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1. Environmental Chemistry Understanding Water Systems and Pollution GULU UNIVERSITY GROUP COURSE WORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Group Members ELEM BILLY | 23/U/3145/SEG/PS SIMBO SIMEON | 23/U/1379/GAS/PS OKURUT SOIS | 23/U/0089/SEG ATIMA LISA LORITA | 23/U/1612/SEG/PS ENACHU WYCLIF | 23/U/3430/GAS/PS ODONGO DICKENS | 23/U/3184/SEG/PS KEEDI RONALD | 23/U/3159/SEG/PS EPESU DICKEN | 23/U/3152/SEG/PS OJOK ERICK JUNIOR | 23/U/3751/SEG/PS OKOT OSBERT OBOL | 23/U/3204/SEG/PS Water Systems Chemistry Ecology Analysis 2025-10-06

2. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Hydrological Systems The Hydrological Cycle and its key processes Classification of water resources Aquatic ecosystems: freshwater and marine Major chemical reactions in water Water Pollutants Nature and types of pollutants Nutrient pollution and eutrophication Industrial and domestic pollution sources Agricultural and mining pollution Measuring Techniques Chemical measurement methods Physical measurement methods Biological measurement methods Impacts on aquatic ecosystems Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

3. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Evaporation Transformation of liquid water into vapor from oceans, lakes, and rivers due to solar energy Condensation Water vapor cools and changes back into liquid droplets, forming clouds or dew Transpiration Plants absorb water through roots and release it as vapor through stomata in leaves Precipitation Water droplets fall from clouds as rain, snow, or hail when they become too heavy Infiltration/Percolation Water soaks into the ground, becoming groundwater. Infiltration refers to water entering soil, while percolation describes its movement through soil and rock Runoff Water that does not infiltrate flows over the land surface, collecting in streams, rivers, and eventually oceans Recent Report: The global water cycle has become increasingly erratic and extreme, with significant swings between droughts and floods due to climate change. Nearly two-thirds of global river basins did not experience "normal conditions" in 2024. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

4. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Evaporation Transformation of liquid water into vapor, primarily from oceans, lakes, and rivers due to solar energy. Condensation Water vapor cools and changes back into liquid droplets, forming clouds or dew. Transpiration Plants absorb water through roots and release it as vapor through stomata in leaves. Precipitation Water droplets in clouds fall as rain, snow, or hail when they become too heavy. Infiltration Water soaks into the ground, becoming groundwater. Infiltration refers to water entering soil. Runoff Water that doesn't infiltrate flows over land, collecting in streams, rivers, and eventually oceans. Recent Reports The global water cycle has become increasingly erratic and extreme, with significant swings between droughts and floods due to climate change. Nearly two-thirds of global river basins did not experience "normal conditions" in 2024. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

5. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Water Resources Classification Surface Water Definition: Water bodies on Earth's surface Rivers, lakes, and streams Readily accessible Largest portion of freshwater Characteristics: Subject to seasonal variations, pollution Groundwater Definition: Water below Earth's surface Found in soil, rock cracks Stored in aquifers Less accessible than surface water Characteristics: More protected, slower replenishment Artificial Sources Definition: Human-created water sources Desalinated ocean water Treated wastewater Supplement natural supplies Characteristics: Growing importance, variable quality Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

6. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution An ecosystem is a complex system comprising living organisms (biotic components) and non-living elements (abiotic factors) interacting within a specific area. Aquatic ecosystems are biological communities where living organisms interact with their water-based environment. Freshwater Ecosystems Characterized by low salt content (low salinity) Includes lakes, rivers, and streams Support diverse communities of organisms adapted to freshwater conditions Marine Ecosystems Characterized by high salt content Encompasses oceans, seas, and estuaries Hosts a vast array of specialized marine organisms Water Movement Classification Characteristics Lotic (Moving Water) Lentic (Stationary Water) Water Movement Current flows Minimal or no flow Examples Rivers, streams, tidal currents Lakes, ponds, wetlands Organisms Adapted to flow conditions Stationary or slow-moving Dissolved Oxygen Often lower than lentic Varies by depth Both marine and freshwater ecosystems can be classified as lotic or lentic, creating diverse ecological niches. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

7. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Major Aquatic Chemical Reactions Acid-Base Reactions Involve the transfer of protons and are fundamental in determining the pH of water bodies. pH significantly influences the solubility and forms of many compounds in water. Example: The carbonate system regulates pH buffering by producing carbonate ions, which hydrolyze to hydroxyl ions, thereby raising the pH. Redox Reactions These reactions regulate oxygen levels, metal speciation, and nutrient cycling. They involve the transfer of electrons between chemical species. Example: The nitrification of ammonia, influenced by nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas ), which converts ammonia to nitrate ions. Precipitation Reactions Occur when the concentration of dissolved ions in water exceeds their solubility product, leading to the formation of solid precipitates. These reactions control water hardness and scaling. Example: Calcium ions react with carbonate ions to form solid calcium carbonate, which settles as sediment. Photochemical Reactions Initiated by sunlight, these reactions can lead to the degradation of organic pollutants or the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in water. Example: Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 These reactions collectively govern pH stability, oxygen dynamics, nutrient cycles, metal mobility, and pollutant degradation within aquatic systems. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

8. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Nature of Water Pollutants Biological Pollutants Pathogenic microorganisms and organic waste from sewage Solid Liquid Chemical Pollutants Industrial solvents, heavy metals, pesticides, and radioactive wastes Solid Liquid Gas Nutrient Pollutants Excess nitrogen and phosphorus leading to eutrophication Liquid Biodegradable Pollutants Substances that can be broken down by microorganisms Solid Liquid Non-biodegradable Pollutants Pollutants that resist decomposition and persist in the environment Solid Liquid Natural Pollutants Some pollutants that occur naturally, though human activities can exacerbate their impact Solid Liquid Physical States of Pollutants Solid Contaminants in solid form Liquid Contaminants dissolved in water Gas Contaminants in gaseous form Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

9. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Biological Pollutants Pathogenic Microorganisms Bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that can cause disease in humans and aquatic organisms Organic Waste Decomposes in water bodies, consuming dissolved oxygen during the process Health Impacts Can cause gastroenteric illness, respiratory problems, and skin infections Ecological Effects Depletes dissolved oxygen as microorganisms decompose organic matter Chemical Pollutants Industrial Chemicals Solvents, dioxins, and PCBs from manufacturing that can persist in water Heavy Metals Lead, mercury, and cadmium from mining and industrial activities that bioaccumulate Toxicity Often toxic, persistent, and can cause immediate or chronic health effects Special Cases Radioactive wastes from nuclear facilities and pesticides that can contaminate water Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

10. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Nutrient Pollution and Eutrophication Excess nitrogen and phosphorus, primarily from agricultural runoff and sewage, lead to a cascade of negative environmental effects through a process called eutrophication. The Eutrophication Process 1. Excess Nutrient Input Runoff carries high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus into water bodies 2. Algal Growth Nutrients promote excessive growth of algae (algal blooms) 3. Oxygen Depletion When algae decompose, they consume dissolved oxygen during the process 4. Light Blockage Algal blooms block sunlight from reaching deeper water layers Algal bloom covering water surface Impacts of Eutrophication Depletion of dissolved oxygen leading to fish kills Blockage of sunlight reducing photosynthesis in deeper waters Release of toxins that can harm other aquatic organisms Disruption of entire aquatic ecosystem balance Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

11. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Sources of Water Pollution Industrial Waste Discharge of organic and inorganic pollutants Heavy metals, acids, alkalis, solvents Manufacturing processes, battery production Domestic Effluents Water-borne waste from homes and commercial establishments Human and animal excreta, paper, cloth, soap Introduces pathogens and organic matter Agricultural Waste Runoff carrying organic fertilizers and animal wastes Synthetic pesticides and herbicides Releases nitrogen and phosphorus, causing nutrient pollution Nuclear Facilities Release of radioactive wastes Radionuclides like radium and potassium from natural sources Contamination of water bodies with radioactivity Mining Activities Generation of large quantities of solid waste Exposure of sulfide minerals to air and water Acid mine drainage releasing toxic substances Industrial discharge into water body These pollution sources affect both surface water and groundwater resources, leading to various environmental impacts. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

12. Industrial and Domestic Pollution Sources Industrial Pollution Discharge of organic and inorganic pollutants directly into water bodies Heavy metals, acids, alkalis, solvents, and toxic chemicals from manufacturing Battery production industries release lead and other heavy metals Paint industries discharge volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Domestic Effluents Water-borne waste from homes, commercial establishments, and food processing plants Human and animal excreta containing pathogenic microorganisms Paper, cloth, soap, and food residues that introduce organic matter Rich in pathogens that can cause waterborne diseases Combined with agricultural runoff and other waste before entering water systems Both industrial and domestic pollution sources significantly contribute to water contamination, affecting aquatic ecosystems and human health Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

13. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Agricultural Pollution Organic Fertilizers: Composted manure and fish meals Animal Wastes: Livestock manure Synthetic Pesticides: Herbicides and insecticides Agricultural runoff causing soil erosion Environmental Impact: These pollutants can enter water systems through runoff and leaching, causing nutrient pollution and ecological damage. Mining Pollution Solid Waste: Mining operations generate large quantities of waste materials Sulfide Minerals: Exposure to air and water creates acid conditions Acid Mine Drainage: Process releases toxic substances into water systems Heavy Metals: Toxic metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium contaminate water Environmental Impact: Mining pollution can create long-term ecological damage due to the persistence of heavy metals in the environment. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

14. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Measuring Water Pollution: Chemical Methods pH Measurement pH indicates water acidity/alkalinity High carbonate = alkaline; high CO = acidic Influenced by carbonate system and pollutants Measures H ion concentration Application: pH meters detect pollution from discharged substances Dissolved Oxygen Indicates oxygen available for aquatic organisms Levels decrease with organic material decomposition Bacteria consume oxygen during respiration Often reported as percentage saturation Methods: Electrochemical sensors, colorimetric tests, Winkler's method Chlorophyll Fluorescence Measures chlorophyll in surface water Indicates presence and activity of algae High phosphorus/nitrogen promotes algal growth Algae toximeters measure chlorophyll levels Significance: Detects nutrient pollution and potential eutrophication These chemical methods provide direct measures of water pollution and environmental stress Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

15. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Measuring Water Pollution: Physical Methods Conductivity & Salinity Measures water's ability to conduct electricity Related to concentration of dissolved inorganic solids High levels indicate increased water pollution Uses specialized meters for analysis Water Temperature Influenced by natural processes and human activities Industrial discharge increases temperature Suspended particles can absorb solar radiation Measuring equipment: thermometers, sensors CDOM/FDOM Measurement CDOM absorbs UV light and releases tannins Some CDOM fluoresces (FDOM) Uses electrical optical sensors (fluorometers) Indicates dissolved organic matter concentration Turbidity Measurement Measures water's cloudiness Caused by suspended solids scattering light Measured in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) High levels indicate significant pollution Odor and Taste Non-polluted water is odorless and tasteless Any discernible odor indicates contaminants Both inorganic and organic compounds can cause taste Serves as qualitative indicator of pollution Key Applications Water quality monitoring Industrial discharge detection Environmental impact assessment Research on water pollution effects Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

16. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Measuring Water Pollution: Biological Methods Bioindicators Organisms that respond to specific pollutants Algae (e.g., Pinnularia ) indicate oxygen levels Invertebrates (mayflies, stoneflies) show pollution Fish (e.g., Tilapia ) tolerate high organic pollutants Bioassays Tests under controlled conditions Fish toxicity tests evaluate survival and growth Measures behavioral and physiological changes Short-term and chronic exposure testing Microbial Analysis Examines microorganisms in water Fecal coliform bacteria indicate sewage contamination Algae ( Euglena ) show nitrate/phosphate levels Combined with chemical and physical methods for comprehensive assessment Key benefit: Biological methods provide direct evidence of ecological impact, complementing chemical and physical measurements. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

17. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Acute mortality in aquatic organisms due to pollution Acute Mortality Harmful substances including pesticides, insecticides, heavy metals, industrial waste, and crude oil can cause rapid, large-scale mortalities of aquatic organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Oxygen Depletion (Hypoxia/Anoxia) Organic pollutants consume dissolved oxygen during decomposition, leading to hypoxic (low oxygen) or anoxic (no oxygen) conditions. These conditions are detrimental or lethal to most aquatic life. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification Pollutants like heavy metals (e.g., mercury) can accumulate in an organism's body over time (bioaccumulation) and increase in concentration up the food chain (biomagnification), leading to increased mortality and affecting higher trophic levels. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

18. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Chronic Effects on Aquatic Life Long-term exposure to pollutants causes subtle but significant damage to aquatic organisms Immune Suppression Water pollutants can weaken the immune systems of aquatic organisms, making them more susceptible to diseases and infections. Metabolic Reduction Long-term exposure to pollutants can reduce metabolism in aquatic organisms, affecting their ability to feed, grow, and reproduce. Reproductive Impairment Reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations can impair the growth of fish embryos, while other pollutants may interfere with hormone production. Organ Damage Heavy metals and organic compounds can cause diseases in fish, including fin rot, tail rot, gill disease, and hepatic tissue damage. Enzyme Inhibition Metals like lead and mercury can hinder the activity of digestive enzymes in fish, impacting their ability to process food. Protective Layer Damage Detergents can destroy the external mucus layer that protects fish from bacteria and parasites, also posing a threat to fish eggs. Example: Cadmium Exposure Cadmium can cause kidney damage in fish, leading to chronic health problems and reduced population fitness over generations. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

19. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Ecosystem-Level Impacts Eutrophication Excessive nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) lead to harmful algal blooms that deplete oxygen and release toxins when decomposing. Bioaccumulation Toxicants accumulate in organisms and increase up food chains, affecting higher trophic levels. Food Web Disruption Pollutants alter population dynamics, energy flow, and community structure. Biodiversity Loss Reduced species diversity and abundance, threatening ecosystem resilience. Habitat Degradation Physical alteration of environments, reducing suitable habitats. Turbidity Impacts Increased solids reduce light penetration, decrease photosynthesis, and affect fish behavior. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

20. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Pollution Effects on Fish Populations Fish Diseases Fin rot, tail rot, and gill disease Hepatic tissue damage and ulceration Cadmium-induced kidney damage Enzyme Inhibition Lead and mercury inhibit digestive enzymes Impacts fish ability to process food Disrupts energy metabolism Protective Layer Damage Detergents destroy external mucus layer Reduces protection from bacteria Threatens fish eggs Reproductive Impairment Reduced dissolved oxygen impairs embryo growth Disruption of spawning behaviors Population decline through reduced recruitment These pollution effects collectively lead to reduced fish populations, altered community structures, and decreased biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

21. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Turbidity and Photosynthesis Impacts Clear Water Conditions High light penetration throughout water column Optimal photosynthesis rates in aquatic plants and algae Maximum primary productivity supported Enhanced visual hunting capabilities of fish Turbid Water Conditions Reduced light penetration with depth Decreased photosynthesis rates Lower primary productivity Impaired visual hunting by fish Key Relationships: Suspended solids increase Light penetration decreases Photosynthesis decreases Ecosystem productivity declines Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025

22. Environmental Chemistry: Understanding Water Systems and Pollution Hydrological Systems The hydrological cycle continuously recycles water through evaporation, condensation, and precipitation Surface water, groundwater, and artificial sources form Earth's water resources Aquatic ecosystems include freshwater and marine environments with diverse biotic and abiotic components Acid-base, redox, and precipitation reactions regulate aquatic chemistry Water Pollutants Biological pollutants include pathogenic microorganisms and organic waste Chemical pollutants consist of industrial solvents, heavy metals, and radioactive wastes Nutrient pollution from fertilizers leads to eutrophication and harmful algal blooms Pollution sources include industrial discharge, domestic sewage, agriculture, and mining Measurement Techniques Chemical methods include pH, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll fluorescence analysis Physical methods measure conductivity, temperature, CDOM/FDOM, turbidity, and odor Biological methods utilize bioindicators, bioassays, and microbial analysis Each method provides unique insights into water quality and pollution sources Impacts on Ecosystems Acute mortality from toxic substances can cause rapid, large-scale organism deaths Oxygen depletion creates hypoxic conditions harmful to most aquatic organisms Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase pollutant concentration up food chains Eutrophication causes algal blooms that deplete oxygen and block sunlight Understanding these water systems, pollutants, and their impacts is crucial for effective environmental management and sustainable resource use. Group Course Work for Environmental Chemistry | 2025