History of globalization basis of diff qubits.

History of globalization basis of diff qubits.

1. History of globalization

2. The  historical origins of  globalization  (also known as  historical globalization ) are the subject of  ongoing debate . Though many scholars situate the  origins of globalization  in the modern era (around the  19th century ), others regard it as a phenomenon with a long history, dating back thousands of years (a concept known as  archaic globalization ). The period in the history of globalization roughly spanning the years between 1600 and 1800 is in turn known as the  proto-globalization Thomas L. Friedman  divides the history of globalization into three periods: Globalization 1.0 (1492–1800), Globalization 2.0 (1800–2000) and Globalization 3.0 (2000–present). He states that Globalization 1.0 involved the globalization of countries, Globalization 2.0 involved the globalization of companies and Globalization 3.0 involves the globalization of individuals.

3. Archaic globalization Even as early as the Prehistoric period, the roots of modern globalization could be found. Territorial expansion by our ancestors to all five continents was a critical component in establishing globalization. The development of agriculture furthered globalization by converting the vast majority of the world's population into a settled lifestyle. However, globalization failed to accelerate due to lack of long-distance interaction and technology. The contemporary process of globalization likely occurred around the middle of the 19th century as increased capital and labor mobility coupled with decreased transport costs led to a smaller world. An early form of globalized economics and culture, known as  archaic globalization , existed during the  Hellenistic Age , when commercialized urban centers were focused around the axis of Greek culture over a wide range that stretched from India to Spain, with such cities as  Alexandria ,  Athens , and  Antioch  at its center. Trade was widespread during that period, and it is the first time the idea of a cosmopolitan culture (from Greek "Cosmopolis", meaning "world city") emerged. Others have perceived an early form of globalization in the trade links between the  Roman Empire , the  Parthian Empire, and the  Han Dynasty . The increasing articulation of commercial links between these powers inspired the development of the  Silk Road , which started in western China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards towards Rome.

4. The  Islamic Golden Age  was also an important early stage of globalization, when  Jewish  and  Muslim traders  and  explorers  established a sustained economy across the  Old World  resulting in a  globalization of crops , trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as  sugar  and  cotton  became widely cultivated across the  Muslim world  in this period, while the necessity of learning  Arabic created a cosmopolitan culture. The advent of the  Mongol Empire , though destabilizing to the commercial centers of the Middle East and China, greatly facilitated travel along the Silk Road. This permitted travelers and missionaries such as  Marco Polo  to journey successfully (and profitably) from one end of  Eurasia  to the other. The  Pax Mongolica  of the thirteenth century had several other notable globalizing effects. It witnessed the creation of the first international  postal service , as well as the rapid transmission of  epidemic diseases  such as  bubonic plague  across the newly unified regions of  Central Asia.

5. Silk route The Silk Road derives its name from the highly lucrative trade of  silk   textiles  that were  produced almost exclusively  in China. The network began with the  Han dynasty's  expansion into Central Asia around 114 BCE through the missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy  Zhang Qian , which brought the region  under unified control . The  Parthian Empire  provided a bridge to East Africa and the Mediterranean. By the early first century CE, Chinese silk was widely sought-after in Rome, Egypt, and Greece. Other lucrative commodities from the East included tea, dyes, perfumes, and  porcelain ; among Western exports were horses, camels, honey, wine, and gold. Aside from generating substantial wealth for emerging mercantile classes, the proliferation of goods such as  paper  and  gunpowder  greatly altered the trajectory of various realms, if not world history. During its roughly 1,500 years of existence, the Silk Road endured the rise and fall of numerous empires and major events such as the  Black Death  and the  Mongol conquests . As a highly decentralized network, security was sparse. Travelers faced constant threats of banditry and nomadic raiders, and long expanses of inhospitable terrain. Few individuals crossed the entirety of the Silk Road, instead relying on a succession of middlemen based at various stopping points along the way. In addition to goods, the network facilitated an unprecedented exchange of ideas, religions ( especially Buddhism) , philosophies, and scientific discoveries, many of which were  syncretized  or reshaped by the societies that encountered them. Likewise, a wide variety of people used the routes. Diseases such as  plague  also spread along the Silk Road, possibly contributing to the Black Death.

6. Proto-globalization The phase is known as  proto-globalization . It was characterized by the rise of maritime European empires, in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, first the  Portuguese  and  Spanish Empires , and later the  Dutch  and  British Empires . In the 17th century, globalization became also a private business phenomenon when  chartered companies  like  British East India Company  (founded in 1600), often described as the first  multinational corporation , as well as the  Dutch East India Company  (founded in 1602) were established. The  Age of Discovery  brought a broad change in globalization, being the first period in which Eurasia and Africa engaged in substantial cultural, material and biologic exchange with the  New World . It began in the late 15th century, when the two Kingdoms of the  Iberian Peninsula  –  Portugal  and  Castile  – sent the first exploratory voyages around the  Cape of Good Hope  and to the  Americas , "discovered" in 1492 by  Christopher Columbus . Shortly before the turn of the 16th century, Portuguese started establishing  trading posts (factories)  from Africa to Asia and Brazil, to deal with the trade of local products like  slaves ,  gold ,  spices  and  timber , introducing an international business center under a royal monopoly, the  House of India . Global integration continued with the  European colonization of the Americas  initiating the  Columbian Exchange,  the enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including  slaves ),  communicable diseases , and culture between the  Eastern  and  Western  hemispheres. It was one of the most significant global events concerning  ecology ,  agriculture , and  culture  in history.  New crops  that had come from the Americas via the European seafarers in the 16th century significantly contributed to the world's population growth.

7. Food travels around the world Spices- The quest for spice was one of the earliest drivers of globalization. Long before the voyages of European explorers, spices were globally traded products. As spices once created a global economic network in the Middle Ages, other commodities have followed a similar path. And like spice, many of these products have also faded in popularity. Consider some of the first industries listed on the Dow Jones Industrial Average - leather or rubber for instance - that have since lost their privileged place, replaced by products like Coca-Cola or oil. Spices were prized goods in the Middle Ages. The story of the quest for spices is an early model of globalization, since mirrored by other traded goods. High prices, a limited supply and mysterious origins fueled a growing effort to discover spices and their source of cultivation. Thus, spices were a global commodity centuries before European voyages. There was a complex chain of relations, yet consumers had little knowledge of producers and vice versa. Desire for spices helped fuel European colonial empires to create political, military and commercial networks under a single power . Potato- The potato was domesticated and a diet staple in the Andes region some 10,000 years ago - long before the arrival of the Spanish on the continent and their own “discovery” of the tuber. In the 1500s, Spanish conquistadors brought the tuber to Europe, and from there it traveled to India and on to China. Once thought to be poisonous and the cause of leprosy, the potato eventually won over Europeans. Better suited to the damp climate of northern Europe than wheat, yet not as dependent on irrigation as rice, the potato was a reliable crop. In fact, Frederick the Great required his subjects to plant the resilient tuber as a safeguard against starvation. The potato, as ready and resilient food staple, allowed populations to increase and move from subsistence economy. However, over-reliance on the potato brought its own peril as seen in the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840’s. Before the onset of the famine, Irish peasants were eating an average of 10 potatoes a day as well as feeding potatoes to their livestock. A fungus from North America wiped out the Irish potato crop, which consisted of two high-yield varieties. The Irish population, which had grown by 5 million in less than a century, thanks to the hardy potato, fell by 2 million in less than a decade. 

8. Spaghetti- The first written record of pasta comes from the  Talmud  in the 5th century AD and refers to dried pasta that could be cooked through  boiling , which was conveniently portable. Some historians think that  Arabs  introduced pasta to Europe during a conquest of Sicily. In the West, it may have first been worked into long, thin forms in  Sicily  around the 12th century, as the  Tabula Rogeriana  of  Muhammad al-Idrisi  attested, reporting some traditions about the  Sicilian kingdom. The popularity of spaghetti spread throughout Italy after the establishment of spaghetti factories in the 19th century, enabling the  mass production  of spaghetti for the Italian market. [6] In the United States around the end of the 19th century, spaghetti was offered in restaurants as  Spaghetti Italienne  (which likely consisted of noodles cooked past  al dente , and a mild tomato sauce flavored with easily found spices and vegetables such as  cloves ,  bay leaves , and  garlic ) Tea- As European trade with China and Japan increased, rumors of this new substance began to filter back with the caravans. No traders could quite describe how tea was produced: Suggestions were as outlandish as that the leaves be boiled, salted, buttered and eaten whole. It was not until 1560 - when Portuguese missionaries established a trade route with China - that tea was imported to Europe, by way of Portugal and later the Netherlands. This account is contested, however, by those who claim that Arab traders gave tea to the Venetians one year earlier. The early few shipments were expensive; serving the drink was a sign of wealth, thus increasing tea’s popularity among Dutch elites. Not everyone was willing to embrace the new beverage. Doctors and scholars, known as “tea heretics” questioned if the dark, bitter substance was good for public consumption , and academic debates raged for decades. Falling prices led to mass consumption by the late 1600s. Despite the dire predictions, tea made with boiled water actually offered health benefits over alcohol consumption for Europe.

9. Modern globalization The 19th century witnessed the advent of globalization approaching its modern form.  Industrialization  allowed cheap production of household items using  economies of scale,  while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth-century  imperialism . After the  First  and  Second Opium Wars , which opened up China to foreign trade, and the completion of the British conquest of India, the vast populations of these regions became ready consumers of European exports. It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific islands were incorporated into the world system. Meanwhile, the conquest of parts of the globe, notably sub-Saharan Africa, by Europeans yielded valuable natural resources such as  rubber ,  diamonds  and  coal  and helped fuel trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and the United States . Between the globalization in the 19th and in the 20th there are significant differences. There are two main points on which the differences can be seen. One point is the global trade in this centuries as well as the capital, investment and the economy. The global trade in the 20th century shows a higher share of trade in merchant production, a growth of the trade in services and the rise of production and trade by multinational firms. The production of merchant goods in the 20th century largely decreased from the levels seen in the 19th century. However, the amount of merchant goods that were produced for the merchandise trade grew. The trade in services also grew more important in the 20th compared to the 19th century. The last point that distinguishes the global trade in the 19th century compared to the global trade in the 20th century, is the extent of multinational cooperation. In the 20th century, you can see a "quantum leap" in multinational cooperation compared to the 19th century.

10. Globalization of Indian Economy Globalization of Indian Economy The introduction of globalisation changed Indian society drastically. Globalisation and the Indian economy became interrelated, and next economic policies displayed a direct influence of this change. Government shaped administrative policies according to it as well. The aim was to promote business opportunities in this country, generate employment, and attract global investments. Globalisation of the Indian economy also witnessed an impact on its culture. Introduction to other societies and their norms brought various changes to the culture of this country as well. Furthermore, India is one of those countries that attain economic success after the implementation of this concept. The introduction and growth of foreign investment in major sectors of this country fuelled the rise of the Indian economy even further. Impact of Globalisation on Indian Economy During this discussion of globalisation and the Indian economy, a name that deserves special mention is former Finance Minister of India Dr Manmohan Singh. He was at the forefront of this movement and ensured a successful implementation of it. He also drafted the economic liberalization proposal. Here are some quick statistics that will reflect the immediate effect of globalisation on Indian economy – After 1992, the average annual growth rate of GDP was 6.1%. In 1993-94, the export of India recorded an exponential growth of 20%. Also, in the following financial year, it was at a healthy 18.4%. In 1995, the total export value of computer services was about ＄11 billion, and in 2015 it recorded around ＄110 billion. These statistics prove globalisation and the Indian economy brought positive changes and fast-tracked India's economic growth.

11. Benefits of Globalisation of Indian Economy The concept of globalisation in India resulted in the following benefits that helped to transform the Indian economy and the country as a whole – 1. More Employment Opportunities The introduction of globalisation brought an influx of foreign investments and the favorable policies of the Indian government also helped companies to set up units in this country. This has resulted in new employment opportunities. Also, access to low-cost labor prompted foreign businesses to outsource work to companies operating here. In a nutshell, the employment opportunities in this country rapidly progressed after globalisation and Indian business merged. 2. Increase in per-capita Income As a direct effect of more employment opportunities, the per-capita income of Indian households also increased after globalisation. Resultantly, it altered their standard of living and improved the purchasing power of an average Indian. This gave birth to a new middle-class and recorded an increase in demand for consumer products in this country. 3. More Choices for Consumers Globalisation and the Indian economy provided Indian consumers with a plethora of choices. Indian, as well as foreign manufacturers, brought various products of the same kind, and consumers got a chance to select their preferred one. This increase in competition prompted manufacturers to create better products at a much lower price point. 4. Access to Untapped Markets A noticeable benefit of globalisation is that it provides access to many untapped markets with huge potential. The globalisation of the Indian economy means it allowed foreign companies to operate in the Indian market. Also, Indian businesses got an opportunity to operate on a global scale. As a result, the import-export sector in India saw an astonishing rise after 1991.

12. Chinese toys in India Globalisation has resulted in the trade of foreign commodities in domestic countries. Globalisation is the interconnection between counties through the expansion of foreign trade and foreign investment. It is the process of integrating the home country with foreign countries through the movement of goods, services, investment, technology and people.  With the growing globalisation, Chinese manufacturers are exporting Chinese toys to the Indian economy. In India, toys are sold at a high price. Because of this high price for toys, the Chinese manufacturers have started to export plastic toys to India. It will give a lot of opportunities and openings for domestic consumers to reach out beyond the domestic market. The consumers can choose between Indian and Chinese toys. Chinese toys have become more popular in the Indian markets due to its low price and attractive designs. Thus a large proportion of Indian toys have been substituted with much cheaper Chinese toys. This has also reduced the price of toys in the Indian market.  But the producers are at a loss because of the import of Chinese toys. Producers in India has to compete with the Chinese producers. Even though this greater competition has resulted in the improved standards of the products produced at a lower price, Indian producers are having a tough time competing in the market. The Chinese toys are far better in terms of cost of production and designs.  Thus the excessive import of toys has enabled the Indian buyers to have a wider choice at lower prices. The Chinese toy makers also acquire an opportunity to expand their production and profits. But the Indian producers face losses and many are shutting down their production.

13. WTO WTO – World Trade Organisation, was established in 1995 as the heir organisation to the GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariff). GATT was founded in 1948 with 23 nations as the global (international) trade organisation to serve all multilateral trade agreements by giving fair chances to all nations in the international exchange for trading prospects. WTO is required to build a rule-based trading government in which countries cannot place unreasonable constraints on trade. In addition, its mission is to increase stock and trade of services, to assure maximum utilisation of world resources and to preserve the environment. The WTO deals include trade in commodities as well as services to promote international trade (bilateral and multilateral) through the elimination of the tax as well as non-tariff obstacles and implementing greater marketplace access to all member nations. As an influential member of WTO, India is at the lead of building fair global laws, statutes and shields and supporting the concerns of the developing system. India has fulfilled its promises towards the liberalisation of trade, made in the WTO, by eliminating quantitative limitations on imports and decreasing tariff charges.