Indian and western sociologists

karl marx GS ghurye MN Desai
emile durkheim DP mukerji
Max weber AR Desai

1. INDIAN & WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS By THEERTHA A

2. WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS Karl Marx Max Weber Emile Durkheim 9/3/20XX Indian and Western Sociologists 2

3. KARL MARX(1818-1883) Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist sociologist, historian, journalist and a revolutionary sociologist. He was born into a German bourgeoisie family on May 5 ,1818.He married Jenny Von Westphalen on June 19,1843. Karl Marx died on March 14, 1883.Karl Marx was known as the “Father of Communism”. Marx developed a detailed explanation of the entire course of human events. 9/3/20XX Indian and western Sociologists 3

4. He said that, profit equals to motivation which equals to incentive to improve . Karl Marx became a leader because he didn’t like the way middle class and the working class were treated by the Bourgeoisie or the ruling class. They had horrible work hours, working conditions and very low pay. It was because the bourgeoisie wanted all the money for their own profit. Marx explained how people would go from socialism , where the business and production were controlled by government , to capitalism where the government has no control over business or production. Since the bourgeoisie treated the people unfairly and the government would become corrupt which would lead people to go to communism where all people were equal. This was a failed version of history since it did not happen. 9/3/20XX INDIAN AND WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS 4

5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIALISM AND CAPITALISM CAPITALISM Capitalism is an economic system where the means of production are owned by private individuals. Companies live by the profit motive. They exist to make money. All companies have owners and managers It is the governments job by enforcing law and regulations to make sure there is a level playing field for privately-run companies. SOCIALISM The means of production, such as money and other forms of capital, are owned by the sate or public. Under a socialist system , everyone works for wealth that is in turn distributed to everyone. The government decides how wealth is distributed among the people. They provide for the people. 9/3/20XX INDIAN AND WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS 5

6. KARL MARX AND CAPITALISM A relatively small elite owns and controls society's means of production. Most of the people sell their ability to work to these owners and in return, they receive a wage, not a “portion” of the resulting product or output. Under competitive market pressure to reduce costs, owners take control of the process of work and transform it. Karl Marx saw capitalism as a progressive historical stage that would eventually stagnate due to internal contradictions and be followed by socialism. Marxists define capital as “a social, economic relation” between people. In this sense they seek to abolish capital. They believe that private ownership of the means of production enriches capitalists (owners of capital) at the expense of workers. In brief, they argue that the owners of the means of production exploit the workforce. In his view, the dynamic of capital would eventually impoverish the working class and thereby create the social conditions for a revolution. Private ownership over the means of production and distribution is seen as creating a dependence of non-owning classes on the ruling class, and ultimately as a source of restriction of human freedom. 9/3/20XX INDIAN AND WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS 6

7. MARX CAPTALISM AND ALIENATION ALIENATION: To cause (someone) to feel isolated or estranged Marx wrote: “The alienation of the worker is expressed thus: the more he produces, the less he can consume; the more value he creates, the less value he has…Labour produces fabulous things for the rich, but misery for the poor. Machines replace labour, and jobs diminish, while other workers turn into machines…” The theoretical basis of alienation within the capitalist mode of production is that the worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and destiny when deprived of the right to think (conceive) of themselves as the director of their own actions; to determine the character of said actions; to define relationships with other people; and to own those items of value from goods and services, produced by their own labor. Although the worker is an autonomous, self-realized human being, as an economic entity this worker is directed to goals and diverted to activities that are dictated by the bourgeoisie—who own the means of production—in order to extract from the worker the maximum amount of surplus value in the course of business competition among industrialists. 9/3/20XX INDIAN AND WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS 7

8. MARX CAPTALISM AND ALIENATION CONT. To survive, workers must sell the one thing that makes them distinctively human: the capacity for inventive and creative work. Workers as a social class therefore become alienated from their human nature, what makes them essentially human. Workers become alienated from their fellow human beings. Alienation is estrangement. It is “modern” world that estranges all of us. The capitalist is alienated from himself because he is obsessed with money; because all the things are commodities he no longer values things per se, but only their capital worth. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 8

9. MARX AND CONFLICT THEORY Conflict Theory, developed by Karl Marx, denotes that due to society’s never-ending competition for finite resources, it will always be in a state of conflict. The implication of this theory is that those in possession of wealth and resources will protect and hoard those resources, while those without will do whatever they can to obtain them. This dynamic means there is a constant struggle between the rich and the poor. Conflict theory examines any social phenomenon through the lens that there is a natural human instinct towards conflict. Marx is not saying that conflict is good or bad, but instead that it is an unavoidable aspect of human nature and helps explain why things are the way they are. For example: conflict theory can be used to look at wars, violence, revolutions, and forms of injustice and discrimination by explaining that there is a natural disparity in society that causes these problems. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 9

10. MARX AND CONFLICT THEORY CONT. The materialist view of history= the most important determinant of social life is the work people are doing , especially work that results in provisions of basic necessities of life, food, clothing and shelter. Marx thought that the way the work is socially organized and the technology used in production will have a strong impact on every other aspect of society. He maintained that everything of value in society results from human labour. Thus, Marx saw working men and women as engaged in making society in creating the conditions for their own existence. Every part of human history and existence must be understood through the lens of the socio/economic theory. All relationships are based on conflicts/struggle. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 10

11. CLASS STRUGGLE Marx inherited the ideas of class and class struggle from utopian socialism and the theories of Henri de Saint-Simon. In Marx’s view, the dialectical nature of history is expressed in class struggle. With the development of capitalism, the class struggle takes an acute form. Two basic classes, around which other less important classes are grouped, oppose each other in the capitalist system: the owners of the means of production, or bourgeoisie, and the workers, or proletariat. When people have become aware of their loss, of their alienation, as a universal nonhuman situation, it will be possible for them to proceed to a radical transformation of their situation by a revolution. This revolution will be the prelude to the establishment of communism and the reign of liberty reconquered. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 11

12. CLASS STRUGGLE CONT. But for Marx there are two views of revolution. One is that of a final conflagration, “a violent suppression of the old conditions of production,” which occurs when the opposition between bourgeoisie and proletariat has been carried to its extreme point. The other conception is that of a permanent revolution involving a provisional coalition between the proletariat and the petty bourgeoisie rebelling against a capitalism that is only superficially united. Once a majority has been won to the coalition, an unofficial proletarian authority constitutes itself alongside the revolutionary bourgeois authority. Its mission is the political and revolutionary education of the proletariat, gradually assuring the transfer of legal power from the revolutionary bourgeoisie to the revolutionary proletariat. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 12

13. MARX ON RELIGION According to Marx, religion has a dual role to play. Throughout the history of class society religion performs two essential functions: it defenses the established order by sanctifying it and by suggesting that the political order is somehow ordained by divine authority, and it consoles the oppressed and exploited by offering them in heaven what they are denied upon earth. The critique of religion as a social phenomenon did not connote a dismissal of the issues behind it. Marx precedes the famous line in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right with the contention that religion was the "sigh of the oppressed creature in a hostile world, the heart of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions" and that an understanding of religion has to go hand in hand with an understanding of the social conditions that gave rise to it. What this shows is that his consideration of religion, politics, economics and society as a whole was not merely a philosophical exercise, but an active attempt to change the world, to help it find a new heart. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 13

14. MARXISM Marxism is a system of economic, social, and political philosophy based on ideas that view social change in terms of economic factors. Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict as well as a dialectical perspective to view social transformation. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought, there is currently no single definitive Marxist theory HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT: begin in the 19 th century as a pragmatic view of history that offered the working classes of society an opportunity to change their world.it offered humanity a social political economic and cultural understanding of the nature of reality, society and individual. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 14

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16. THE GERMAN IDEOLOGY(1845) The German ideology is a book written by Karl Marx along with Friedrich Engels. Marx declares that “consciousness does not determine life: life determines consciousness.” Humans define themselves. He said that our ideas and concepts about ourselves fashioned in everyday discourse in the language of real life. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 16

17. DIALECTAL MATERIALISM Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science, history, and nature developed in Europe and based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist dialectics emphasizes the importance of real-world conditions, in terms of class, labor, and socioeconomic interactions. It is the core belief of Marxism As a society progresses from a feudal system to a more market based economy, the actual process from producing distributing ad consuming goods becomes more complex. Peoples functions within the economic system become differentiated. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 17

18. TWO ECONOMIC MEANS OF PRODUCTION WITHIN A SOCIETY BASE: Engenders and controls all human institutions and ideologies SUPERSTRUCTURE: all social and legal institutions political and educational systems religions and art. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 18

19. FOUR HISTORICAL PERIODS(Marx) 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 19

20. THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO(1848) States that the history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle They declare that the capitalists, or the bourgeoisie , had successfully enslaved the working class or the proletariat through economic policies or production of goods . 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 20

21. DAS KAPITAL(1867) History became the bass for the 20 th century Marxism, Socialism and Communism. History, an understanding of people and their actions and beliefs is determined by economic conditions Marx maintains that an intricate web of social relationships emerge when any group of people engage in the production of goods. The ideology of a society such as the beliefs values and culture is determined by the upper class The rich become richer , while the poor become poorer. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 21

22. MAX WEBER(1864-1920) Maximilian Karl Emil Weber was a German historian, sociologist, jurist, and political economist, who is regarded today as one of the most important theorists on the development of modern Western society. He is best known for his thesis of the “Protestant ethic,” relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas on bureaucracy. He is regarded as a founding father of sociology. Born April 21, 1864, Erfurt, Germany. He died on June 14, 1920, Munich, Germany. 9/3/20XX Indian and Western sociologists 22

23. RATIONALIZATION The rationalization of society is a concept that was created by Max Weber. Rationalization refers to the process by which modern society has increasingly become concerned with: Efficiency: achieving the maximum results with a minimum amount of effort. Predictability: a desire to predict what will happen in the future. society is under the impact of science, technology, industrialization, expanding capitalism, bureaucratization and political centralization. Rationality is used to describe an economic system. Rationality is methodical, predictable and reduces all areas of production and distribution. 4 types of rationality, practical , theoretical ,formal and substantive. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 23

24. WEBER’s IRON CAGE In sociology, the iron cage is a concept introduced by Max Weber to describe the increased rationalization inherent in social life, particularly in Western capitalist societies. The "iron cage" thus traps individuals in systems based purely on teleological efficiency, rational calculation and control. Weber also described the bureaucratization of social order as "the polar night of icy darkness". IRON CAGE Industrial, mechanistic, world of rational calculation. Lacking spirit, ideas. Negative sign of rationalization. Social life increasingly dominated by rational institutions and practices. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 24

25. BUEREAUCRACY A complex, hierarchically arranged org. composed of many small sub divisions with specialized functions. Means “rule by the administrative system” According to him it means- A rigid division of labour is established which clearly identifies the regular tasks and duties of the particular bureaucratic system. There are firmly established chains of command, and the duties and capacity to comply is coerce others to comply is described by regulation. Regular and continuous execution of the assigned duties is undertaken by hiring people with particular qualifications which are certified. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 25

26. BUREACRACY 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 26 Specialized roles THE 9 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF BEUREACRACY ARE:

27. AUTHORITY Authority/ domination: probability that commands will obeyed. Legitimate power to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. Associated with social positions. “without exception every sphere of social action s profoundly influenced by structures of domination. Domination(authority) is always only one side of command-obedience relationship. POWER: Ability to impose ones will onto another. Power is associated with personality. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 27

28. AUTHORITY CONT. There are 3 main types of legitimacy, based on.. RATIONAL LEGAL : Resting on the belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands; characterized by bureaucracies(i.e. legal authority) TRADITIONAL: Resting on an established belief in the sanctity of old traditions.it is the dominant type in pre-modern societies; characterized by monarchies. CHARISMATIC: Resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person or on the appeal of leader and is naturally unstable; characterized by Hitler. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 28

29. SOCIAL ACTION In sociology, social action, also recognized as “Weberian social action” refers to an act which takes into account the actions and reactions of individuals (or agents).social action meant action on the part of individuals participating in social relationships. Rendering to max weber “an action is social if the acting individual takes account of behaviour of others and is thereby oriented in its course". The social action theory sees society as being all about ho people interact. Social action is concerned with toward others. These can be past, present or future, known or unknown. Not every kind of action is social action . Overt action is non social if tsp. oriented solely to the behaviour of inanimate objects. i.e. religious activity is not social if is simply for individual contemplation or prayer. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 29

30. TYPES OF SOCIAL ACTION MEANINGFUL ACTION: takes account of the behaviour of others and its thereby oriented in its course. TRADITIONAL SOCIAL ACTION: Guided by customs and long standing beliefs People engage in this type of action often unthinkingly AFFECTIVE ACTION: Results from the emotional state of mind of the actor. Based on the emotional state of the person. 9/3/20XX INDIAN AND WESTERN SOCIOLOGISTS 30

31. SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 31 Calvinist ideas had a major impact on social advancement and economic innovation in the west Focused on the beliefs of magic that he referred to as the “ disenchantment of the world”

32. IMPACTS OF WEBERS WORK 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 32 His concepts have had enormous impact on sociological theory today. His methodological works provides a frame work for research and instruction. Economic history and politics give unique insights into the origins of the modern world and its evolution. Articulated idea that the world is becoming increasingly dominated by norms and values of rationalization. Most importantly weber studied the relationship between the religious ideas and the effect they have on the economic system. He researched how the west developed a rational religious system (Calvinism) that played a key role in the rise of rational economic system(capitalism) His concepts and ideas have had spread across many parts of the word, Weberian theory is very significant today.

33. CRITICISM There was a controversy about the impact of religious beliefs on the economic actions of mankind. Many sociologists believes that he lacks a critical theory and his theories cannot be used to point out opportunities for constructive change. For bureaucracy and formal rationality two types of rationalization, were developed because of their control of achieving goal but as rationalization develops, the original goal is often forgotten and tasks are often accomplished for pure pleasure. He is criticized for his theory of social action because it falls between two meanings and people become confused about how to implement the concept in everyday life. One hand, it could mean a subjective intuition because this would not be scientific. On the other hand , the sociologist couldn’t just proclaim the “objective” meaning of the social phenomenon. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 33

34. PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALSM Weber’s best known and most controversial work, illustrates the general trend of his thinking. Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a study of the relationship between the ethics of ascetic Protestantism and the emergence of the spirit of modern capitalism. Weber argues that the religious ideas of groups such as the Calvinists played a role in creating the capitalistic spirit. Weber first observes a correlation between being Protestant and being involved in business, and declares his intent to explore religion as a potential cause of the modern economic conditions. He argues that the modern spirit of capitalism sees profit as an end in itself, and pursuing profit as virtuous. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 34

35. EMILE DURKHEIM(1858-1917 ) Émile Durkheim, French social scientist who developed a vigorous methodology combining empirical research with sociological theory. He is widely regarded as the founder of the French school of sociology. He is one of the founders of institutionalized sociology. He is also called as a structural functionalist. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 35

36. SOCIAL FACTS A category of facts which present very special characteristics : they consist of manners of acting ,thinking , and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which hey exercise control over him. Durkheim gives us a frame work for making sense of the stability, of life and the layers of integration, control and regulation that maintain. Social facts are forms of collective conscience(states of the collective mind).they should be studied at the level of social reality than at the level of individual. Since these facts consisted of actions, thoughts, and feelings, they should not be confused with biology and psychology, because these are focused at the level of individual. He said that when individuals interact and form a group, it creates a new phenomenon witch is greater than sum of its parts. And also that the parts are derived from the whole rather than the whole from the parts, because of the coercive power of social facts manifested in individuals. Durkheim insisted that social facts were not simply limited to ways of functioning(e.g. acting, thinking, feeling etc.),but also a extended to ways of being(e.g. the number, nature, and the relation of the parts of a society, the size and geographical distribution of its population, the nature and extent of its communication networks, etc. 9/3/20XX Indian and Western Sociologists 36

37. SOCIAL SOLIDARITY Solidarity refers to the ties in a society that binds people together. MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY: in earlier times , society was simpler and homogeneous.so social coherence was based on shared beliefs and thoughts. They had high degree of religious commitment., same kind of jobs and responsibilities.it revolved around kinship. This is mechanical solidarity. ORGANIC SOLIDARITY: after industrial revolution, the society became more complex and heterogeneous. Division of labour and specialisation was created. People in this new society are no longer similar. Social coherence was created through interdependence as we no longer can sustain on our own. This organic solidarity, solidarity through dissimilarity. 9/3/20XX Indian and Western Sociologists 37

38. SOCIAL INTEGRATION Social integration is the process which takes place among the modern generation socially. That means; a new generation or immigrants adapt from a given society and its societal structure(local customs, social relationship , network , languages etc). SOCIAL ATTACHMENTS: attachments of social groups and social networks . Maintenance of interpersonal and the perception. SOCIAL REGULATION: Social structures regulate human behaviour these are called social regulation. Social regulation depend upon the: Values Norms Mores Laws 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 38

39. DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY The division of labor is the separation of tasks in any economic system or organization so that participants may specialize. People performing highly distinctive roles in our society. And they have the same routines. Division of labour is divided into 2 aspects 1. Traditional/mechanical: based on hunting and gathering Carpenters, mechanics , electrician etc 2. Modern/organic: Based on industries and new technology. Society becomes more complex due to industrialisation. Based on upper, middle and lower class. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 39

40. SUICIDE Durkheim’s theory of ‘suicide’ is related in various ways to his study of the division of labor. It is also linked with the theory of ‘social constraint’. Durkheim has established the view that there are no societies in which suicide does not occur. According to Durkheim, suicide is not an individual act nor a personal action. It is caused by some power which is over and above the individual or super individual. He viewed “all classes of deaths resulting directly or indirectly from the positive or negative acts of the victim itself who knows the result they produce” Having defined the phenomenon Durkheim dismisses the psychological explanation. Many doctors and psychologists develop the theory that majority of people who take their own life are in a pathological state, but Durkheim emphasizes that the force, which determines the suicide, is not psychological but social. He concludes that suicide is the result of social disorganization or lack of social integration or social solidarity. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 40

41. RELIGIOUS LIFE RELIGION IS AN EXPRESSION AND A WAY OF CREATING SOCIAL ORDER.GOD IS PRESENT IN ANY RELIGION. According to Durkheim, religion is the product of human activity, not divine intervention. He thus treats religion as a unique social fact and analyzes it sociologically. Durkheim’s concern about religion lay in the fact that it was one of the main agencies of solidarity and morality in society and was therefore parts of the central problem of social solidarity which he wished to explore. Durkheim’s last major book “The elementary forms of Religious life” (1912) has been regarded as one of the most profound and most original work upon Religion. It is regarded as his best and most mature work. Religious representations are collective representations which express collective reality. Recognizing the social origin of religion, Durkheim argued that religion acted as a source of solidarity. Religion provides a meaning for life. Durkheim saw it as a critical part of the social system. Religion provides social control, cohesion and purpose for people as well as another means of communication and gathering for individuals to interact and reaffirm social norms. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 41

42. FUNCTIONALISM A THEORY THAT VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX BUT ORDERLY ANDSTABLE SYSTEM WITH INTERCONNECTED STRUCTRES AND FUNCTIONS. This analyses social and cultural phenomena in terms of the functions they perform in a social cultural system. Durkheim view that society is made up of various institutions, each of which has a useful function. Functionalism begins with the observation that behaviour in society is structured. The main parts of society-its institutions-such as family, economy and the educational and political systems are all major aspects of social structure. The functionalists emphasises the interconnectedness and interdependency of the society by focusing how each part influences and is influenced by the other parts. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 42

43. Indian Sociologists Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893-1983) Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji (1894- 1961) Akshay Ramanlal Desai (1915-1994) Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1916-1999)

44. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893-1983) Ghurye was born on 12th December, 1893 in a Saraswat Brahmin family in Malavan, Maharashtra, and the West Coast of India. He died on 28th December, 1983 at the age of 91 in Bombay. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye is a towering figure in intel­lectual and academic circles for his unique contribution in the field of Indian sociology. He has often been acclaimed as the ‘father of Indian sociology’, ‘the doyen of Indian sociologists’ or ‘the symbol of sociological creativeness. 44

45. GS GHURYE: CASTE AND RACE 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 45 In his book caste and race Ghurye says that, Every society is stratified. But it differs from society to society Stratification or classification of Indian Hindu society is based on caste system. The caste system appears to be the most significant feature of the Hindu society. In some societies this stratification system is based on the principle of achievement and in the other societies it is based on the principle of ascription. But, caste system in India is purely based on the principle of ascription. G S Ghurye 's understanding of Caste in India can be considered as historical, indological as well as comparative. In his book “Caste and race in India” he agrees with Sir Herbert Risley that “Caste is a product of race that came to India with along with aryans “

46. SIX DISTINCTIVE CHAROCTERISTICS OF CASTE IN INDIA 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 46

47. SIX DISTINCTIVE CHAROCTERISTICS OF CASTE IN INDIA SEGMENTAL DIVISION OF SOCIETY: Under caste system society is divided into several small social groups called castes. Additionally there are multiple divisions and subdivisions of caste system. The membership is ascribed in character ,i.e. it is based on birth and flows from generation to generation. The members of every division have fixed status roles and tasks. There are also a et of moral ethics, obligations and justification value behind these roles. Hence each caste has its own traditional social status , occupations, customs, rules and regulations. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 47

48. HIERARCHY: According to Ghurye , caste is hierarchical .Theoretically brahmins occupy the top position and Shurdras occupy the bottom. The castes can be graded and arranged into hierarchy on the basis of their social precedence. The hierarchy determines caste norms. The hierarchy present in caste system is reflected through the division of labour in society. CIVIL & RELIGIOUS DISABILITIES AND PRIVILEGES: Civil and religious disabilities effect the rigidity of the caste system. In a caste society, there is a unequal distribution of disabilities and privileges among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privilege, the lower caste people suffer from various types of disabilities. The untouchables are not allowed to take water from public wells. They are not allowed to enter temples and etc. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 48

49. LACK OF UNRESTRICTED CHOICE OF OCCUPATION: The occupation in a caste system are fixed by heredity and generally members are not allowed to change their traditional occupations. The higher the caste members maintain their supremacy jobs and do not allow the other caste group to join in the same occupation. RESTRICTION ON FOOD , DRINKS AND SOCIAL INTERCOURSE: Some rules have been imposed upon all caste people.restriction on feeling and social intercourse are still prevalent in Indian society.there are two types of food i.e. kachha (cooked) and pakka (raw) food upon which certain restrictions are imposed with regard to sharing ,for example: Caste groups from whom twice born caste people can accept kachha food; Caste group from whom twice born caste people can accept pakka food; Caste groups from whom twce orn caste people do not accept water or food and maintain distance. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 49

50. ENDOGAMY: Endogamy is the essence of the caste system. Every caste insists that its members should marry within the group.disobeying the caste endogamy rule is not only treated as a crime but is also condemned as a sin. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 50

51. IMPORTANT WORKS OF GHURYE: 1. Caste and Race in India (1932, 1969) 2. Culture and Society (1947) 3. Indian Sadhus (1953) 4. Bharatanatyam and Its Costume (1958) 5. Family and Kin in Indo-European Culture (1955, 1961) 6. Cities and Civilization (1962) 7. Gods and Men (1962) 8. Anatomy of a Rural-Urban Community (1962) 9. Indian Acculturation (1977) 10. Scheduled Tribes (first published as The Aborigines So-called and their Future) (1943, 1959, 1963) 11. Religious Consciousness (1965) 12. Indian Costume (1966) 13. Social Tensions in India (1968) 14. I and Other Explorations (1973) 15. Whither India (1974) 16. Vedic India (1979) 17. Bringing Cauldron of North East India (1980) 9/3/20XX 51

52. DHURJATI PRASAD MUKERJI (1894-1961) Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji (1894-1961), popularly called as DP, was one of the founding fathers of sociology in India. He was born on 5 October 1894 in West Bengal in a middle class Bengali family that had a fairly long tradition of intellectual pursuits. DP Mukerji contributed the perspective of Marxian sociology in India. He was tolerant of western ideas, concepts and analytical categories. He viewed that there is a need for an indigenous sociology and social anthropology, but he certainly did not want to insulate these disciplines in India from the western social traditions. He was one of the very few social scientists in the academic world who recognized the importance of Marxism to analyse socio-economic forces operating in human society. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 52

53. TRADITIONS AND CHANGE DP Mukherji says that traditions perform the art of conserving. D.P.,in his study of tradition was not only oriented towards the past, but also included sensitivity to change. Thus, tradition was a living tradition, maintaining its links with the past, but also adapting to the present and thus evolving over time. D.P. argued that Indian culture and society are not individualistic in the western sense. The average Indian individual’s pattern of desires is more or less rigidly fixed by his sociocultural group pattern and he hardly deviates from it. The Indian social system is basically oriented towards group, sect, or caste-action, not ‘voluntaristic’ individual action. D.P. pointed out that the root meaning of the word tradition is to transmit. Its Sanskrit equivalents are either parampara , that is, succession; or aitihya , which comes from the same root as itihas or history. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 53

54. DP asserts that traditions do change. Three principles of change are recognized in Indian tradition: Sruti , Smriti, Anubhava . It is anubhava or personal experience, which is the revolutionary principle. Certain Upanishads are entirely based on it. Personal experience of the saint-founders of different sects or panths soon blossomed forth into collective experience producing change in the prevailing socio-religious order. The experience of prem or love and sahaj or spontaneity of these saints and their followers was noticeable also in the Sufis among the Muslims. The traditional system gradually accommodated the dissenting voices. Indian social action has given latitude to align rebel within the limits of the constitution. The result has been the caste society blunting the class-consciousness of disadvantaged. The strength of the Indian tradition lies in its crystallization of values emerging from past happenings in the life-habits and emotions of men and women. In this way, India has certainly conserved many values: some good and others bad. The point, however, is that of utilizing the forces, which are foreign to Indian traditions, e.g., technology, democracy, urbanization, bureaucracy, etc. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 54

55. Conflict and rebellion in the Indian context have tended to work through collective experiences. But the resilience of tradition ensures that the pressure of conflict produces change in the tradition without breaking it. So we have repeated cycles of dominant orthodoxy being challenged by popular revolts which succeed in transforming orthodoxy, but are eventually reabsorbed into this transformed tradition. This process of change — of rebellion contained within the limits of an overarching tradition — is typical of a caste society, where the formation of classes and class consciousness has been inhibited. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 55

56. MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF DP MUKERJI 1. Personality 2. Modern Indian Culture 3. Traditions 4. Nature and Method of Sociology 5. Role of New Middle Classes 6. Making of Indian History 7. Modernization 8. Music 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 56

57. AKSHAY RAMANLAL DESAI (1915-1994) Akshay Ramanlal Desai (1915-1994) was born on April 16, 1915 at Nadiad in Gujarat and died on November 12, 1994 at Baroda in Gujarat. Desai closely studied the works of Marx and Engels and the writings of Leon Trotsky by whom he was very much influ­enced. He may be regarded as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist approach to empirical investigations involving bibliographical and field research. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 57

58. DESAI’S VIEW ON STATE The modern capitalist state was one of the significant themes that interested A.R. Desai. His approach to this issue was from a Marxist perspective. In an essay called "The myth of the welfare state”. Desai identifies the following unique features of the welfare state: ( i ) A welfare state is a positive state. This means that, unlike the ‘laissez faire’ of classical liberal political theory, the welfare state does not seek to do only the minimum necessary to maintain law and order. The welfare state is an interventionist state and actively uses its considerable powers to design and implement social policies for the betterment of society. (ii) The welfare state is a democratic state. Democracy was considered an essential condition for the emergence of the welfare state. Formal democratic institutions, specially multi-party elections, were thought to be a defining feature of the welfare state. This is why liberal thinkers excluded socialist and communist states from this definition. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 58

59. (iii) A welfare state involves a mixed economy. A ‘mixed economy’ means an economy where both private capitalist enterprises and state or publicly owned enterprises co-exist. A welfare state does not seek to eliminate the capitalist market, nor does it prevent public investment in industry and other fields. By and large, the state sector concentrates on basic goods and social infrastructure, while private industry dominates the consumer goods sector. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 59

60. Using these criteria, Desai examines the performance of those states that are most often described as welfare states, such as Britain, the USA and much of Europe, and finds their claims to be greatly exaggerated. Thus, most modern capitalist states, even in the most developed countries, fail to provide minimum levels of economic and social security to all their citizens. They are unable to reduce economic inequality and often seem to encourage it. The so-called welfare states have also been unsuccessful at enabling stable development free from market fluctuations. The presence of excess economic capacity and high levels of unemployment are yet another failure. Based on these arguments, Desai concludes that the notion of the welfare state is something of a myth. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 60

61. A.R. Desai also wrote on the Marxist theory of the state. In these writings we can see that Desai does not take a one-sided view but openly criticizes the shortcomings of Communist states. He cites many Marxist thinkers to emphasize the importance of democracy even under communism, arguing strongly that political liberties and the rule of law must be upheld in all genuinely socialist states. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 61

62. Desai also developed the field of political sociology in 1960s. In an anthology, Desai (1979) included the studies on peasant struggles, which have also been carried out by historians and social scientists of diverse orientations. A.R. Desai (1976) studied Indian society from Marxian perspective and also used history fruitfully. In 1969 Desai published an edited volume on Rural Sociology in India, which was a major turning point and pacesetter in the field of agrarian studies. Desai’s (1948) study of the Indian National Movement – its class character and inherent contradictions – was of course a noteworthy and pioneering contribution of the pre-1950 era. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 62

63. A.R DESAIs WRITINGS: The Social Background of Indian Nationalism (1948) currently operating (1973); and immanent features of Indian nationalism (1975); the issue and problems of Rural Sociology in India (1969); Slums and Urbanization of India (1970, 1972); and the implications of the modernization of Indian society in the world context (1971), State and Society in India (1975), Peasant Struggle in India (1979), Rural India in Transition (1979), and India’s Path of Development (1984). 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 63

64. Mysore Narsimhachar Srinivas (1916-1999) was born in a Brahmin family in Mysore on 16th November, 1916 and died at the ripe age of 83 at Bangalore on 30th November, 1999. He is mostly known for his work on caste and caste systems, Social stratification, Sanskritization and Westernization in southern India and the concept of 'Dominant 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 64 MYSORE NARSIMCHAR SRINIVAS(1916-1999)

65. The Indian village and village society remained a life-long focus of interest for Srinivas. Although he had made short visits to villages to conduct surveys and interviews, it was not until he did field work for a year at a village near Mysore that he really acquired first hand knowledge of village society. The experience of field work proved to be decisive for his career and his intellectual path. Srinivas helped encourage and coordinate a major collective effort at producing detailed ethnographic accounts of village society during the 1950s and 1960s. The concept of ‘dominant caste’ has been used in the study of power relations at the village level. Srinivas (1960) presents the results of a number of studies on the structure and change in the village society. Srinivas has written articles in the 1940s on Tamil and Telegu folk-songs. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 65

66. Srinivas’ writings on the village were of two broad types. There was first of all ethnographic accounts of fieldwork done in villages or discussions of such accounts. A second kind of writing included historical and conceptual discussions about the Indian village as a unit of social analysis. Srinivas was involved in a debate about the usefulness of the village as a concept. Arguing against village studies, some social anthropologists like Louis Dumont thought that social institutions like caste were more important than something like a village, which was after all only a collection of people living in a particular place. Historical evidence showed that villages had served as a unifying identity and that village unity was quite significant in rural social life.Srinivas also criticised the British administrator anthropologists who had put forward a picture of the Indian village as unchanging, self- sufficient,“little republics”. Using historical and sociological evidence, Srinivas showed that the village had, in fact, experienced considerable change. Moreover, villages were never self-sufficient, and had been involved in various kinds of economic,social and political relationships at the regional level. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 66

67. Using the village The village as a site of research offered many advantages to Indian sociology. Such as: It provided an opportunity to illustrate the importance of ethnographic research methods. It offered eye-witness accounts of the rapid social change that was taking place in the Indian countryside as the newly independent nation began a program of planned development. These vivid descriptions of village India were greatly appreciated at the time as urban Indians as well as policy makers were able to form impressions of what was going on in the heartland of India. Village studies thus provided a new role for a discipline like sociology in the context of an independent nation. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 67

68. IMPORTANT THEMES ON WHICH SRINIVAS FOCUSES ON: Social change , Brahminization , Sanskritization, westernization, secularization, Religion and society, Study of village, Views on caste, Dominant cast. TWO BASIC CONCEPTS EXPLAINED BY SRINIVAS TO UNDERSTAND SOCIETY : (a) Book view, and (b) Field view. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 68

69. BOOK VIEW(bookish perspective): Religion, varna, caste, family, village and geographical structure are the main elements, which are known as the bases of Indian society. The knowledge about such elements is gained through sacred texts or from books. Srinivas calls it book view or bookish perspective. Book view is also known as Indology, which is not acceptable to Srinivas and he emphasized to the field view. FIELD VIEW(field work): Srinivas believes that the knowledge about the different regions of Indian society can be attained through field work. This he calls field view. Consequently, he prefers empirical study to understand our society. Srinivas took the path of small regional studies rather than the construction of grand theories. In this context, field work plays an important role to understand the nativity of the rural Indian society. 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 69

70. 1. Marriage and Family in Mysore (1942) 2. Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India (1952) 3. India’s Villages (1955) 4. Caste in Modern India and Other Essays (1962) 5. Social Change in Modern India (1966) 6. The Remembered Village (1976) 7. India: Social Structure (1980) 8. The Dominant Caste and Other Essays (1987) 9. The Cohesive Role of Sanskritization (1989) 10. On Living in a Revolution and Other Essays (1992) 11. Village, Caste, Gender and Method (1996) 12. Indian Society through Personal Writings (1996) 9/3/20XX Presentation Title 70 SOME OF THE WORKS OF SRINIVAS

71. Thank you 9/3/20XX Indian and Western Sociologists 71