General Introduction and classification of Carbohydrates

This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.

1. CARBOHYDRATES
By: Dr. MohammedAzim Bagban
Assistant Professor,
C. U. SHAH Institute of Science
MI 201
Unit-1

2. LECTURE OUTLINE
The Importance of carbohydrates.
The Definition of Carbohydrates.
The Classification of Carbohydrates.
The Difference between various
Isomers..

3. CARBOHYDRATE:
IMPORTANCE
Most Abundant Class of
Biomolecules.
An Important Macronutrient.
Performs important physiological
functions in the body.
Associated with Pathological
Conditions (Diabetes Mellitus,
Lactose Intolerance).

4. DEFINING CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates or Saccharides
(Greek Sakcharon meaning
"Sugar")
Organic compounds composed of
Carbon, Hydrogen and oxygen.
Many Carbohydrates also contain
Nitrogen and other elements.

5. Carbohydrates derive their name
from a Misleading Concept
'Hydrates of Carbon’
Hydrogen and Oxygen in Carbohydrates
were found to be present in the same
proportion as in water. (2:1).(E.g.
Glucose C6H12O6 or C6 (H2O)6).

It is due to this fact that compounds
derived their name “Carbon Hydrate”.

6. GLUCOSE
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH

7. This term is not a perfect derivation
as many carbohydrates do not have
the same proportion as water.

Example: DEOXYRIBOSE (C5H10O4)
H-C=O

H-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH

8. CHEMICAL DEFINITION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
Polyhydroxyl: Having more than one
hydroxyl group.
(-OH)

Functional Group: It is a specific
group of atoms or bonds which are
part of a larger hydrocarbon
chain.(Provide a specific chemical
behaviour).

9. For carbohydrates, the functional group is
the carbonyl group which may be either

Aldehyde Group (C-H-O)
Or
Keto Group (C=O)

10. WHAT IS SIMILAR & DIFFERENT
IN THESE TWO STRUCTURES?
CHO

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH
CH2OH

C=O

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH

More than one hydroxyl group in both

11. WHAT IS COMMON & DIFFERENT
IN THESE TWO STRUCTURES?
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH
CH2OH

C=O

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH

Carbonyl Group in both But?

12. WHAT IS COMMON & DIFFERENT
IN THESE TWO STRUCTURES?
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH
CH2OH

C=O

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

CH2OH

Aldehyde in 1 and Ketone in 2

13. Carbohydrates are
Polyhydroxy Alcohols
with Carbonyl groups
Which May Either Be
Aldehyde (H-C=O) or
Keto (C=O) Groups.

14. CAN YOU
VISUALIZE
EITHER
ALDEHYDE
OR
KETONE
GROUP IN
THIS
POLYHYDROX
Y ALCOHOL?

H - C
 O
H - C - OH

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH

C

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH

15. NO! BUT
HYDROLYSIS
OF THIS
COMPOUND
YIELDS TWO
COMPOUNDS
WITH
ALDEHYDE
OR KETONE
GROUPS

H - C
 O
H - C - OH

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH

C

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH

HOH

16. NO! BUT
HYDROLYSIS
OF THIS
COMPOUND
YIELDS TWO
COMPOUNDS
WITH
ALDEHYDE
OR KETONE
GROUPS

H - C
 O
H - C - OH

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH
CH 2 OH

C

OH - C - H

H - C - OH

H - C - OH

CH 2 OH

HOH
=O
O=

17. MANY POLYHYDROXY ALCOHOLS MAY
NOT HAVE AN ACTIVE ALDEHYDE OR
KETONE GROUP BUT THEY MAY YIELD
THEM ON HYDROLYSIS. THEY
ARE ALSO DESIGNATED AS
CARBOHYDRATES.

18. THEREFORE, THE COMPLETE
DEFINITION OF CARBOHDRATES IS:

CARBOHYDRATES ARE
POLYHYDROXYL ALCOHOLS
WITH POTENTIALLY ACTIVE
CARBONY GROUPS WHICH MAY
BE EITHER AN ALDEHYDE OR
KETONE GROUP. THEY ALSO
CONTAIN THOSE COMPOUNDS,
WHICH YIELD THEM ON
HYDROLYSIS.

19. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are mainly classified
into four different groups:
Monosachharides
Disaccharides
Oligosaccharides
Polysaccharides

20. MONOSACCHARIDES
 Monosaccharides are those carbohydrates
which Cannot be Hydrolyzed further into
more simple carbohydrates.
Thus, they are the Simplest form of
Carbohydrates.
Familiar examples are:
Glucose, Fructose, Ribose & Galactose.

21. MONOSACCHARIDES ARE FURTHER
CLASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF:
Aldehyde or Ketone Group:
Aldomonosaccharides (Aldoses).
Ketomonosaccharides (Ketoses).
Carbon Chain Length.
Trioses.
Tetroses.
Pentoses.
Hexoses.
Heptoses.

22. H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
CH
2OH

C=O

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
CARBONYL GROUP
GLUCOSE

FRUCTOSE -->

23. H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
H-C=O

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
CARBON CHAIN
GLUCOSE

ARABINOSE -->

24. EXAMPLES OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
NO. OF CARBON
ATOMS
ALDO KETO
3C TRIOSE GLYCERALDEHY
DE
DIHYDROXYACET
ONE
4C TETROSE ERYTHROSE ERYTHRULOSE
5C PENTOSE RIBOSE, XYLOSE RIBULOSE,
XYLULLOSE
6C HEXOSE GLUCOSE,
GALACTOSE,
MANNOSE
FRUCTOSE

25. GLYCERALDEHYDE

26. GLYCERALDEHYDE IS THE SIMPLEST
MONOSACCHARIDE(PARTICULARLY
ALDOSES)

IT CANNOT BE HYDROLYZED FURTHER.

IT IS THE SMALLEST POSSIBLE
STRUCTURE THAT IS A CARBOHYDRATE
CANNOT HAVE LESS THAN 3 CARBON
ATOMS.

GENERAL FORMULA OF
MONOSACCHARIDE: (C•H2O)N
(WHERE N IS ANY NUMBER OF THREE OR
GREATER)

27. ISOMERISM
Isomers are basically molecules that
have the same chemical formula but
they differ in their chemical
structures.

Asymmetric Carbon is an important
determinant of Isomerism.

Asymmetric Carbon is that Carbon
which is attached with four different
groups.

28. STRAIGHT CHAIN STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL
MONOSACCHARIDE (GLUCOSE)
Anomeric
Carbon
Epimeric
Carbons
Penultimate
Carbon
Terminal
Alcohol Carbon

29. THE ASSIGNMENT OF D OR L IS MADE ACCORDING
TO THE ORIENTATION OF THE PENULTIMATE
CARBON
H OH L-Sugar : D-Sugar
If the Hydroxyl Group is on the
right
the molecule is a D sugar,
Otherwise It is an L sugar.

30. D AND L ISOMERISM PRODUCE MIRROR
IMAGES

31. EPIMERISM
Isomers which differ from each other
only with regard to OH group on a
single asymmetric carbon atom.

32. OPTICAL ISOMERS
When a beam of polarized light is
passed through sugars, they will be
rotated either towards right or left.

Right Rotation (dextrorotatory) E.g.
D- Glucose, D-Fructose

Left Rotation (levorotatory) E.g. L-
Glucose, L-Fructose

33. MONOSACCHARIDE DERIVATIVES OF
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
Oxidation Products (Sugar Acids)
Reduction Products (Sugar Alcohols).
Amino Sugars.
Sugar Phosphates.

34. OXIDATION PRODUCTS (SUGAR ACIDS)
When oxidized under proper conditions,
Aldoses may form three types of acids
(Sugar Acids):
Uronic Acids.
Aldonic acids.
Saccharic Acids.
Type of sugar Acid produced depends on
which carbon is oxidized.

35. URONIC ACID
Oxidation Of Aldose
At Primary Alcohol
(Terminal Carbon)
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH2OH COOH

36. ALDONIC ACID
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH


CH2OH
Oxidation Of Aldose
At
Carbonyl Carbon
(Aldehyde Group)
COOH

37. Saccharic Acid
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH2OH
Oxidation Of Aldose
At Both Aldehyde &
Terminal Carbons
COOH
COOH

38. EXAMPLES OF ALDOSES WITH THEIR
CORRESPONDING URONIC ACIDS ARE:
Sugar

Glucose

-------------
Mannose
-------------
Galactose
-------------
Uronic Acids

Glucuronic acid,
Iduronic acid
----------------------
Mannuronic acid
----------------------
Galacturonic acid
------------------------

39. EXAMPLES OF ALDOSES WITH THEIR
CORRESPONDING ALDONIC ACIDS ARE:
Sugar

Glucose
-------------
Mannose
-------------
Galactose
-------------
Aldonic Acids

Gluconic acid
----------------------
Mannonic acid
----------------------
Galactonic acid
------------------------

40. Amino Sugar:
Substitution of
Amino Group for a
Hydroxyl Group of a
Sugar Results in the
Formation of an
Amino Sugar.
The Amino Group
is attached to
Carbon 2.
H-C=O

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH2OH
NH2

41. COMMON EXAMPLES OF AMINO SUGARS
(AMINOSACCHARIDES )
Galactosamine
Glucosamine

42. SUGAR ALCOHOLS; REDUCTION PRODUCTS
Sugar Alcohols are obtained by reduction
of Monosaccharides (Both Aldoses and
Ketoses) and disaccharides.
Sugar alcohols, also known as Polyols,
Polyhydric Alcohols, or Polyalcohols.

43. SUGAR ALCOHOLS ARE THE HYDROGENATED
FORMS OF THE ALDOSES OR KETOSES
H- C=O + H
2

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
Glucose
CH
2OH

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH
2OH
Sorbitol

44. Sugars with their Corresponding Alcohols
Glyceraldehyde &
Dihydroxyacetone
Glucose
Mannose
Fructose
Galactose
Ribose
Erythrose
Xylose
Lactose
Maltose
Glycerol

Sorbitol (Glucitol)
Mannitol
Sorbitol & Mannitol
Dulcitol
Ribitol
Erythritol
Xylitol
Lactitol
Maltitol

45. Sugar Phosphates
Phosphate Esters formed by various
Monosaccharides are of Great Importance
in Metabolic Reactions.
Sugar phosphates of biological importance.
Ribose and Deoxyribose in Nucleic Acids
are Phosphate Esters of these
monosaccharides.
Phosphates of Glucose, Fructose and
Glyceraldehyde etc. are important
intermediate compounds in carbohydrate
metabolism of almost all the cells.

46. DISACCHARIDES
Two Joined Monosaccharides.
Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
Lactose: Glucose + Galactose

47. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Composed Of:
Three To Ten Monosaccharide
Units.
E.g. Fructooligosaccharides

48. POLYSACCHARIDES
 Larger Than Ten Monosaccharide
Units.
Can Reach Many Thousands Of Units.
Homopolysaccharides.
Heteropolysaccharides.

49. HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
 Similar Types of Monosaccharide
Units.
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose

50. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES
 Different Types of Monosaccharide
Units.
Mucopolysaccharides
(Glycosaminoglycans that contain
galactose and amine sugars)
Agar (Contains various sugars like
Glucose, Galactose)

51. REFERENCES
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52. Thank You…..