History of forensic medicine

legal history , forensic medicine history, forensic science history , mummification , history of autopsy, history of toxicology, history of law,

1. History of forensic medicine and toxicology BY :A.SABITH MEERAN

2. 2 Legal history Legal history  or the  history of law  is the study of how law has evolved and why it changed . Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, had a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books. It was based on the concept of  Ma'at , characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs depicting goddess ma’at –goddess of truth and justice

3. 3 By the 22nd century BC, Ur- Nammu , an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first extant  lawcode , consisting of casuistic statements ("if... then ...").  Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law, by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout the kingdom of Babylon as stelae, for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi.  The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists , and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, German and French . The code of Hammurabi covers aspects like fraud , theft , adultery ,perjury, slavery , trade etc. Eg . If a man found to be guilty of adultery he and his partner should be drown. Code of hammurabi Hanmmurabi – Babylonian king Sumerian and Babylonian era

4. 4 The  Arthashastra , dating from the 400 BC, and the  Manusmriti  from 100 BCE  were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance . Manusmriti also talks about varna system which is the ancient structure of indian society. During the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, sharia was established by the Muslim sultanates and empires, most notably Mughal Empire's  Fatawa -e- Alamgiri , compiled by emperor Aurangzeb and various scholars of Islam . After British colonialism, Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the common law when India became part of the British Empire . One of the major legal systems developed during the Middle Ages was Islamic law and jurisprudence. A number of important legal institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during the classical period of Islamic law and jurisprudence . One such institution was the  Hawala , an early informal value transfer system, which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century.  Hawala  itself later influenced the development of the  Aval  in French civil law and the  Avallo  in Italian law . the major precepts of sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet  Muhammad. Judiciary document depicting sharia – 8 th century AD Chanakya – author of arthasasthra Ancient I ndia and Sharia

5. 5 Traditional Chinese law  refers to the laws, regulations and rules used in China up to 1911, when the last  imperial dynasty fell.  It incorporates elements of both Legalist and Confucian traditions of social order and governance . To Westerners, perhaps the most striking feature of the traditional Chinese criminal procedure is that it was an inquisitorial system where the judge, usually the district magistrate, conducts a public investigation of a crime, rather than an adversarial system where the judge decides between attorneys representing the prosecution and defense. "The Chinese traditionally despised the role of advocate and saw such people as parasites who attempted to profit from the difficulties of others. The magistrate saw himself as someone seeking the truth, not a partisan for either side .“ Two traditional Chinese terms approximate "law" in the modern Western sense. The first,  fǎ  (法), means primarily "norm" or "model". The second,  lǜ  (律), is usually rendered as "statute ". Multiple corporal punishments were implemented by the Qin, such as death by boiling, chariots, beating, and permanent mutilation in the form of tattooing and castration .  People who committed crimes were also sentenced to hard labor for the state . Legalism adopted from HAN FEI ZI [Chinese thinker] was used by QIN dynasty in 221 BC. Legalism encompasses punishments and rewards. Han fei zi - Legalist China-legalism

6. 6 Confucianism , also known as  Ruism , is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China . Confucianism developed from what was later called the Hundred Schools of Thought from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius  (551–479 BCE ). The basic law is that each one should perform his own duty but not other’s duty.eg. A father should do his own duties as father but not his son’s duty and vice-versa. Taoism was also prevalent in china in early days. It was established by zhuanzgi – a Chinese philosopher. His famous butterfly dream story is explained here. Once, Zhuang Zhou dreamed he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering about, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know that he was Zhuang Zhou .   Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuang Zhou. But he didn't know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Zhuang Zhou. Between Zhuang Zhou and the butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things. confucious zhuanzgi Confucianism and T aoism

7. 7 YASSA , the forty millenary oral law code of the Mongols declared in public in Bokhara by Genghis Khan de facto  law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" was kept secret and never made public.1200AD  It is believed that the Yassa was supervised by Genghis Khan himself and his stepbrother  Shihihutag  who was then high judge of the Mongol Empire .  Genghis Khan appointed his second son Chagatai (later Chagatai Khan) to oversee the execution of the laws. Genghis khan During the Byzantine Empire the Justinian Code was expanded and remained in force until the Empire fell. The  Corpus Juris  (or  Iuris )  Civilis  ("Body of Civil Law") is the modern name  for a collection of fundamental works in jurisprudence, issued from 529 to 534 by order of Justinian I,  Eastern Roman Emperor. It is also sometimes referred to as the  Code of Justinian . Justinian 1 Mongols and B yzantian empire

8. 8 The  canon law of the Catholic Church   is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church .  It was the first modern Western legal system  and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West ,  while the unique traditions of Oriental canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches  sui iuris . Canon law Gratian, the "Father of Canon Law"

9. Origins of forensic medicine and sciences

10. 10 The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony . The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of  Xi Yuan Lu  (translated as  Washing Away of Wrongs ), written in China by Song Ci ( 宋慈 , 1186–1249) in 1248, who was a director of justice, jail and supervision ,  during the Song dynasty . Song Ci ruled regulation about autopsy report for court ,  how to protect the evidence in the examining process, the reason why workers must show examination to public impartiality .  He concluded methods on how to make antiseptic and to reappear the hidden injury from dead bodies and bones (using sunlight under red-oil umbrella and vinegar );  how to calculate the death time (according to weather and insects );  how to wash dead body for examining the different reasons of death .  At that time, the book had given methods to distinguish suicide or pretending suicide.

11. 11 Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India ,  some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out. Similarly, in ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly. It is thought that these tests had some validity  since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a drier mouth; the accused would be considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.

12. 12 In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death.  Ambroise Paré , a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs. Two  Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia , laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. Ambroise pare

13. 13 Ballistics and anthropometry

14. 14 The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating an identification system based on physical measurements. Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name or photograph .  Dissatisfied with the  ad hoc  methods used to identify captured criminals in France in the 1870s, he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for human classification Bertillon created many other forensics techniques, including forensic document examination, the use of  galvanoplastic  compounds to preserve footprints, ballistics, and the  dynamometer, used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering. Although his central methods were soon to be supplanted by  fingerprinting, "his other contributions like the mug shot and the systematization of crime-scene photography remain in place to this day." Anthropometry Bertillons manual anthropometry

15. 15 The word  ballistics  comes from the Greek   ballein , meaning "to throw ". The earliest known ballistic projectiles were stones and spears,  and the throwing stick. The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow, dating to c. 64,000 years ago, were found in  Sibudu Cave, present day-South Africa . The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago; it is based on pinewood arrows found in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg.  The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around 1000 AD, and by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, and into Europe by the 13th century . crossbow catapult Ballistics

16. 16 After millennia of empirical development, the discipline of ballistics was initially studied and developed by Italian mathematician  Niccolò Tartaglia  in 1531 . although he continued to use segments of straight-line motion, conventions established by Avicenna and Albert of Saxony, but with the innovation that he connected the straight lines by a circular arc  Galileo established the principle of compound motion in 1638 ,  using the principle to derive the parabolic form of the ballistic trajectory .  Ballistics was put on a solid scientific and mathematical basis by Isaac Newton, with the publication of  Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. This gave mathematical laws of motion and gravity which for the first time made it possible to successfully predict trajectories. Niccolo tartaglia

17. 17 Toxicology

18. 18 Dioscorides , a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect .  Ibn Wahshiyya  wrote the  Book on Poisons  in the 9th or 10th century . Mathieu Orfila  is considered the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his  Traité des poisons , also called  Toxicologie générale . Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493–1541) (also referred to as Paracelsus, from his belief that his studies were above or beyond the work of  Celsus  – a Roman physician from the first century) is also considered "the father" of toxicology. He is credited with the classic toxicology maxim , ‘the dose makes the poison’. Orfila – Spanish toxicologist

19. 19 A method for detecting arsenious oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele , His work was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach . James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit . So sensitive was the test, known formally as the  Marsh test , that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. Apparatus for the arsenic test, devised by James Marsh

20. 20 fingerprinting

21. 21 Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858. In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds , a Scottish surgeon in a  Tokyo  hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal  Nature , discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial . Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology .  Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis  ,  He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion. Francis galton

22. 22 DNA analysis

23. 23 Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys , who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another . The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys in a double murder mystery in the small English town of  Narborough , Leicestershire, in 1985. Alec jeffreys

24. 24 History of AUTOPSY

25. 25 Around 3000 BCE, ancient Egyptians were one of the first civilizations to practice the removal and examination of the internal organs of humans in the religious practice of mummification . Autopsies that opened the body to determine the cause of death were attested at least in the early third millennium BC, although they were opposed in many ancient societies where it was believed that the outward disfigurement of dead persons prevented them from entering the  afterlife  (as with the Egyptians, who removed the organs through tiny slits in the body ). Notable Greek autopsists were Galen (AD 129- c. 200/ 216 ),  Erasistratus and  Herophilus of Chalcedon, who lived in 3rd century BCE Alexandria, but in general, autopsies were rare in ancient Greece .

26. 26 In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was the subject of an official autopsy after his murder by rival senators, the physician's report noting that the second stab wound Caesar received was the fatal one. Julius Caesar had been stabbed a total of 23 times. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of a former criminal. He asserted and articulated the bones, this became the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical museum at the University of Basel . In the mid-1800s, Carl von Rokitansky  and colleagues at the Second Vienna Medical School began to undertake dissections as a means to improve diagnostic medicine . The 18th-century medical researcher Rudolf Virchow, in response to a lack of standardization of autopsy procedures, established and published specific autopsy protocols (one such protocol still bears his name). He also developed the concept of pathological processes. Rudolf virchow

27. 27 Mummification

28. 28 This is the step-by-step process of how mummification took place:   Insert a hook through a hole near the nose and pull out part of the brain Make a cut on the left side of the body near the tummy Remove all internal organs Let the internal organs dry Place the lungs, intestines, stomach and liver inside canopic jars Place the heart back inside the body Rinse inside of body with wine and spices Cover the corpse with natron (salt) for 70 days After 40 days stuff the body with linen or sand to give it a more human shape After the 70 days wrap the body from head to toe in bandages Place in a sarcophagus (a type of box like a coffin) If the person had been a Pharaoh, he would be placed inside his special burial chamber with lots of treasure! Anubis [protector of underworld] mummifies a pharaoh

29. 29 Exposed mummy of king Tutankhamun[1334-1325 BC , 18 th dynasty of Egypt] Mummy with sarcophagus still intact

30. 30 THANK YOU