposed by parliaments in
Paris and courts in Versailles. Hence, he was removed and Mocker was appointed as finance
controller general. The new appointee however was unsuccessful and a permanent financial
crisis occurred in France.
Any attempt to change the numerous exemptions of the privileged groups was thought as
violation of their traditional liberties. Impositions of new taxes or increase of old ones was
seriously resented at this time. There was also increased payment for interest. Increased taxes
on commercial activity adversely affected consumers. In 1787 when Charles Calonne (new
controller-general) introduced new projections, the French monarchy had faced bitter
bankruptcy.
Calonne introduced the representative institutions and proposed a general tax on all land
owners without exemption. He also introduced confiscation of some properties of the church.
Calonne again proposed the establishment of provincial assemblies. In this assembly people
from all orders were to be represented. This would advise royal officials on the collection and
allocation of revenues. His proposal was however eventually failed because the assembly of
the notables (parlement) could not accept it. Since the notables had their own interest in the
government, they could not agree with or support to endorse his decree. Louis XVI then
dismissed him and substituted Lamenie de Brienne’ in his steed. Brienne; however, tried to
push Calonne’s proposal to the parliaments. Since they again rejected, Louis XVI was
obliged to call the Estates Generals who represented people from the three estates.
blocking new taxes and they in the eighteenth century had the role of defenders of “liberty”.
This led financial problems to the monarchy. The government due to costly wars and royal
extravagance had a lot of expenditures. In addition, there was costly magnificence of the
court of Versailles and the up keeping of the entire royal establishment as well as maintaining
the up armed forces.
There was also decline of revenues due to tax exemptions and tax evasions of privileged
elements. The lack of financial system or its complications created the financial problem to
the monarchy. The church, the nobles and the bourgeoisies were in many ways exempted
from taxes only the peasants were to pay the land taxes. All these brought about financial
collapse to the government which was in turn be an immediate cause for the revolution.
Now, Louis XVI and other responsible bodies attempted to tax the privileged classes. The
finance minister, Turgot, introduced a policy of nonintervention or laissez-faire to increase
economic growth. He also aimed at removing the restrictions in commerce in grain. He also
sought to abolish guilds and reducing expenses at court. Corvee was also to be replaced with
a small new tax on all holders of land. His attempt was however opposed by parliaments in
Paris and courts in Versailles. Hence, he was removed and Mocker was appointed as finance
controller general. The new appointee however was unsuccessful and a permanent financial
crisis occurred in France.
Any attempt to change the numerous exemptions of the privileged groups was thought as
violation of their traditional liberties. Impositions of new taxes or increase of old ones was
seriously resented at this time. There was also increased payment for interest. Increased taxes
on commercial activity adversely affected consumers. In 1787 when Charles Calonne (new
controller-general) introduced new projections, the French monarchy had faced bitter
bankruptcy.
Calonne introduced the representative institutions and proposed a general tax on all land
owners without exemption. He also introduced confiscation of some properties of the church.
Calonne again proposed the establishment of provincial assemblies. In this assembly people
from all orders were to be represented. This would advise royal officials on the collection and
allocation of revenues. His proposal was however eventually failed because the assembly of
the notables (parlement) could not accept it. Since the notables had their own interest in the
government, they could not agree with or support to endorse his decree. Louis XVI then
dismissed him and substituted Lamenie de Brienne’ in his steed. Brienne; however, tried to
push Calonne’s proposal to the parliaments. Since they again rejected, Louis XVI was
obliged to call the Estates Generals who represented people from the three estates.
6
Louis XVI had called them because the parliament reminded that the authority to consent to
new taxes was the right for the Estates General. The attempt of Louis XVI and Brienne to
break the parliaments and bring a modernized judicial system had brought them into conflict
with the nobles. Therefore, all parliaments and provincial estates opposed and revolted.
Army officers also refused to serve and the nobles started organizing political clubs and
committees of correspondence. Eventually, Louis XVI could not borrow money or collect tax
so that he decided to call the Estates General in May 1789.
FRANCE FROM ESTATES GENERAL TO NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
Since 1614 the Estates General did not come to meetings. They were disbanded. When Louis
XVI dealt with the parliament, the demand for the Estates General to function as before
(1614) was propagated. Using the parliament, the nobility therefore revealed its aim. And by
forcing the king to summon the Estates General, the nobility ignited the French Revolution.
In fact the nobility had a liberal program. They demanded freedom of speech and press, free
from arbitrary arrest and confinement, guarantees of personal liberty for all and setting up of
constitutional government. Most of the nobles even demanded to give up the special
privileges they had in taxation. They instead determined to become influential in politics.
Politically, they demanded the Estates General to be a supreme body. It would have three
chambers, one for the nobles, and one for a clergy and another for the Third Estates.
The third estates had no interest at all to be governed by the lords. Influenced and motivated
by the idea of Enlightenment, the third estate turned against the nobility. They propagated
that the nobles were useless castle that should be abolished without loss. The third states
who initially allied with the nobles against the despotism of the king’s ministers, now
considered themselves as one important element of the society. This was to be followed by
class antagonism which in turn prohibited peaceful reform. It also brought the bourgeois into
a radical and destructive mood. The class antagonism and suspicion in between had produced
trouble unknown in the history of France.
When the Estates General met at Versailles in May 1789, controversy arose over the method
of voting. The king refused to promise them to vote altogether (i.e. vote by head) rather
demanded vote separately in three chambers (i.e. by order). The third estates however
opposed it and demanded that deputies of all three orders should sit as a single house and
vote as individuals.
If voting is to be held separately by order, the two upper chambers would outweigh the Third
Estates and the nobles would still hold vastly disproportionate powers. Hence all the lucrative
Louis XVI had called them because the parliament reminded that the authority to consent to
new taxes was the right for the Estates General. The attempt of Louis XVI and Brienne to
break the parliaments and bring a modernized judicial system had brought them into conflict
with the nobles. Therefore, all parliaments and provincial estates opposed and revolted.
Army officers also refused to serve and the nobles started organizing political clubs and
committees of correspondence. Eventually, Louis XVI could not borrow money or collect tax
so that he decided to call the Estates General in May 1789.
FRANCE FROM ESTATES GENERAL TO NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
Since 1614 the Estates General did not come to meetings. They were disbanded. When Louis
XVI dealt with the parliament, the demand for the Estates General to function as before
(1614) was propagated. Using the parliament, the nobility therefore revealed its aim. And by
forcing the king to summon the Estates General, the nobility ignited the French Revolution.
In fact the nobility had a liberal program. They demanded freedom of speech and press, free
from arbitrary arrest and confinement, guarantees of personal liberty for all and setting up of
constitutional government. Most of the nobles even demanded to give up the special
privileges they had in taxation. They instead determined to become influential in politics.
Politically, they demanded the Estates General to be a supreme body. It would have three
chambers, one for the nobles, and one for a clergy and another for the Third Estates.
The third estates had no interest at all to be governed by the lords. Influenced and motivated
by the idea of Enlightenment, the third estate turned against the nobility. They propagated
that the nobles were useless castle that should be abolished without loss. The third states
who initially allied with the nobles against the despotism of the king’s ministers, now
considered themselves as one important element of the society. This was to be followed by
class antagonism which in turn prohibited peaceful reform. It also brought the bourgeois into
a radical and destructive mood. The class antagonism and suspicion in between had produced
trouble unknown in the history of France.
When the Estates General met at Versailles in May 1789, controversy arose over the method
of voting. The king refused to promise them to vote altogether (i.e. vote by head) rather
demanded vote separately in three chambers (i.e. by order). The third estates however
opposed it and demanded that deputies of all three orders should sit as a single house and
vote as individuals.
If voting is to be held separately by order, the two upper chambers would outweigh the Third
Estates and the nobles would still hold vastly disproportionate powers. Hence all the lucrative
7
position in society where to be held by the nobles. The third estate thus demanded a complete
break.
Louis meanwhile invited all citizens to meet in their local parish and allowed to elect their
delegates. Through the local election’s deputies were elected. Most of them were lawyers or
officials of the Third Estates. From the first estate priests formed the majority while the
second estates composed mainly of liberal nobles as well as traditionalists as deputies. After
the elections of the deputies, they meet on May 5, 1789. But the issue of voting by head or
order remained unsettled and the third estate took decisive revolutionary step on June 17,
1789. They declared themselves as the national Assembly.
National Assembly and fall of Bastille
When the issue of voting by head or vote by order remained unsolved and the representatives
of the third estate broke in revolution, the king decided to cast his lot with the nobility. He
then locked the meeting hall of the third estate. Members of the third estate then went into an
indoor Tennis Court where they swore that they could not disperse until they drafted a
constitution for France. This is known in history as Tennis Court Oath.
On June 22, 1789, the king opposed the activity of the third but addressed to the delegates of
all the three orders that there could be equality in taxation, civil liberty and regular meetings
of the Estates General. However, he never allowed voting by head. He proposed that France
would be granted with a constitution but the ancient distinction of the three orders were to be
conserved in its entirety. This was not accepted by the third estate. Worried by the situation,
Louis XVI for the time being recognized the national assembly. He also ordered deputies
from all three estates to join it. This was a sort of compromise Louis XVI proposed as
strategy to deploy time. In actual fact at this time Louis XVI had lost control over Estates
General and could not exert leadership. Following the initial compromising strategy, Louis
XVI decided to dissolve the Estates General by military force. The Estates general on their
part were frustrated of aristocratic control of government. Since Louis XVI allied with the
nobles, the third estate feared the nobles more than before.
Meanwhile revolt broke out from the lower classes. There were full of grievances on food
shortage and price as well as unemployment, but since the government was paralyzed, it
could not take effective measures to alleviate their problem. In April 1789 a great riot of
workers occurred and unrest happened everywhere. A similar event occurred in rural areas.
Peasants declared not to pay manorial dues and refused to pay taxes. The country was
encircled by many more problems. The nobility began to exploit the situation just by
position in society where to be held by the nobles. The third estate thus demanded a complete
break.
Louis meanwhile invited all citizens to meet in their local parish and allowed to elect their
delegates. Through the local election’s deputies were elected. Most of them were lawyers or
officials of the Third Estates. From the first estate priests formed the majority while the
second estates composed mainly of liberal nobles as well as traditionalists as deputies. After
the elections of the deputies, they meet on May 5, 1789. But the issue of voting by head or
order remained unsettled and the third estate took decisive revolutionary step on June 17,
1789. They declared themselves as the national Assembly.
National Assembly and fall of Bastille
When the issue of voting by head or vote by order remained unsolved and the representatives
of the third estate broke in revolution, the king decided to cast his lot with the nobility. He
then locked the meeting hall of the third estate. Members of the third estate then went into an
indoor Tennis Court where they swore that they could not disperse until they drafted a
constitution for France. This is known in history as Tennis Court Oath.
On June 22, 1789, the king opposed the activity of the third but addressed to the delegates of
all the three orders that there could be equality in taxation, civil liberty and regular meetings
of the Estates General. However, he never allowed voting by head. He proposed that France
would be granted with a constitution but the ancient distinction of the three orders were to be
conserved in its entirety. This was not accepted by the third estate. Worried by the situation,
Louis XVI for the time being recognized the national assembly. He also ordered deputies
from all three estates to join it. This was a sort of compromise Louis XVI proposed as
strategy to deploy time. In actual fact at this time Louis XVI had lost control over Estates
General and could not exert leadership. Following the initial compromising strategy, Louis
XVI decided to dissolve the Estates General by military force. The Estates general on their
part were frustrated of aristocratic control of government. Since Louis XVI allied with the
nobles, the third estate feared the nobles more than before.
Meanwhile revolt broke out from the lower classes. There were full of grievances on food
shortage and price as well as unemployment, but since the government was paralyzed, it
could not take effective measures to alleviate their problem. In April 1789 a great riot of
workers occurred and unrest happened everywhere. A similar event occurred in rural areas.
Peasants declared not to pay manorial dues and refused to pay taxes. The country was
encircled by many more problems. The nobility began to exploit the situation just by
8
recruiting the unemployed citizens into the army. The social and economic crisis of France
ultimately became a political revolution.
Fear of the situation and the general disturbance, the towns began to arm themselves in self-
defense. All classes of the third estates took for weapons. On July 14, the people came to
Bastille. Bastille was a stronghold build in medieval times and used as place of detention. It
now had served as place of cannon or store. The mass demanded the removal of canon and to
furnish them with arms. When the government refused, the crowd turned into a mob,
besieged and assaulted the fortress. The government eventually surrendered and the mob
murdered some soldiers and governors. They also beheaded and paraded them. This marked
the initial martyrs of the revolution.
The event at Bastille had saved the National assembly at Versailles. It had also forced the
king to accept the citizens committee (formed a new municipal government at Versailles).
The bourgeois or National guard was set up in Paris to keep peace and order. The event still
had the impact to alter the course of the revolution by giving a far more popular dimension.
In the rural regions the situation was too much worsened. Peasants armed themselves and
stood to attack the manor houses, destroyed and burn manorial archives. A general
insurgency led the Great fear in rural France.
In order to control the situation, the Assembly decided to meet the demand of the peasant. A
small group of deputies prepared an evening session on the Night of August 4, 1989. At the
session a few but liberal nobles surrendered their hunting rights, their manorial courts right,
church tithes and some other feudal and seigniorial privileges. Serfdom and all personal
servitudes were declared to be amended and personal tax privileges were also given up. But
the issue of “eminent property” in the manors was left in compromise. Hence compensation
was demanded from peasants for the loss of such a right. Peasants however resented and
refused to pay the compensation. Therefore, tension grew until all seigniorial dues were
finally repealed without compensation in 1793
The Reconstruction of France
As a summary of the August 4 session, the Assembly declared that feudalism was abolished.
Principle of new order was introduced and legal equality substituted legal privilege. On
August 26, 1789, the National Assembly issued the declaration of the rights of man and
citizen.
The main issues embodied in the declaration included
The principle of the new state was to be accordingly of the rule of law
recruiting the unemployed citizens into the army. The social and economic crisis of France
ultimately became a political revolution.
Fear of the situation and the general disturbance, the towns began to arm themselves in self-
defense. All classes of the third estates took for weapons. On July 14, the people came to
Bastille. Bastille was a stronghold build in medieval times and used as place of detention. It
now had served as place of cannon or store. The mass demanded the removal of canon and to
furnish them with arms. When the government refused, the crowd turned into a mob,
besieged and assaulted the fortress. The government eventually surrendered and the mob
murdered some soldiers and governors. They also beheaded and paraded them. This marked
the initial martyrs of the revolution.
The event at Bastille had saved the National assembly at Versailles. It had also forced the
king to accept the citizens committee (formed a new municipal government at Versailles).
The bourgeois or National guard was set up in Paris to keep peace and order. The event still
had the impact to alter the course of the revolution by giving a far more popular dimension.
In the rural regions the situation was too much worsened. Peasants armed themselves and
stood to attack the manor houses, destroyed and burn manorial archives. A general
insurgency led the Great fear in rural France.
In order to control the situation, the Assembly decided to meet the demand of the peasant. A
small group of deputies prepared an evening session on the Night of August 4, 1989. At the
session a few but liberal nobles surrendered their hunting rights, their manorial courts right,
church tithes and some other feudal and seigniorial privileges. Serfdom and all personal
servitudes were declared to be amended and personal tax privileges were also given up. But
the issue of “eminent property” in the manors was left in compromise. Hence compensation
was demanded from peasants for the loss of such a right. Peasants however resented and
refused to pay the compensation. Therefore, tension grew until all seigniorial dues were
finally repealed without compensation in 1793
The Reconstruction of France
As a summary of the August 4 session, the Assembly declared that feudalism was abolished.
Principle of new order was introduced and legal equality substituted legal privilege. On
August 26, 1789, the National Assembly issued the declaration of the rights of man and
citizen.
The main issues embodied in the declaration included
The principle of the new state was to be accordingly of the rule of law
9
Equal individual citizenships and collective sovereignty of the people
Guaranteeing freedom of thought and religion
Not to imprison or punish except by process of law;
Men are born and remain free and equal in rights
Main’s natural rights were held to “liberty, property, security and resistance to
oppression.”
All persons were declared eligible for any public office for which they met the
requirements
Law must fall equally upon all persons
Law was the expression of the general will to be made by all citizens of their
representatives
In addition to all these, the declaration pointed out that the only sovereign was the nation
itself, and all public officials and armed forces acted only in its name. The state might
confiscate the property of private persons if demanded for public purpose. This must be done
however with fair compensation. The declaration became the examination of the Revolution
in France. It became the death certificate of the old regime and set forth the basic obligation
of citizenship.
When the assembly began the actual planning of the new government in September 1789,
divisions arose over veto for king. Some group demanded a strong veto power for the king
with legislative body in two houses. The other group wanted only a delaying vote for the
king. They demand one chamber for the legislative body. It was the patriots who favored the
latter idea because they thought the strong veto power for the king would bring back the
nobility as a collective force.
The king on his part was still hesitant to accept the August fourth decrees and declarations of
the rights of man. Nevertheless, the patriots did not want to concede anything. At the
moment, a crowd of market women and revolutionary militants followed by the Paris
National Guard took the road from Paris to Versailles. Louis XIV was forced to take up his
residence in Paris. They won out the king’s veto power. This event however brought the
suspicion that the revolution was falling into unworthy hands. Disillusioned by the situation,
some revolutionaries even emigrated. This helped the counter revolutionists to gain strength.
The most influential elements the society of friends of the constitution however organized
themselves into clubs called Jacobin club.
Equal individual citizenships and collective sovereignty of the people
Guaranteeing freedom of thought and religion
Not to imprison or punish except by process of law;
Men are born and remain free and equal in rights
Main’s natural rights were held to “liberty, property, security and resistance to
oppression.”
All persons were declared eligible for any public office for which they met the
requirements
Law must fall equally upon all persons
Law was the expression of the general will to be made by all citizens of their
representatives
In addition to all these, the declaration pointed out that the only sovereign was the nation
itself, and all public officials and armed forces acted only in its name. The state might
confiscate the property of private persons if demanded for public purpose. This must be done
however with fair compensation. The declaration became the examination of the Revolution
in France. It became the death certificate of the old regime and set forth the basic obligation
of citizenship.
When the assembly began the actual planning of the new government in September 1789,
divisions arose over veto for king. Some group demanded a strong veto power for the king
with legislative body in two houses. The other group wanted only a delaying vote for the
king. They demand one chamber for the legislative body. It was the patriots who favored the
latter idea because they thought the strong veto power for the king would bring back the
nobility as a collective force.
The king on his part was still hesitant to accept the August fourth decrees and declarations of
the rights of man. Nevertheless, the patriots did not want to concede anything. At the
moment, a crowd of market women and revolutionary militants followed by the Paris
National Guard took the road from Paris to Versailles. Louis XIV was forced to take up his
residence in Paris. They won out the king’s veto power. This event however brought the
suspicion that the revolution was falling into unworthy hands. Disillusioned by the situation,
some revolutionaries even emigrated. This helped the counter revolutionists to gain strength.
The most influential elements the society of friends of the constitution however organized
themselves into clubs called Jacobin club.
10
From October 1789 to September 1791, the National Assembly of France acted as a
constituent Assembly. It was named so because it was prepared to produce a constitution for
the nation.
The constituent Assembly drafted a written constitution. According to the constitutional
changes the Constituent Assembly introduced the institutions of the old Regimes were
destroyed. Among them, old ministers, old parliaments old title of the nobility, old internal
tariffs, old urban municipalities and hundreds of regional systems of law were all removed.
Such measures were aimed at attaining equality of citizenship under national sovereignty.
Instead of the old systems, the Constituent Assembly introduced eighty-three equal
departments in France. It also brought uniform municipal organization with the same form of
government in each town. Local official was also to be elected locally.
The sovereign power of the nation was to be exercised by a unicameral elected assembly
called the legislative Assembly under the constitution of 1791, the king and his ministers
were in general kept weak. In June 1791, Louis XVI handicapped by the situation decided to
escape, join with the émigré noble men and seek support from abroad. Nevertheless, he was
brought later from escape and forced to accept his status as a constitutional monarchy.
Remember that the king however had only a suspense veto power or a delaying veto over
legislation. Otherwise he was nominal. The sovereignty was effectively placed with in the
representative of the people.
The French constitution of 1791 was however modified gradually for practical reasons. The
issue of active and passive citizens was reflected. This is due to the fact that most people of
France were illiterate. Hence though all citizens had been granted with equal rights, it was
only the active citizens who had the right to vote. This group elects’ “electors” on the basis of
one elector for every hundred active citizens. The electors also chose deputies to the National
legislative as well as the certain local officials. By the French constitution, it was males over
twenty-five years of age, and well enough off to pay a small direct tax, qualified as “active”
citizens.
Economically, the National Assembly later called the Constituent Assembly followed a
policy that favored the middle classes than the lower ones. The Constituent Assembly had
also confiscated the church property. The assignat was introduced. Holders of the assignat
(paper money) were allowed to use to buy parcel of the former church land. All the
confiscated church lands were sold. Nevertheless, peasants could not easily buy land. On the
other hand, peasants were disgruntled and were expected to pay compensation for old
manorial fees. The revolutionaries favored free economic individualism. By avoiding old
From October 1789 to September 1791, the National Assembly of France acted as a
constituent Assembly. It was named so because it was prepared to produce a constitution for
the nation.
The constituent Assembly drafted a written constitution. According to the constitutional
changes the Constituent Assembly introduced the institutions of the old Regimes were
destroyed. Among them, old ministers, old parliaments old title of the nobility, old internal
tariffs, old urban municipalities and hundreds of regional systems of law were all removed.
Such measures were aimed at attaining equality of citizenship under national sovereignty.
Instead of the old systems, the Constituent Assembly introduced eighty-three equal
departments in France. It also brought uniform municipal organization with the same form of
government in each town. Local official was also to be elected locally.
The sovereign power of the nation was to be exercised by a unicameral elected assembly
called the legislative Assembly under the constitution of 1791, the king and his ministers
were in general kept weak. In June 1791, Louis XVI handicapped by the situation decided to
escape, join with the émigré noble men and seek support from abroad. Nevertheless, he was
brought later from escape and forced to accept his status as a constitutional monarchy.
Remember that the king however had only a suspense veto power or a delaying veto over
legislation. Otherwise he was nominal. The sovereignty was effectively placed with in the
representative of the people.
The French constitution of 1791 was however modified gradually for practical reasons. The
issue of active and passive citizens was reflected. This is due to the fact that most people of
France were illiterate. Hence though all citizens had been granted with equal rights, it was
only the active citizens who had the right to vote. This group elects’ “electors” on the basis of
one elector for every hundred active citizens. The electors also chose deputies to the National
legislative as well as the certain local officials. By the French constitution, it was males over
twenty-five years of age, and well enough off to pay a small direct tax, qualified as “active”
citizens.
Economically, the National Assembly later called the Constituent Assembly followed a
policy that favored the middle classes than the lower ones. The Constituent Assembly had
also confiscated the church property. The assignat was introduced. Holders of the assignat
(paper money) were allowed to use to buy parcel of the former church land. All the
confiscated church lands were sold. Nevertheless, peasants could not easily buy land. On the
other hand, peasants were disgruntled and were expected to pay compensation for old
manorial fees. The revolutionaries favored free economic individualism. By avoiding old
11
regulations over the sale or quality of goods, free arrangement for individual concern was
widely propagated. Moreover, under the new system, internal tariffs were dismantled;
merchants and artisan’s guilds were abolished. It at the same time allowed the right of every
citizen to enter any trade and conduct it freely, but workers associations and strikes were
prohibited.
Generally, the Assembly encouraged economic individualism, and at least in theory, peasants
and land lords were free to cultivate their fields regardless of the traditional collective
practices. More over all wages were to be settled privately by the workmen and his employer.
Opposition to the Revolution
One element that opposed the Revolution and its measures was the church. The Catholic
Church posed a heavy challenge on the Constituent Assembly. The confiscation of the church
properties caused the conflict. Village parishes stood against the Assembly. Church was to be
separated from the state due to the revolution. The assembly now demanded the church to be
subordinated to the sovereign power. In 1790, a document was set to establish a French
national church.
In addition to the above measures, the Constituent Assembly carried out reformers regarding
the church. Reduction of number of dioceses and provisions of parish priests and bishops
through election and abolition of archbishops were taken under the Constituent Assembly. It
was at the same time decided that the clergy received salaries from the state. All the clergy
were requested to swear an oath of loyalty to the constitution. But only half who took the
oath. This led contradictions which ultimately led the emergence of two churches in France.
These are clandestine and the official churches.
The peasants and urban working classes who got nothing form the revolution supported the
refractory clergy. This situation eventually worried the Constituent Assembly a lot. The
attempt to hunt out and persecute the refractories’ and their allies only stirred up religious
fanaticism.
The other element of opposition came from the émigrés. The king’s relative had left the
country immediately after the fall of Bastille. In the subsequent years, they were joined by
thousands of nobles and the royal army officers. As mentioned above, in 1791 Louis XVI
attempted to free but was brought back. His attempt however caused faction among the
revolutionaries. Some radicals demanded urgent measure up on him after his aborted escape
while other members of the Assembly wanted to maintain the statuesque. The Assembly
regulations over the sale or quality of goods, free arrangement for individual concern was
widely propagated. Moreover, under the new system, internal tariffs were dismantled;
merchants and artisan’s guilds were abolished. It at the same time allowed the right of every
citizen to enter any trade and conduct it freely, but workers associations and strikes were
prohibited.
Generally, the Assembly encouraged economic individualism, and at least in theory, peasants
and land lords were free to cultivate their fields regardless of the traditional collective
practices. More over all wages were to be settled privately by the workmen and his employer.
Opposition to the Revolution
One element that opposed the Revolution and its measures was the church. The Catholic
Church posed a heavy challenge on the Constituent Assembly. The confiscation of the church
properties caused the conflict. Village parishes stood against the Assembly. Church was to be
separated from the state due to the revolution. The assembly now demanded the church to be
subordinated to the sovereign power. In 1790, a document was set to establish a French
national church.
In addition to the above measures, the Constituent Assembly carried out reformers regarding
the church. Reduction of number of dioceses and provisions of parish priests and bishops
through election and abolition of archbishops were taken under the Constituent Assembly. It
was at the same time decided that the clergy received salaries from the state. All the clergy
were requested to swear an oath of loyalty to the constitution. But only half who took the
oath. This led contradictions which ultimately led the emergence of two churches in France.
These are clandestine and the official churches.
The peasants and urban working classes who got nothing form the revolution supported the
refractory clergy. This situation eventually worried the Constituent Assembly a lot. The
attempt to hunt out and persecute the refractories’ and their allies only stirred up religious
fanaticism.
The other element of opposition came from the émigrés. The king’s relative had left the
country immediately after the fall of Bastille. In the subsequent years, they were joined by
thousands of nobles and the royal army officers. As mentioned above, in 1791 Louis XVI
attempted to free but was brought back. His attempt however caused faction among the
revolutionaries. Some radicals demanded urgent measure up on him after his aborted escape
while other members of the Assembly wanted to maintain the statuesque. The Assembly
12
decision to affirm the king in the new regime insisted the radical’s agitation to pursue the
revolution
In September 1791, the constitution was proclaimed and constituent Assembly disbanded.
And in October 1791, the newly elected legislative Assembly was convened. It was a
constitutional monarchy in which a unicameral legislative Assembly confronted a king
unconverted to the new order. Though it was designed to end the problem of France, the
Legislative Assembly collapsed in short time in August 1792. France soon was to involve in
war. At this time the problem from counter revolutionaries at home and the potential danger
abroad (war) dominated the history of French revolution.
In March 1792 Francis II ascended the throne of the Habsburg monarchy and determined to
assist the French queen and involve in French affairs. In August, 1792, France went to war
against Austria, Prussia and the émigré’s Coalition. France suffered defeat and then the
legislative Assembly ordered the arrest of the refractory clergy. Prussian forces had also
threatened to engulf Paris. At this time Louis XVI was investigated as if he was supporting
the Prussian commander. Then the Parisian militant spurred on by the Jacobin club organized
an insurrection. The Armed crowed of Parisians stormed the royal palace at Tuileries on
August 10, 1792.
For long European governments were reluctant to intervene in the affairs of France.
Nonetheless Pro-French and Pro-revolutionary groups emerged in many parts of Europe. The
idea of rights of man propagated by the French Revolution became a universal philosophy
irrespective of time, place, race or nation. In Poland, Hungary, England, Ireland etc revolts
became common after the French example. Correspondingly anti- revolutionary sprit broke
out in many parts of Europe. Europe was to be divided and absorbed by such disturbance.
Hence governments had to take actions against the disturbing phenomena of France. There
were also some revolutionaries like the Girondins who calculated the spread of French
revolutionary spirit to other country as a means to detach Revolutionary citizens of other
country from support of their own government at times of war with France.
THE SECOND REVOLUTION: THE EMERGENCE OF THE REPUBLIC AND
THE REIGN OF TERROR
The Second Revolution
It has been mentioned above that opposition against the revolutionaries arose from abroad
and internally at home. The wars France launched on Austrian monarchy on April 20, 1792
however aggravated the existing unrest and dissatisfaction of the non- propertied classes. In
decision to affirm the king in the new regime insisted the radical’s agitation to pursue the
revolution
In September 1791, the constitution was proclaimed and constituent Assembly disbanded.
And in October 1791, the newly elected legislative Assembly was convened. It was a
constitutional monarchy in which a unicameral legislative Assembly confronted a king
unconverted to the new order. Though it was designed to end the problem of France, the
Legislative Assembly collapsed in short time in August 1792. France soon was to involve in
war. At this time the problem from counter revolutionaries at home and the potential danger
abroad (war) dominated the history of French revolution.
In March 1792 Francis II ascended the throne of the Habsburg monarchy and determined to
assist the French queen and involve in French affairs. In August, 1792, France went to war
against Austria, Prussia and the émigré’s Coalition. France suffered defeat and then the
legislative Assembly ordered the arrest of the refractory clergy. Prussian forces had also
threatened to engulf Paris. At this time Louis XVI was investigated as if he was supporting
the Prussian commander. Then the Parisian militant spurred on by the Jacobin club organized
an insurrection. The Armed crowed of Parisians stormed the royal palace at Tuileries on
August 10, 1792.
For long European governments were reluctant to intervene in the affairs of France.
Nonetheless Pro-French and Pro-revolutionary groups emerged in many parts of Europe. The
idea of rights of man propagated by the French Revolution became a universal philosophy
irrespective of time, place, race or nation. In Poland, Hungary, England, Ireland etc revolts
became common after the French example. Correspondingly anti- revolutionary sprit broke
out in many parts of Europe. Europe was to be divided and absorbed by such disturbance.
Hence governments had to take actions against the disturbing phenomena of France. There
were also some revolutionaries like the Girondins who calculated the spread of French
revolutionary spirit to other country as a means to detach Revolutionary citizens of other
country from support of their own government at times of war with France.
THE SECOND REVOLUTION: THE EMERGENCE OF THE REPUBLIC AND
THE REIGN OF TERROR
The Second Revolution
It has been mentioned above that opposition against the revolutionaries arose from abroad
and internally at home. The wars France launched on Austrian monarchy on April 20, 1792
however aggravated the existing unrest and dissatisfaction of the non- propertied classes. In
13
addition, the constituent and legislative assembly did not serve the interest of the lower class
as expected. They did little for the peasants and urban workers. The rise of price, the absence
of adequate measures regarding land distribution, the uncertainty and loss of value of the
paper money (the assignat), the deterioration of living conditions etc. caused serious problem
to the lower classes of France.
This made the most dissatisfied groups to rally to a revolution and stand against the
revolutionary government of France. The Revolutionary government had also faced the
challenge from Prussia and Austria. They declared any attempt on the French monarchy, and
queen would bring a relative measure against the inhabitants of Paris. This proclamation
however roused the most violent actions from the masses of the French people. The more
radical section of Jacobin leaders such as Robespierre, Danton and Marat began a decisive
action against the king. After recruiting army in the summer of 1792, the working-class rose
in revolt, they imprisoned the king and the royal family. In Paris, they set up a revolutionary
municipal government of “Commune”. This body usurped the power of the legislative
assembly, forced the cancel of the constitution and insisted election by universal male
suffrage. It also demanded a constitutional convention to govern France. In addition, it sought
a new and more democratic constitution. At the moment, there were hysteria, anarchy, and
terror in Paris. Some section of the insurrectionary volunteers in Paris even declared not to
fight enemy troops at the frontier before destroying the enemy in Paris. The rebellious priests
and other counter-revolutionaries were hunted out by this ground in an event known as the
September massacre.
Absolutism was swept away and constitutional government was introduced. Legislative
representations and local self-government also came into effect. In addition, aristocratic and
corporate privileges were done away with, and civic equality and uniform institutions across
the country were introduced. Religious minorities were liberated and peasants were freed
from seigniorial system. Still however the revolution was on the beginning. The old order
was not entirely vanquished. There were attempts of resistance from the vestiges of refractory
priests, émigré’s and royalists in France. They were even had strong support from foreign
monarchs and aristocrats. In addition, many ordinary French citizens were also turned against
the revolutionaries.
Military defeat and counter revolutionary challenge brought for example division within the
patriots of the revolution themselves. Hence increasingly radical group on the one hand and
opposite groups who stood against the revolution later emerged. The Jacobins eventually
created an alliance with urban militant groups known the sans-culottes.
addition, the constituent and legislative assembly did not serve the interest of the lower class
as expected. They did little for the peasants and urban workers. The rise of price, the absence
of adequate measures regarding land distribution, the uncertainty and loss of value of the
paper money (the assignat), the deterioration of living conditions etc. caused serious problem
to the lower classes of France.
This made the most dissatisfied groups to rally to a revolution and stand against the
revolutionary government of France. The Revolutionary government had also faced the
challenge from Prussia and Austria. They declared any attempt on the French monarchy, and
queen would bring a relative measure against the inhabitants of Paris. This proclamation
however roused the most violent actions from the masses of the French people. The more
radical section of Jacobin leaders such as Robespierre, Danton and Marat began a decisive
action against the king. After recruiting army in the summer of 1792, the working-class rose
in revolt, they imprisoned the king and the royal family. In Paris, they set up a revolutionary
municipal government of “Commune”. This body usurped the power of the legislative
assembly, forced the cancel of the constitution and insisted election by universal male
suffrage. It also demanded a constitutional convention to govern France. In addition, it sought
a new and more democratic constitution. At the moment, there were hysteria, anarchy, and
terror in Paris. Some section of the insurrectionary volunteers in Paris even declared not to
fight enemy troops at the frontier before destroying the enemy in Paris. The rebellious priests
and other counter-revolutionaries were hunted out by this ground in an event known as the
September massacre.
Absolutism was swept away and constitutional government was introduced. Legislative
representations and local self-government also came into effect. In addition, aristocratic and
corporate privileges were done away with, and civic equality and uniform institutions across
the country were introduced. Religious minorities were liberated and peasants were freed
from seigniorial system. Still however the revolution was on the beginning. The old order
was not entirely vanquished. There were attempts of resistance from the vestiges of refractory
priests, émigré’s and royalists in France. They were even had strong support from foreign
monarchs and aristocrats. In addition, many ordinary French citizens were also turned against
the revolutionaries.
Military defeat and counter revolutionary challenge brought for example division within the
patriots of the revolution themselves. Hence increasingly radical group on the one hand and
opposite groups who stood against the revolution later emerged. The Jacobins eventually
created an alliance with urban militant groups known the sans-culottes.
14
The government however responded to the second revolution with confusions by national
defense and strong repression on the movement. Thus vacuum of authority was created after
the August 10, 1792 insurrection convention.
The Republic and the Reign of Terror
Following the insurrection of August 10 1792, a revolutionary Paris commune or city
government became the power center. Yet this body could not control events going on in
Paris. The National convention met on September 20, 1792 and declared France a republic.
France though disorganized at the moment scored victory over alien forces and even
occupied cities and nations such as Belgium, Mainz, Savoy and others. This again created
revolutionary elements in these countries as sympathizers of the French revolution.
In the country the national convention issued to aid all peoples requesting their liberty.
French revolution hence was to spread over other countries here after. This however, created
problems to the Republic and the nation itself. Other European powers like Britain, Dutch,
Prussia and Austria began preparations for war with France. On February 1, 1793 France
declared war upon these powers which helped the Republic to annex territories out of them.
In spite of such successes, division arose with in the convention. In the convention most (all)
of the leaders were Jacobins. They however split at least into two major groups: The
Girondins and the Mountains. The first group could not be as such most radical revolutionary
as they were during the legislative Assembly. They demand provincial liberty and laissez-
faire economy. They also contradicted with the growing radicalism of Paris. Hence broke
with the Jacobin club. The second group called the mountains represented those who came
from the great provincial cities. They were again representatives of the city of Paris who
shared their political strength to the more popular and radical elements in the city. It included
the Parisian electors such as Danton, Robespierre and Marat who were the leading members
of the Jacobin club. These two bodies the mountain and Girondins were denouncing each
other. In between the two there were several hundred deputies and over called the centrists or
the plain. This group represents those who were determined to the revolution yet had no
certain path to follow. They eventually sided with those who promised to consolidate the
Revolution.
As mentioned above there were also the sans-culottes who sought meaningful equality and
mighty actions against foreign powers. They were mainly the militant urban working classes.
They were targeted however to attacks by Girondins. The question or the fate of the king that
led controversies and contradictions with the revolutionaries was put on trial for treason in
The government however responded to the second revolution with confusions by national
defense and strong repression on the movement. Thus vacuum of authority was created after
the August 10, 1792 insurrection convention.
The Republic and the Reign of Terror
Following the insurrection of August 10 1792, a revolutionary Paris commune or city
government became the power center. Yet this body could not control events going on in
Paris. The National convention met on September 20, 1792 and declared France a republic.
France though disorganized at the moment scored victory over alien forces and even
occupied cities and nations such as Belgium, Mainz, Savoy and others. This again created
revolutionary elements in these countries as sympathizers of the French revolution.
In the country the national convention issued to aid all peoples requesting their liberty.
French revolution hence was to spread over other countries here after. This however, created
problems to the Republic and the nation itself. Other European powers like Britain, Dutch,
Prussia and Austria began preparations for war with France. On February 1, 1793 France
declared war upon these powers which helped the Republic to annex territories out of them.
In spite of such successes, division arose with in the convention. In the convention most (all)
of the leaders were Jacobins. They however split at least into two major groups: The
Girondins and the Mountains. The first group could not be as such most radical revolutionary
as they were during the legislative Assembly. They demand provincial liberty and laissez-
faire economy. They also contradicted with the growing radicalism of Paris. Hence broke
with the Jacobin club. The second group called the mountains represented those who came
from the great provincial cities. They were again representatives of the city of Paris who
shared their political strength to the more popular and radical elements in the city. It included
the Parisian electors such as Danton, Robespierre and Marat who were the leading members
of the Jacobin club. These two bodies the mountain and Girondins were denouncing each
other. In between the two there were several hundred deputies and over called the centrists or
the plain. This group represents those who were determined to the revolution yet had no
certain path to follow. They eventually sided with those who promised to consolidate the
Revolution.
As mentioned above there were also the sans-culottes who sought meaningful equality and
mighty actions against foreign powers. They were mainly the militant urban working classes.
They were targeted however to attacks by Girondins. The question or the fate of the king that
led controversies and contradictions with the revolutionaries was put on trial for treason in
15
December 1792. Finally, the king was pronounced guiltily on January 15, 1793. On January
21, 1793, the king was executed marking the overall destruction of the old regime.
The Reign of Terror
Although the above events marked the practical end of old Regime, the execution of the king
had produced new problems in the Revolutionary movement. The home problems and
external challenge became more serious than ever. In the spring of 1793, the revolution was
encircled by invasion, civil war and economic crisis. A new offensive was launched on
France from allied forces of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Spain and piedmont. This was
worsened by the pressure from the counter revolutionaries, price rise, and fell of currency,
food shortage and unrest. Rebels in rural areas attacked supporters of the republic and
revolted against them Priests and nobles began to organize and led the catholic and royalist
insurgents.
The sons-culottes declared now that both the convention and the Paris commune were unable
to react positively to public demand. They instead adopted a program of “public safety”.
Through this program they devised price control on basic items; currency control, requisition,
legislation against hoarding of food etc. They were however opposed by the Girondins but
were joined in by the Mountains. The Paris commune under sans-culotte pressure,
demonstrated, invaded the convention and forced the arrest of the Girondist leaders. A
revolutionary crisis occurred in France due to lack of government. France at this time too,
had been pressurized by foreign army, émigré’s and peasant revolts. A strong counter
revolutionary force emerged particularly after May 1793.
In France, the authority of the convention became widely unaccepted and extremists of the
left also rebelled against the convention. Great provincial cities known as “Federalists” stood
for a more federal and decentralized republic. The royalists took control over some influential
towns. The convention had to defend itself and declared that defying the authority of the
convention was to betray the nation itself. A more militant group called enrages joined with
the sans-culottes. Under the machination of Maximillien Robespierre (a Jacobin), the
convention flowed a program to bring about a democratic republic.
These all conditions urged some revolutionaries to let terror to bring order on the day. The
Sans-culottes in particular had advocated terror to give force to the law. The Convention
however responded initially just by introducing the program of Robespierre. They determined
to repress anarchy, civil strife and counter revolutions and win war abroad through a great
national mobilization of resources and people of France. In addition, they devised preparation
December 1792. Finally, the king was pronounced guiltily on January 15, 1793. On January
21, 1793, the king was executed marking the overall destruction of the old regime.
The Reign of Terror
Although the above events marked the practical end of old Regime, the execution of the king
had produced new problems in the Revolutionary movement. The home problems and
external challenge became more serious than ever. In the spring of 1793, the revolution was
encircled by invasion, civil war and economic crisis. A new offensive was launched on
France from allied forces of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Spain and piedmont. This was
worsened by the pressure from the counter revolutionaries, price rise, and fell of currency,
food shortage and unrest. Rebels in rural areas attacked supporters of the republic and
revolted against them Priests and nobles began to organize and led the catholic and royalist
insurgents.
The sons-culottes declared now that both the convention and the Paris commune were unable
to react positively to public demand. They instead adopted a program of “public safety”.
Through this program they devised price control on basic items; currency control, requisition,
legislation against hoarding of food etc. They were however opposed by the Girondins but
were joined in by the Mountains. The Paris commune under sans-culotte pressure,
demonstrated, invaded the convention and forced the arrest of the Girondist leaders. A
revolutionary crisis occurred in France due to lack of government. France at this time too,
had been pressurized by foreign army, émigré’s and peasant revolts. A strong counter
revolutionary force emerged particularly after May 1793.
In France, the authority of the convention became widely unaccepted and extremists of the
left also rebelled against the convention. Great provincial cities known as “Federalists” stood
for a more federal and decentralized republic. The royalists took control over some influential
towns. The convention had to defend itself and declared that defying the authority of the
convention was to betray the nation itself. A more militant group called enrages joined with
the sans-culottes. Under the machination of Maximillien Robespierre (a Jacobin), the
convention flowed a program to bring about a democratic republic.
These all conditions urged some revolutionaries to let terror to bring order on the day. The
Sans-culottes in particular had advocated terror to give force to the law. The Convention
however responded initially just by introducing the program of Robespierre. They determined
to repress anarchy, civil strife and counter revolutions and win war abroad through a great
national mobilization of resources and people of France. In addition, they devised preparation
16
of democratic construction and initiation of legislation for the lower classes. They also
decided to grant wide power to a committee of public safety. In June the triumphant
mountains had drafted a new democratic constitution for the French Republic. But until the
republic defeated its enemies, elections, local self-government and guarantees of individual
liberty were to be suspended. The convention decided to create the main organ responsible
for matters related to military, economic, political and even control over local officials i.e.
Committee of public safety (Composed twelve-men). Robespierre emerged as the
committee’s leading personality.
The event gave way for the centralization of the revolution. Local political clubs began to
create crucial links in the revolutionary government and functioned as a main tool in the
public. The revolutionary element was also faced with groups who needed extreme or ultra-
revolutionary measures on the one hand and other groups who needed relaxation of the
rigorous measures. It was at this situation that the convention and committee of public safety
unleashed the reign terror just to suppress the counter revolutionaries. As an official policy,
the Reign of terror wanted to organize repression. After organizing a committee of General
Security, they took actions against those who rebelled on the Republic. In general people who
were perceived enemy to the revolution were targets of terror. Many thousands of peasants
died. Refractory priest and émigré’s and nobles were also punished. This event remained as
an indelible memory of France Revolution.
Then after the committee of public safety functioned as a joint dictator ship or war cabinet to
conduct the government. It centralized the administration and in order to win the war, the
committee declared the levee en mass (able bodied men to reply). In 1794 the National
Convention decreed the abolition of slavery in the French colonies and during the climax of
the Revolution (1793-1794) the committee of public safety was determined to concentrate on
revolutionary initiatives. It then began to arrest leading members and disapproved the
turbulent democracy of popular clubs and local assemblies.
A movement of de Christianization i.e. associating all religion as counter revolution began by
extreme terrorist. Latter however Robespierre introduced toleration of peaceable Catholics to
the committee of public safely became the movements would alienate the revolution from the
mass. He attempted in 1794 reconciliation but failed. Meanwhile actives were taken against
extreme Terrorists by the committee. In March 1794, the revolutionary Paris commune was
destroyed and the right-wing members the mountains known as Dantonists were liquidated.
of democratic construction and initiation of legislation for the lower classes. They also
decided to grant wide power to a committee of public safety. In June the triumphant
mountains had drafted a new democratic constitution for the French Republic. But until the
republic defeated its enemies, elections, local self-government and guarantees of individual
liberty were to be suspended. The convention decided to create the main organ responsible
for matters related to military, economic, political and even control over local officials i.e.
Committee of public safety (Composed twelve-men). Robespierre emerged as the
committee’s leading personality.
The event gave way for the centralization of the revolution. Local political clubs began to
create crucial links in the revolutionary government and functioned as a main tool in the
public. The revolutionary element was also faced with groups who needed extreme or ultra-
revolutionary measures on the one hand and other groups who needed relaxation of the
rigorous measures. It was at this situation that the convention and committee of public safety
unleashed the reign terror just to suppress the counter revolutionaries. As an official policy,
the Reign of terror wanted to organize repression. After organizing a committee of General
Security, they took actions against those who rebelled on the Republic. In general people who
were perceived enemy to the revolution were targets of terror. Many thousands of peasants
died. Refractory priest and émigré’s and nobles were also punished. This event remained as
an indelible memory of France Revolution.
Then after the committee of public safety functioned as a joint dictator ship or war cabinet to
conduct the government. It centralized the administration and in order to win the war, the
committee declared the levee en mass (able bodied men to reply). In 1794 the National
Convention decreed the abolition of slavery in the French colonies and during the climax of
the Revolution (1793-1794) the committee of public safety was determined to concentrate on
revolutionary initiatives. It then began to arrest leading members and disapproved the
turbulent democracy of popular clubs and local assemblies.
A movement of de Christianization i.e. associating all religion as counter revolution began by
extreme terrorist. Latter however Robespierre introduced toleration of peaceable Catholics to
the committee of public safely became the movements would alienate the revolution from the
mass. He attempted in 1794 reconciliation but failed. Meanwhile actives were taken against
extreme Terrorists by the committee. In March 1794, the revolutionary Paris commune was
destroyed and the right-wing members the mountains known as Dantonists were liquidated.
17
The fate of French Revolution eventually rested upon the army. This was prompted by the
threat from counter revolutionaries and foreign powers. French Republic in 1794 thus
possessed an army of 800,000. It was a national army commanded by able officers.
With this army, French in June 1794 won battles in Belgium against the Allied Powers. It
soon rode to Amsterdam and replaced the Old Dutch province by a revolutionary Batavian
Republic.
The military success France scored abroad had boasted the power of the republic itself. The
most powerful member of the committee, Robespierre and the committee of public safety had
outlawed leaders of both the moderate and extreme radical factions. Robespierre began to
take actions on suspects. He executed and imprisoned groups and members thought
dangerous for his power. This moves eventually led a conspiracy against him. The
convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre and some of his associates. The outlawing of
Robespierre that held on July 27, 1794 called of Thermidor decided the execution of him and
he was guillotined on the next day.
In the immediate after math of the event, the Thermidorians determined to push the
revolution farther forward but faced with challenges and problems. In fact, under them, terror
subsided, price was controlled and other regulations were removed. Yet inflation continued
and price rose again and this seriously affected the working classes. Hence, they rose in
revolt; opposition and insurrection were followed by arrest and execution of participants. A
sort of “white terror” was unleashed once again and many ex-Jacobins became targets. The
convention closed the Paris Jacobin.
THE CONSTITUTIONAL REPUBLIC: THE DIRECTORY 1795-1799
France from 1795-1799 was ruled or dominated by a constitutional republic called directory.
Before the creation of the directory, there were attempts particularly by the former militants
to halt the action of the Thermidorians. Poorly organized sans-culottes invaded the
constitutions hall in May 1795. The government finally overwhelmed the insurgents. This
event demonstrated the final collapse of the Parisian revolutionary crowd and the eclipse of
the egalitarian movement. The extremists were destroyed and the remaining members of the
convention considered the end of the revolution. Then on, the Thermidorians drafted a new
constitution i.e. the constitution of the year III (1795). With this the revolutionary
government that replaced the constitutional monarchy in 1793, gave way to a constitutional
republic known as the Directory. It was the first formally constituted French republic that
lasted only four years.
The fate of French Revolution eventually rested upon the army. This was prompted by the
threat from counter revolutionaries and foreign powers. French Republic in 1794 thus
possessed an army of 800,000. It was a national army commanded by able officers.
With this army, French in June 1794 won battles in Belgium against the Allied Powers. It
soon rode to Amsterdam and replaced the Old Dutch province by a revolutionary Batavian
Republic.
The military success France scored abroad had boasted the power of the republic itself. The
most powerful member of the committee, Robespierre and the committee of public safety had
outlawed leaders of both the moderate and extreme radical factions. Robespierre began to
take actions on suspects. He executed and imprisoned groups and members thought
dangerous for his power. This moves eventually led a conspiracy against him. The
convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre and some of his associates. The outlawing of
Robespierre that held on July 27, 1794 called of Thermidor decided the execution of him and
he was guillotined on the next day.
In the immediate after math of the event, the Thermidorians determined to push the
revolution farther forward but faced with challenges and problems. In fact, under them, terror
subsided, price was controlled and other regulations were removed. Yet inflation continued
and price rose again and this seriously affected the working classes. Hence, they rose in
revolt; opposition and insurrection were followed by arrest and execution of participants. A
sort of “white terror” was unleashed once again and many ex-Jacobins became targets. The
convention closed the Paris Jacobin.
THE CONSTITUTIONAL REPUBLIC: THE DIRECTORY 1795-1799
France from 1795-1799 was ruled or dominated by a constitutional republic called directory.
Before the creation of the directory, there were attempts particularly by the former militants
to halt the action of the Thermidorians. Poorly organized sans-culottes invaded the
constitutions hall in May 1795. The government finally overwhelmed the insurgents. This
event demonstrated the final collapse of the Parisian revolutionary crowd and the eclipse of
the egalitarian movement. The extremists were destroyed and the remaining members of the
convention considered the end of the revolution. Then on, the Thermidorians drafted a new
constitution i.e. the constitution of the year III (1795). With this the revolutionary
government that replaced the constitutional monarchy in 1793, gave way to a constitutional
republic known as the Directory. It was the first formally constituted French republic that
lasted only four years.
18
Proponents of the directory declared that the republic should be governed by the best citizens
from the propertied classes. It restricted the politically active class from participation in the
government. It also abandoned the universal male suffrage promised in 1793. Instead the new
constitution issued those persons chosen as electors were to be from men of the upper middle
class. The idea of free education, the right to subsistence, public assistance etc envisaged in
the earlier movements was however given least attention. At this time the National legislative
Assembly was divided into the lower and upper chamber. The lower chamber was also called
the council of five Hundred while the upper chamber as the council of Ancients (being men
over age of forty).
These chambers elect the executives called the Directory from which the name of the regime
was adopted. It was made of five directors. Since the government was constitutionally in the
hands of substantial rural and urban property owners, it really had so wider base. People
thought the situation as being to restore the monarchy.
The directly in general faced with challenges; there were for example, the royalists in Paris
who dissatisfied elements of the two councils were centered at Clichy club. This group had
links with the late king’s brother Louis XVIII who intended the restoration of the old regime
and punish all those who involved in 1789 Revolution. The mass of the French however had
hatreds to reinstitution of the old system.
There was another group demanding more democratic ideas and movements. Gracchus
Babeuf formed a tiny group of extremists i.e. the conspiracy of Equal in 1796. He demanded
the removal of the directory and replacement of a “democratic” government under which
private properly would be abolished and equally decreed. The directory suppressed the
movement and Babeuf himself was guillotined. This however could not relieve the pressure
of the lower classes. Election was held in France which in most case made constitutional
monarchists or vague royalists’ candidates. The attempt to change the balance in favor of the
royalists could not be endured. Now, Napoleon Bonaparte emerged to the scene. This able
commander was succeeded to make the civilian government of Paris dependent on him.
During this time the republic was besieged by international and domestic problems. There
were challenges with Austria, Britain, and Belgium etc. and there were problems from the
royalists. The many problems that encircled the directory led the coup de tat of Fructidor in
September 1797.It was a turning point both for the constitutional republic in France and for
the whole Europe.
The event forced the directory to call up on Bonaparte for help. Bonaparte sent one of his
generals to Paris to settle the situation. Accordingly, two directors were purged and one of the
Proponents of the directory declared that the republic should be governed by the best citizens
from the propertied classes. It restricted the politically active class from participation in the
government. It also abandoned the universal male suffrage promised in 1793. Instead the new
constitution issued those persons chosen as electors were to be from men of the upper middle
class. The idea of free education, the right to subsistence, public assistance etc envisaged in
the earlier movements was however given least attention. At this time the National legislative
Assembly was divided into the lower and upper chamber. The lower chamber was also called
the council of five Hundred while the upper chamber as the council of Ancients (being men
over age of forty).
These chambers elect the executives called the Directory from which the name of the regime
was adopted. It was made of five directors. Since the government was constitutionally in the
hands of substantial rural and urban property owners, it really had so wider base. People
thought the situation as being to restore the monarchy.
The directly in general faced with challenges; there were for example, the royalists in Paris
who dissatisfied elements of the two councils were centered at Clichy club. This group had
links with the late king’s brother Louis XVIII who intended the restoration of the old regime
and punish all those who involved in 1789 Revolution. The mass of the French however had
hatreds to reinstitution of the old system.
There was another group demanding more democratic ideas and movements. Gracchus
Babeuf formed a tiny group of extremists i.e. the conspiracy of Equal in 1796. He demanded
the removal of the directory and replacement of a “democratic” government under which
private properly would be abolished and equally decreed. The directory suppressed the
movement and Babeuf himself was guillotined. This however could not relieve the pressure
of the lower classes. Election was held in France which in most case made constitutional
monarchists or vague royalists’ candidates. The attempt to change the balance in favor of the
royalists could not be endured. Now, Napoleon Bonaparte emerged to the scene. This able
commander was succeeded to make the civilian government of Paris dependent on him.
During this time the republic was besieged by international and domestic problems. There
were challenges with Austria, Britain, and Belgium etc. and there were problems from the
royalists. The many problems that encircled the directory led the coup de tat of Fructidor in
September 1797.It was a turning point both for the constitutional republic in France and for
the whole Europe.
The event forced the directory to call up on Bonaparte for help. Bonaparte sent one of his
generals to Paris to settle the situation. Accordingly, two directors were purged and one of the
19
“Organizers of victory” in the committee of public safety was forced to exile. Here after the
army became the most influential element in the French Republic. Meanwhile peace
prevailed over the continent for only Great Britain and France remained at war. Austria
recognized the French annexation of Belgium and its right to control the left Bank of the
Rhine France had also influenced the Cisalpine Republic in Italy. But, this situation helped
the expansion revolutionary ideas in Italy. New republican parties were also set up in some
parts of Italy, Switzerland and even in Germany. In spite of such development, the coup de
tat of Fructidor marked the culmination of the republic as a free and constitutional
government. Both from the left and right uprisings intensified and the Directory remained
somehow as inefficient dictator. It failed to restore financial stability, and was absorbed by
guerrilla activities.
Napoleon Bonaparte only waited until the ripening of the situation. In 1798 France once more
came at conflict with Austrian, British and Russian coalition forces. It involved itself in
unsuccessful wars. This created an ideal situation for Bonaparte to take in part. He came
unexpectedly from Egypt, and soon exploited the demand of the Directory for change. The
Directory chose him to side with them against their enemy. Most republicans of the five
hundred and the ancients were targeted by attacks. Bonaparte and his followers now resorted
to force and in coup de tat of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) armed soldiers drove the
legislators from the chambers.
After the coup de tat a new form of the republic entitled the consulate was emerged. It was
led by three consuls: Bonaparte being the first consul. France from 1799 to 1804 was led by
the Authoritarian Republic called the Consulate. It was a new form of republic with executive
powers vested in the hands of three consuls. During this time France fell under an enlightened
despot: Napoleon
THE AGE OF NAPOLEON
France, after the ups and downs since the beginning of the revolution, came finally under the
power of one man. The directory’s attempt to carry out expansion and establish republic
abroad under French influence brought resentment and wars with Europeans. There also
arose internal challenges against the Directory. From all problems or complications, it was a
general who benefited most. Napoleon Bonaparte came to substitute the French republic with
a personal dictatorship.
Napoleon Bonaparte assured himself, as a popular and an enlightened prince. After he
assumed the position of consul, Bonaparte went on reorganizing France. Not only, had he
“Organizers of victory” in the committee of public safety was forced to exile. Here after the
army became the most influential element in the French Republic. Meanwhile peace
prevailed over the continent for only Great Britain and France remained at war. Austria
recognized the French annexation of Belgium and its right to control the left Bank of the
Rhine France had also influenced the Cisalpine Republic in Italy. But, this situation helped
the expansion revolutionary ideas in Italy. New republican parties were also set up in some
parts of Italy, Switzerland and even in Germany. In spite of such development, the coup de
tat of Fructidor marked the culmination of the republic as a free and constitutional
government. Both from the left and right uprisings intensified and the Directory remained
somehow as inefficient dictator. It failed to restore financial stability, and was absorbed by
guerrilla activities.
Napoleon Bonaparte only waited until the ripening of the situation. In 1798 France once more
came at conflict with Austrian, British and Russian coalition forces. It involved itself in
unsuccessful wars. This created an ideal situation for Bonaparte to take in part. He came
unexpectedly from Egypt, and soon exploited the demand of the Directory for change. The
Directory chose him to side with them against their enemy. Most republicans of the five
hundred and the ancients were targeted by attacks. Bonaparte and his followers now resorted
to force and in coup de tat of Brumaire (November 9, 1799) armed soldiers drove the
legislators from the chambers.
After the coup de tat a new form of the republic entitled the consulate was emerged. It was
led by three consuls: Bonaparte being the first consul. France from 1799 to 1804 was led by
the Authoritarian Republic called the Consulate. It was a new form of republic with executive
powers vested in the hands of three consuls. During this time France fell under an enlightened
despot: Napoleon
THE AGE OF NAPOLEON
France, after the ups and downs since the beginning of the revolution, came finally under the
power of one man. The directory’s attempt to carry out expansion and establish republic
abroad under French influence brought resentment and wars with Europeans. There also
arose internal challenges against the Directory. From all problems or complications, it was a
general who benefited most. Napoleon Bonaparte came to substitute the French republic with
a personal dictatorship.
Napoleon Bonaparte assured himself, as a popular and an enlightened prince. After he
assumed the position of consul, Bonaparte went on reorganizing France. Not only, had he
20
geared himself at France but Napoleon had also sought to bring the public life of both France
and Europe being dependent up on him. He designed to create a strong centralized state of
France and imperially reorganized Europe under French domination. The implementation,
mass conscription (creation of efficient administrative state in France) and consequent
militarization of European society were at top of his priority.
Internally Bonaparte planned a written constitution approved through a general referendum or
plebiscite. The constitution provided universal male suffrage. Nevertheless, citizens were
only allowed to elect notables (Prominent local individuals). The elected notables were again
appointed to public office only by the government itself. Therefore, though the notables were
allowed for position, they had no actual powers of their own. They neither make nor discuss
on important issues such legislation.
Beyond the drafting of new written constitution, Bonaparte had restored order by introducing
improvement in taxation and taking measures on corrupt officials. The paper money,
assignat, was removed, banks were introduced, tax exemptions on birth status or special
arrangement were brought in to an end. Important reforms such as reconciliation with
royalists, republicans and the church were made; a general amnesty and return of exiles
were also proclaimed by the new government. By the concordat or agreement of 1801,
Bonaparte protected religious freedom in France and alleviated the religious problems of the
nation.
The consulate, with the establishment of peace and order, turned to the field of law and
administration. He took measures on reversing the feudal order and set the modern state of
France. Estates, legal classes, privileges, local liberties, hereditary offices, guilds or manors
etc were all out lowed. All public authority was concentrated in paid agents of government
and all the authority of government fell upon all people alike. Paid officials, judges and army
were introduced. More over officials were allowed to position only by their ability.
In general Bonaparte introduced a number of changes in different aspects. The most
remarkable achievements lay however on laws. He provided France with legal and judicial
uniformity. Among the famous Napoleonic codes; the civil code, code of civil and criminal
procedures, the commercial and penal code, the law of properly and contracts, debts leases,
stock companies etc were mentionable as basic amendments in law. The law however had
limitation such as limitation on property right of women and restrictions on previous regions
and labor unions. The role of working classes in the politics of France was thus deceived.
After all these measures and settlement, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself the popular
consul elected for life in a plebiscite in 1802. In 1804, he became emperor and the
geared himself at France but Napoleon had also sought to bring the public life of both France
and Europe being dependent up on him. He designed to create a strong centralized state of
France and imperially reorganized Europe under French domination. The implementation,
mass conscription (creation of efficient administrative state in France) and consequent
militarization of European society were at top of his priority.
Internally Bonaparte planned a written constitution approved through a general referendum or
plebiscite. The constitution provided universal male suffrage. Nevertheless, citizens were
only allowed to elect notables (Prominent local individuals). The elected notables were again
appointed to public office only by the government itself. Therefore, though the notables were
allowed for position, they had no actual powers of their own. They neither make nor discuss
on important issues such legislation.
Beyond the drafting of new written constitution, Bonaparte had restored order by introducing
improvement in taxation and taking measures on corrupt officials. The paper money,
assignat, was removed, banks were introduced, tax exemptions on birth status or special
arrangement were brought in to an end. Important reforms such as reconciliation with
royalists, republicans and the church were made; a general amnesty and return of exiles
were also proclaimed by the new government. By the concordat or agreement of 1801,
Bonaparte protected religious freedom in France and alleviated the religious problems of the
nation.
The consulate, with the establishment of peace and order, turned to the field of law and
administration. He took measures on reversing the feudal order and set the modern state of
France. Estates, legal classes, privileges, local liberties, hereditary offices, guilds or manors
etc were all out lowed. All public authority was concentrated in paid agents of government
and all the authority of government fell upon all people alike. Paid officials, judges and army
were introduced. More over officials were allowed to position only by their ability.
In general Bonaparte introduced a number of changes in different aspects. The most
remarkable achievements lay however on laws. He provided France with legal and judicial
uniformity. Among the famous Napoleonic codes; the civil code, code of civil and criminal
procedures, the commercial and penal code, the law of properly and contracts, debts leases,
stock companies etc were mentionable as basic amendments in law. The law however had
limitation such as limitation on property right of women and restrictions on previous regions
and labor unions. The role of working classes in the politics of France was thus deceived.
After all these measures and settlement, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself the popular
consul elected for life in a plebiscite in 1802. In 1804, he became emperor and the
21
government was declared a republic. The French consulate became the empire and in the
name of Napoleon I, Bonaparte emerged as Emperor of France. France, here after, was no
more revolutionary at home but became revolutionary abroad along its border. Above all,
France under Napoleon became in comparably a major state in Europe.
The Rise of Napoleon in Europe.
Evolving out from a general of the Revolution to an imperial power Napoleon determined to
be master of Europe. He therefore began to defeat anti French coalition and conquer
territories. French expansion into Italy, Germany, Spain and other areas set in to motion some
contradictory reactions. There were collaborations as well as resistance.
Initially in 1802, France and Britain had sued peace at Amiens. But Napoleon broke the
promise of the treaty and began the expansion of French influence in Italy, Switzerland and
North America. France also intended to avoid British trade. With this the treaty of Amiens
failed to guarantee peace but revived century old struggle for predominance between France
and Britain. Napoleon then decided upon the blockade of British ships along the whole coast
of Western Europe and determined to invade Britain itself. The British urged on its part, an
anti-French coalition. Austria, Russia, Sweden and Britain joined in a great coalition to put an
end to Napoleon’s power.
In the summer of 1805, the Allies advanced west ward through Southern Germany. Now
Napoleon abandoned his plan of conquest on England and turned against Austria. He
defeated the Austrians at Ulm on October 1805. Napoleon went to the Danube region and
possessed Vienna. The victory he scored over the Austrians at Austerlitz forced the latter to
with draw the Alliance. The humiliating treaty of Pressburg was signed. It was so humiliating
for Austria that Venetia and other Italian territories were taken by France. Napoleon was
recognized as king of Italy. Portion of the Austrian realm was given to France.
In short, the military defeat of Austria and humiliating treaty of Pressburg brought up the
destruction of the Holy Roman Empire and the reconstruction of central Europe. From the
former forty-eight imperial cities only six remained under the empire. The Southern and
smaller territories of the Rhine now consolidated together so to mark the beginning of the
modern state of German. As the result of his development, it was Napoleon who was
considered as the man behind for the creation of Germany by creating the confederation of
the Rhine, Napoleon considered himself as protector of the union. In 1800, Napoleon
dethroned the king of Naples and appointed his brother Joseph as king of Naples and Sicily.
Louis was made king of Holland and Murat as duke of Cleves and Belgium. Napoleon thus
government was declared a republic. The French consulate became the empire and in the
name of Napoleon I, Bonaparte emerged as Emperor of France. France, here after, was no
more revolutionary at home but became revolutionary abroad along its border. Above all,
France under Napoleon became in comparably a major state in Europe.
The Rise of Napoleon in Europe.
Evolving out from a general of the Revolution to an imperial power Napoleon determined to
be master of Europe. He therefore began to defeat anti French coalition and conquer
territories. French expansion into Italy, Germany, Spain and other areas set in to motion some
contradictory reactions. There were collaborations as well as resistance.
Initially in 1802, France and Britain had sued peace at Amiens. But Napoleon broke the
promise of the treaty and began the expansion of French influence in Italy, Switzerland and
North America. France also intended to avoid British trade. With this the treaty of Amiens
failed to guarantee peace but revived century old struggle for predominance between France
and Britain. Napoleon then decided upon the blockade of British ships along the whole coast
of Western Europe and determined to invade Britain itself. The British urged on its part, an
anti-French coalition. Austria, Russia, Sweden and Britain joined in a great coalition to put an
end to Napoleon’s power.
In the summer of 1805, the Allies advanced west ward through Southern Germany. Now
Napoleon abandoned his plan of conquest on England and turned against Austria. He
defeated the Austrians at Ulm on October 1805. Napoleon went to the Danube region and
possessed Vienna. The victory he scored over the Austrians at Austerlitz forced the latter to
with draw the Alliance. The humiliating treaty of Pressburg was signed. It was so humiliating
for Austria that Venetia and other Italian territories were taken by France. Napoleon was
recognized as king of Italy. Portion of the Austrian realm was given to France.
In short, the military defeat of Austria and humiliating treaty of Pressburg brought up the
destruction of the Holy Roman Empire and the reconstruction of central Europe. From the
former forty-eight imperial cities only six remained under the empire. The Southern and
smaller territories of the Rhine now consolidated together so to mark the beginning of the
modern state of German. As the result of his development, it was Napoleon who was
considered as the man behind for the creation of Germany by creating the confederation of
the Rhine, Napoleon considered himself as protector of the union. In 1800, Napoleon
dethroned the king of Naples and appointed his brother Joseph as king of Naples and Sicily.
Louis was made king of Holland and Murat as duke of Cleves and Belgium. Napoleon thus
22
introduced a new order in parts of Europe and made all these as allies and part of French
empire. In 1806, Napoleon forced Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire to abandon the title
of Holy Roman but be Emperor Francis I of Austria.
In the same year Napoleon won battles against Prussia defeating Frederic William III,
conquered Berlin and eventually declared Prussia as under his control. He pursued his
military conquests to Poland, defeated the Russia at Fried land on July 14 1807. Tsar
Alexander I soon urged peace and the treaty of Tilsit was signed. Russia, accordingly, came
off easily but Prussia suffered a lot from the treaty losing all her provinces west of the Elbe
and all her gains in the partitions of Poland. Napoleon now left with the British challenge.
And he decided to cut off its trade through a strategy known as a continental system.
Prussia closed ports to the British trade and he decreed the Berlin Decree. It was to block the
British Isles and close all French and allied ports to ships of Britain and her colonies. Capture
or destruction of ships trading with Britain was otherwise ordered. Britain responded by a
similar response of capture or destruction ships of French and her allies. By the action of
Blockade and counter Blockade, neutral countries were also affected and such events caused
conflict. For example, the USA conflicted with Britain in 1812. It also created great hardship
in Europe. Finally, through wars and conquest, Napoleon attained the peak of his power from
1808 to 1812. He created an empire stretching from the Po-valley in the south to North Sea in
the north and from Pyrenees in the west to Rhine in the east
The End of Napoleonic Era and the Congress of Vienna
Although Napoleon had dominated the history of both France and Europe, his ambition and
plan later frustrated due to revolts and resistance mainly directed from European powers.
Spain and Portugal which were once came at least under his influence now revolted and
drove the French force across Pyrenees. Renewed struggle from Austria came near Vienna.
And the new Europe which was held together only by force of arms began to disintegrate.
The despotism of Napoleon, the failure of the continental system, new wars from Russia and
Russian reopening of trade relation with Britain etc. created total problem that ultimately
drove Napoleon out of the Empire.
The turning point was to come in 1812 when Napoleon crossed the Miemen River and
advanced to Russia. Strategically, the Russians retreated and let his force in to hostile and
barren land. At the initial battle Napoleon won the war and conquered Moscow itself,
nevertheless, the inhabitants burning the city and forced him to withdraw. The retreating
army of France suffered acute shortage of provision and faced attacks from the Russians.
introduced a new order in parts of Europe and made all these as allies and part of French
empire. In 1806, Napoleon forced Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire to abandon the title
of Holy Roman but be Emperor Francis I of Austria.
In the same year Napoleon won battles against Prussia defeating Frederic William III,
conquered Berlin and eventually declared Prussia as under his control. He pursued his
military conquests to Poland, defeated the Russia at Fried land on July 14 1807. Tsar
Alexander I soon urged peace and the treaty of Tilsit was signed. Russia, accordingly, came
off easily but Prussia suffered a lot from the treaty losing all her provinces west of the Elbe
and all her gains in the partitions of Poland. Napoleon now left with the British challenge.
And he decided to cut off its trade through a strategy known as a continental system.
Prussia closed ports to the British trade and he decreed the Berlin Decree. It was to block the
British Isles and close all French and allied ports to ships of Britain and her colonies. Capture
or destruction of ships trading with Britain was otherwise ordered. Britain responded by a
similar response of capture or destruction ships of French and her allies. By the action of
Blockade and counter Blockade, neutral countries were also affected and such events caused
conflict. For example, the USA conflicted with Britain in 1812. It also created great hardship
in Europe. Finally, through wars and conquest, Napoleon attained the peak of his power from
1808 to 1812. He created an empire stretching from the Po-valley in the south to North Sea in
the north and from Pyrenees in the west to Rhine in the east
The End of Napoleonic Era and the Congress of Vienna
Although Napoleon had dominated the history of both France and Europe, his ambition and
plan later frustrated due to revolts and resistance mainly directed from European powers.
Spain and Portugal which were once came at least under his influence now revolted and
drove the French force across Pyrenees. Renewed struggle from Austria came near Vienna.
And the new Europe which was held together only by force of arms began to disintegrate.
The despotism of Napoleon, the failure of the continental system, new wars from Russia and
Russian reopening of trade relation with Britain etc. created total problem that ultimately
drove Napoleon out of the Empire.
The turning point was to come in 1812 when Napoleon crossed the Miemen River and
advanced to Russia. Strategically, the Russians retreated and let his force in to hostile and
barren land. At the initial battle Napoleon won the war and conquered Moscow itself,
nevertheless, the inhabitants burning the city and forced him to withdraw. The retreating
army of France suffered acute shortage of provision and faced attacks from the Russians.
23
Lack of food, terrific and the snow caused problems up on the army. Prussia after coming out
serious reforms and modernization in the army joined with Russia and the Swedes against
Napoleon. Frederick William of Prussia declared war on Napoleon in March 1813. But the
French scored victory at Dresden the last great victory in August 1813. In October 1813, he
was forced to retreat from the possible enrolments by the allied forces of Russia, Prussia and
Austria. Eventually he was totally defeated at “the Battle of the Matures” near: Leipzig from
October 16-19, 1813.
This event marked the collapse of Napoleon’s empire in Germany and Holland. The Rhine
confederation once formed by his involvement stood against him. Meanwhile the Spanish had
practically cleared their country from the French army.
In spite of such disasters, Napoleon refused to come to a truce. The allies consequently
advanced into France and on March 13, 1814, they approached Paris itself. Napoleon was
forced to abdicate and renounce all rights to the throne. He was however allowed to retain the
title of Emperor with full sovereignty over the tiny Bland of Elba in the Mediterranean. Louis
XVI’s brother was called up from England and appointed as Louis XVIII of France. The
great victor powers thus reinstated the Bourbon dynasty on the throne and fixed the French
boundary as it had been at the beginning of 1792.
Finally, the victor powers called upon meeting of their own called the congress Vienna at the
Austrian capital (Vienna) to settle the multi problems of readjustment in Europe. While the
session was on, Napoleon managed to advance to France from the Island, entered Paris on
March 1, 1815 and decided to fight. The allies, whom he thought divided on the issue of
remarking the map of Europe, now come out of their difference. Britain, Austria, Prussia,
Dutch and others joined in arms against Napoleon. He himself marched to the frontiers of
Belgium in June 1815. At the battle of waterloo Napoleon was completely routed particularly
by the British and Prussian forces. On July 15, 1815 he finally gave himself up to the British
force and Napoleon was banished to a spot to St. Helena in the south Atlantic where he died
in 1821.
At the congress of Vienna, the Tsar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria and the King of
Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Denmark participated. States or lesser princes, statesmen
and diplomats had also involved in the conference. The conference was bested with many
issues and problems. There were also disagreements. Nevertheless, the treaties and
conclusions that became a final act on June 9, 1815 decided.
Europe was to be as what it had been before the French revolution and Napoleon
Measures were to be taken regarding peace maintenance and prevention of disorder.
Lack of food, terrific and the snow caused problems up on the army. Prussia after coming out
serious reforms and modernization in the army joined with Russia and the Swedes against
Napoleon. Frederick William of Prussia declared war on Napoleon in March 1813. But the
French scored victory at Dresden the last great victory in August 1813. In October 1813, he
was forced to retreat from the possible enrolments by the allied forces of Russia, Prussia and
Austria. Eventually he was totally defeated at “the Battle of the Matures” near: Leipzig from
October 16-19, 1813.
This event marked the collapse of Napoleon’s empire in Germany and Holland. The Rhine
confederation once formed by his involvement stood against him. Meanwhile the Spanish had
practically cleared their country from the French army.
In spite of such disasters, Napoleon refused to come to a truce. The allies consequently
advanced into France and on March 13, 1814, they approached Paris itself. Napoleon was
forced to abdicate and renounce all rights to the throne. He was however allowed to retain the
title of Emperor with full sovereignty over the tiny Bland of Elba in the Mediterranean. Louis
XVI’s brother was called up from England and appointed as Louis XVIII of France. The
great victor powers thus reinstated the Bourbon dynasty on the throne and fixed the French
boundary as it had been at the beginning of 1792.
Finally, the victor powers called upon meeting of their own called the congress Vienna at the
Austrian capital (Vienna) to settle the multi problems of readjustment in Europe. While the
session was on, Napoleon managed to advance to France from the Island, entered Paris on
March 1, 1815 and decided to fight. The allies, whom he thought divided on the issue of
remarking the map of Europe, now come out of their difference. Britain, Austria, Prussia,
Dutch and others joined in arms against Napoleon. He himself marched to the frontiers of
Belgium in June 1815. At the battle of waterloo Napoleon was completely routed particularly
by the British and Prussian forces. On July 15, 1815 he finally gave himself up to the British
force and Napoleon was banished to a spot to St. Helena in the south Atlantic where he died
in 1821.
At the congress of Vienna, the Tsar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria and the King of
Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Denmark participated. States or lesser princes, statesmen
and diplomats had also involved in the conference. The conference was bested with many
issues and problems. There were also disagreements. Nevertheless, the treaties and
conclusions that became a final act on June 9, 1815 decided.
Europe was to be as what it had been before the French revolution and Napoleon
Measures were to be taken regarding peace maintenance and prevention of disorder.
24
A power state along Northern France was created. Thus, the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands under the rule of the orange family was set up
Swiss confederation was granted with its independence
And a number of territorial exchanges among the participants such as Sweden, Prussia,
Russia and Austria etc. were decided upon with in which one gained while others lost.
Besides all these arrangements, it was decided to undo the works of Napoleon and French
Revolution, parceled out lands which came under Napoleon, decided what kind of
government should be established with in the various territories. Moreover, for fear of
republics and new comers, restoration of former rulers to their thrones was decided. At the
same time, it was promised to form an alliance to act together in keeping peace in Europe
even with the right to interfere in the affairs of any country of rebellion break out against the
existing order. The congress however failed to look in to the motives of self-interest the right
or the wish of the people and undermined or forgot the hidden power from the discontented
masses of Europe.
A power state along Northern France was created. Thus, the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands under the rule of the orange family was set up
Swiss confederation was granted with its independence
And a number of territorial exchanges among the participants such as Sweden, Prussia,
Russia and Austria etc. were decided upon with in which one gained while others lost.
Besides all these arrangements, it was decided to undo the works of Napoleon and French
Revolution, parceled out lands which came under Napoleon, decided what kind of
government should be established with in the various territories. Moreover, for fear of
republics and new comers, restoration of former rulers to their thrones was decided. At the
same time, it was promised to form an alliance to act together in keeping peace in Europe
even with the right to interfere in the affairs of any country of rebellion break out against the
existing order. The congress however failed to look in to the motives of self-interest the right
or the wish of the people and undermined or forgot the hidden power from the discontented
masses of Europe.
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