Interview Questions-Basics of Electronics and Communication Engg
ProfSanjeevBahadur
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74 slides
Oct 24, 2014
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About This Presentation
Interview Questions,Electronics,Communication Basics,Computers,Hardware,Phones,ISO,OSI,
System Software,Application Software,CAD,CAM,Photogrammatery,Image Processing,Intel Core processors
Slide Content
Interview Questions-Basics of Interview Questions-Basics of
Electronics and Communication EnggElectronics and Communication Engg
Sanjeev BahadurSanjeev Bahadur
Electronics and Communication EnggElectronics and Communication Engg
Sanjeev BahadurSanjeev Bahadur
Doping in SemiconductorsDoping in Semiconductors
•In semiconductor production, In semiconductor production, dopingdoping
deliberately introduces impurities into an deliberately introduces impurities into an
extremely pure ( referred as extremely pure ( referred as intrinsicintrinsic) )
semiconductor for the purpose of changing or semiconductor for the purpose of changing or
modulating its electrical properties.modulating its electrical properties.
• The impurities are dependent on the type of The impurities are dependent on the type of
semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped
semiconductors are referred to as semiconductors are referred to as extrinsicextrinsic..
• Semiconductor doped to such high levels that it Semiconductor doped to such high levels that it
acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor
is referred to as is referred to as degeneratedegenerate..
•In semiconductor production, In semiconductor production, dopingdoping
deliberately introduces impurities into an deliberately introduces impurities into an
extremely pure ( referred as extremely pure ( referred as intrinsicintrinsic) )
semiconductor for the purpose of changing or semiconductor for the purpose of changing or
modulating its electrical properties.modulating its electrical properties.
• The impurities are dependent on the type of The impurities are dependent on the type of
semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped
semiconductors are referred to as semiconductors are referred to as extrinsicextrinsic..
• Semiconductor doped to such high levels that it Semiconductor doped to such high levels that it
acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor
is referred to as is referred to as degeneratedegenerate..
Silicon and Ge as Semiconductor Silicon and Ge as Semiconductor
MaterialMaterial
•The semiconductor materials are either basic The semiconductor materials are either basic
such as silicon and germanium or compound such as silicon and germanium or compound
such as gallium arsenide.such as gallium arsenide.
• Silicon is the most used semiconductor for Silicon is the most used semiconductor for
discrete devices and integrated circuits. One of discrete devices and integrated circuits. One of
the prominent German scientists wrote in an the prominent German scientists wrote in an
article about silicon that this era is the silicon era article about silicon that this era is the silicon era
since silicon impacted and still affecting the since silicon impacted and still affecting the
modern civilization development very much.. modern civilization development very much..
MaterialMaterial
•The semiconductor materials are either basic The semiconductor materials are either basic
such as silicon and germanium or compound such as silicon and germanium or compound
such as gallium arsenide.such as gallium arsenide.
• Silicon is the most used semiconductor for Silicon is the most used semiconductor for
discrete devices and integrated circuits. One of discrete devices and integrated circuits. One of
the prominent German scientists wrote in an the prominent German scientists wrote in an
article about silicon that this era is the silicon era article about silicon that this era is the silicon era
since silicon impacted and still affecting the since silicon impacted and still affecting the
modern civilization development very much.. modern civilization development very much..
DiodesDiodes
•Diodes are used in circuits to stop electricity Diodes are used in circuits to stop electricity
from flowing back into the circuit. They only let from flowing back into the circuit. They only let
current through in one direction. The diodes in current through in one direction. The diodes in
the distortion pedal are what make the distortion. the distortion pedal are what make the distortion.
Diode-clipping distortion is what this is called!Diode-clipping distortion is what this is called!
There is a certain way to connect diodes. It is There is a certain way to connect diodes. It is
pretty straight forward.pretty straight forward.
There is always some sort of line on a diode There is always some sort of line on a diode
(except for LED's) but on regular diodes there is (except for LED's) but on regular diodes there is
always a line always a line
•Diodes are used in circuits to stop electricity Diodes are used in circuits to stop electricity
from flowing back into the circuit. They only let from flowing back into the circuit. They only let
current through in one direction. The diodes in current through in one direction. The diodes in
the distortion pedal are what make the distortion. the distortion pedal are what make the distortion.
Diode-clipping distortion is what this is called!Diode-clipping distortion is what this is called!
There is a certain way to connect diodes. It is There is a certain way to connect diodes. It is
pretty straight forward.pretty straight forward.
There is always some sort of line on a diode There is always some sort of line on a diode
(except for LED's) but on regular diodes there is (except for LED's) but on regular diodes there is
always a line always a line
Zener DiodesZener Diodes
Zener diodeZener diode is a diode which allows current to flow is a diode which allows current to flow
in the forward directionin the forward direction
•A A Zener diodeZener diode is a is a diodediode which allows current to flow in the which allows current to flow in the
forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also
permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above
a certain value known as the a certain value known as the breakdown voltagebreakdown voltage, "Zener knee , "Zener knee
voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche point", or "peak inverse voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche point", or "peak inverse
voltage".voltage".
•The device was named after The device was named after Clarence Clarence ZenerZener, who discovered this , who discovered this
electrical property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which electrical property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which
the reverse breakdown is due to electron the reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum quantum tunnellingtunnelling under under
high electric field strength—the high electric field strength—the ZenerZener effect effect. However, many diodes . However, many diodes
described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdownavalanche breakdown
as the mechanism. Both types are used with the Zener effect as the mechanism. Both types are used with the Zener effect
predominating under 5.6 V and predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdownavalanche breakdown above. above.
in the forward directionin the forward direction
•A A Zener diodeZener diode is a is a diodediode which allows current to flow in the which allows current to flow in the
forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also
permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above
a certain value known as the a certain value known as the breakdown voltagebreakdown voltage, "Zener knee , "Zener knee
voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche point", or "peak inverse voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche point", or "peak inverse
voltage".voltage".
•The device was named after The device was named after Clarence Clarence ZenerZener, who discovered this , who discovered this
electrical property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which electrical property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which
the reverse breakdown is due to electron the reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum quantum tunnellingtunnelling under under
high electric field strength—the high electric field strength—the ZenerZener effect effect. However, many diodes . However, many diodes
described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on described as "Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdownavalanche breakdown
as the mechanism. Both types are used with the Zener effect as the mechanism. Both types are used with the Zener effect
predominating under 5.6 V and predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdownavalanche breakdown above. above.
NPN Transistor,SchematicNPN Transistor,Schematic
Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two transistor types.
Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two transistor types.
Bipolar TransistorBipolar Transistor
•A bipolar transistor consists of a three-A bipolar transistor consists of a three-
layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic) layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or
N-P-N.N-P-N.
• Each layer forming the transistor has a Each layer forming the transistor has a
specific name, and each layer is provided specific name, and each layer is provided
with a wire contact for connection to a with a wire contact for connection to a
circuit. circuit.
•A bipolar transistor consists of a three-A bipolar transistor consists of a three-
layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic) layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or
N-P-N.N-P-N.
• Each layer forming the transistor has a Each layer forming the transistor has a
specific name, and each layer is provided specific name, and each layer is provided
with a wire contact for connection to a with a wire contact for connection to a
circuit. circuit.
PNP TransistorPNP Transistor
NPN TransistorNPN Transistor
Satellite DishSatellite Dish
Logic Circuits and Truth Table-Logic Circuits and Truth Table-
ExamplesExamples
ExamplesExamples
Example of Circuit DiagramExample of Circuit Diagram
•The The 555 timer IC555 timer IC is an is an integrated circuitintegrated circuit
(chip) used in a variety of (chip) used in a variety of timertimer, pulse , pulse
generation, and generation, and oscillatoroscillator applications. applications.
The 555 can be used to provide time The 555 can be used to provide time
delays, as an delays, as an oscillatoroscillator, and as a , and as a
flip-flop elementflip-flop element. .
•The The 555 timer IC555 timer IC is an is an integrated circuitintegrated circuit
(chip) used in a variety of (chip) used in a variety of timertimer, pulse , pulse
generation, and generation, and oscillatoroscillator applications. applications.
The 555 can be used to provide time The 555 can be used to provide time
delays, as an delays, as an oscillatoroscillator, and as a , and as a
flip-flop elementflip-flop element. .
AmplifiersAmplifiers
SMPS Power SupplySMPS Power Supply
Switched Mode Power Switched Mode Power
Supplies (SMPS).Supplies (SMPS).
•D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters
belong to the category of belong to the category of Switched Mode Power Switched Mode Power
Supplies (SMPS).Supplies (SMPS).
• Various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear Various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear
Power Supplies (LPS), fall in the category of dissipative Power Supplies (LPS), fall in the category of dissipative
regulator, as they have a voltage control element regulator, as they have a voltage control element
usually transistor or zener diode which dissipates power usually transistor or zener diode which dissipates power
equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated
input voltage and a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the input voltage and a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the
current flowing through it.current flowing through it.
• The switching regulator acts as a continuously variable The switching regulator acts as a continuously variable
power converter and hence its efficiency is barely power converter and hence its efficiency is barely
affected by the voltage differenceaffected by the voltage difference . .
Supplies (SMPS).Supplies (SMPS).
•D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters D.C. to D.C. converters and D.C. to A.C. Converters
belong to the category of belong to the category of Switched Mode Power Switched Mode Power
Supplies (SMPS).Supplies (SMPS).
• Various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear Various types of voltage regulators, used in Linear
Power Supplies (LPS), fall in the category of dissipative Power Supplies (LPS), fall in the category of dissipative
regulator, as they have a voltage control element regulator, as they have a voltage control element
usually transistor or zener diode which dissipates power usually transistor or zener diode which dissipates power
equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated equal to the voltage difference between an unregulated
input voltage and a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the input voltage and a fixed supply voltage multiplied by the
current flowing through it.current flowing through it.
• The switching regulator acts as a continuously variable The switching regulator acts as a continuously variable
power converter and hence its efficiency is barely power converter and hence its efficiency is barely
affected by the voltage differenceaffected by the voltage difference . .
SMPSSMPS
•The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency
around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the BJT, around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the BJT,
power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer. power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer.
Here the size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with Here the size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with
the frequency. the frequency.
•The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and
an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the losses in the choke an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the losses in the choke
and in active switching elements. and in active switching elements.
•The transformed wave form is rectified and filtered. A The transformed wave form is rectified and filtered. A
sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback
signal for the drive circuit for the switching transistor to signal for the drive circuit for the switching transistor to
achieve regulation.achieve regulation.
•The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency The input D.C. Supply is chopped at a higher frequency
around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the BJT, around 15 to 50 kHz using an active device like the BJT,
power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer. power MOSFET or SCR and the converter transformer.
Here the size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with Here the size of the ferrite core reduces inversely with
the frequency. the frequency.
•The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and The lower limit is around 5 kHz for silent operation and
an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the losses in the choke an upper limit of 50 kHz to limit the losses in the choke
and in active switching elements. and in active switching elements.
•The transformed wave form is rectified and filtered. A The transformed wave form is rectified and filtered. A
sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback sample of the output voltage is used as the feedback
signal for the drive circuit for the switching transistor to signal for the drive circuit for the switching transistor to
achieve regulation.achieve regulation.
RAM and ROMRAM and ROM
Block Diagram-ComputerBlock Diagram-Computer
Cache MemoryCache Memory
•Small memories on or close to the Small memories on or close to the CPUCPU can operate faster than can operate faster than
the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have
used one or more caches, and modern high-end embedded, used one or more caches, and modern high-end embedded,
desktop and server desktop and server microprocessorsmicroprocessors may have as many as half may have as many as half
a dozen, each specialized for a specific function. Examples of a dozen, each specialized for a specific function. Examples of
caches with a specific function are the D-cache and I-cache caches with a specific function are the D-cache and I-cache
(data cache and instruction cache).(data cache and instruction cache).
•Translation lookaside buffer Main article: Translation lookaside buffer Main article: Translation Translation lookasidelookaside
buffer buffer
•A A memory management unitmemory management unit (MMU) that fetches page table (MMU) that fetches page table
entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for
recording the results of recording the results of virtual addressvirtual address to to physical addressphysical address
translations. This specialized cache is called a translations. This specialized cache is called a translation translation
lookasidelookaside buffer buffer (TLB (TLB]]
•Disk cache:Disk cache:
• Page cachePage cache
•While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware,
a variety of software manages other caches. The a variety of software manages other caches. The page cachepage cache in in
main memorymain memory, which is an example of disk cache, is managed , which is an example of disk cache, is managed
by the operating system by the operating system kernelkernel..
•Small memories on or close to the Small memories on or close to the CPUCPU can operate faster than can operate faster than
the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have
used one or more caches, and modern high-end embedded, used one or more caches, and modern high-end embedded,
desktop and server desktop and server microprocessorsmicroprocessors may have as many as half may have as many as half
a dozen, each specialized for a specific function. Examples of a dozen, each specialized for a specific function. Examples of
caches with a specific function are the D-cache and I-cache caches with a specific function are the D-cache and I-cache
(data cache and instruction cache).(data cache and instruction cache).
•Translation lookaside buffer Main article: Translation lookaside buffer Main article: Translation Translation lookasidelookaside
buffer buffer
•A A memory management unitmemory management unit (MMU) that fetches page table (MMU) that fetches page table
entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for entries from main memory has a specialized cache, used for
recording the results of recording the results of virtual addressvirtual address to to physical addressphysical address
translations. This specialized cache is called a translations. This specialized cache is called a translation translation
lookasidelookaside buffer buffer (TLB (TLB]]
•Disk cache:Disk cache:
• Page cachePage cache
•While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware, While CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware,
a variety of software manages other caches. The a variety of software manages other caches. The page cachepage cache in in
main memorymain memory, which is an example of disk cache, is managed , which is an example of disk cache, is managed
by the operating system by the operating system kernelkernel..
Disk BufferDisk Buffer
•While the hard drive's hardware While the hard drive's hardware disk bufferdisk buffer is sometimes misleadingly is sometimes misleadingly
referred to as "disk cache", its main functions are to write sequencing referred to as "disk cache", its main functions are to write sequencing
and read pre fetching. Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to and read pre fetching. Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to
the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity. the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity.
However, high-end However, high-end disk controllersdisk controllers often have their own on-board cache often have their own on-board cache
of hard disk of hard disk data blocksdata blocks..
•Finally, a fast local hard disk can also cache information held on even Finally, a fast local hard disk can also cache information held on even
slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cacheweb cache) or ) or
local local tape drivestape drives or or optical jukeboxesoptical jukeboxes. Such a scheme is the main . Such a scheme is the main
concept of concept of hierarchical storage managementhierarchical storage management..
•Web cacheWeb cache
•Web browsers and Web browsers and web proxy serversweb proxy servers employ web caches to store employ web caches to store
previous responses from previous responses from web serversweb servers, such as , such as web pagesweb pages and and imagesimages. .
Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be
transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the
cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing
requirements of the web server, and helps to improve requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsivenessresponsiveness
for users of the web.for users of the web.
•Web browsers employ a built-in web cache, but some Web browsers employ a built-in web cache, but some
internet service providersinternet service providers or organizations also use a caching proxy or organizations also use a caching proxy
server, which is a web cache that is shared among all users of that server, which is a web cache that is shared among all users of that
network.network.
•While the hard drive's hardware While the hard drive's hardware disk bufferdisk buffer is sometimes misleadingly is sometimes misleadingly
referred to as "disk cache", its main functions are to write sequencing referred to as "disk cache", its main functions are to write sequencing
and read pre fetching. Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to and read pre fetching. Repeated cache hits are relatively rare, due to
the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity. the small size of the buffer in comparison to the drive's capacity.
However, high-end However, high-end disk controllersdisk controllers often have their own on-board cache often have their own on-board cache
of hard disk of hard disk data blocksdata blocks..
•Finally, a fast local hard disk can also cache information held on even Finally, a fast local hard disk can also cache information held on even
slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (slower data storage devices, such as remote servers (web cacheweb cache) or ) or
local local tape drivestape drives or or optical jukeboxesoptical jukeboxes. Such a scheme is the main . Such a scheme is the main
concept of concept of hierarchical storage managementhierarchical storage management..
•Web cacheWeb cache
•Web browsers and Web browsers and web proxy serversweb proxy servers employ web caches to store employ web caches to store
previous responses from previous responses from web serversweb servers, such as , such as web pagesweb pages and and imagesimages. .
Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be Web caches reduce the amount of information that needs to be
transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the transmitted across the network, as information previously stored in the
cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing cache can often be re-used. This reduces bandwidth and processing
requirements of the web server, and helps to improve requirements of the web server, and helps to improve responsivenessresponsiveness
for users of the web.for users of the web.
•Web browsers employ a built-in web cache, but some Web browsers employ a built-in web cache, but some
internet service providersinternet service providers or organizations also use a caching proxy or organizations also use a caching proxy
server, which is a web cache that is shared among all users of that server, which is a web cache that is shared among all users of that
network.network.
Intel Core 2 Duo Processor& Intel Core 2 Duo Processor&
MotherboardMotherboard
MotherboardMotherboard
VLSI ChipVLSI Chip
chip
VLSI VL82C106 Super I/O
chip
VLSI VL82C106 Super I/O
PlotterPlotter
Raster and Vector GraphicsRaster and Vector Graphics
Satellite DishSatellite Dish
•When the signal reaches the viewer's house, it is When the signal reaches the viewer's house, it is
captured by the satellite dish. A satellite dish is captured by the satellite dish. A satellite dish is
just a special kind of antenna designed to focus just a special kind of antenna designed to focus
on a specific broadcast source.on a specific broadcast source.
• The standard dish consists of a The standard dish consists of a parabolicparabolic
(bowl-shaped) surface and a central (bowl-shaped) surface and a central feed hornfeed horn..
• To transmit a signal, a controller sends it To transmit a signal, a controller sends it
through the horn, and the dish focuses the signal through the horn, and the dish focuses the signal
into a relatively narrow beam.into a relatively narrow beam.
•When the signal reaches the viewer's house, it is When the signal reaches the viewer's house, it is
captured by the satellite dish. A satellite dish is captured by the satellite dish. A satellite dish is
just a special kind of antenna designed to focus just a special kind of antenna designed to focus
on a specific broadcast source.on a specific broadcast source.
• The standard dish consists of a The standard dish consists of a parabolicparabolic
(bowl-shaped) surface and a central (bowl-shaped) surface and a central feed hornfeed horn..
• To transmit a signal, a controller sends it To transmit a signal, a controller sends it
through the horn, and the dish focuses the signal through the horn, and the dish focuses the signal
into a relatively narrow beam.into a relatively narrow beam.
The curved dish focuses incoming radio waves onto the feed horn
Radio SpectrumRadio Spectrum
•Radio spectrumRadio spectrum refers to the part of the refers to the part of the
electromagnetic spectrumelectromagnetic spectrum corresponding to corresponding to radio frequenciesradio frequencies – that – that
is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently, is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently,
wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). Electromagnetic wavesElectromagnetic waves in in
this frequency range, called this frequency range, called radio wavesradio waves, are used for , are used for
radio communicationradio communication and various other applications, such as and various other applications, such as
heating.heating.
• The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the
government in most countries, coordinated by an international government in most countries, coordinated by an international
standards body called the standards body called the International Telecommunications UnionInternational Telecommunications Union
(ITU). Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated for different (ITU). Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated for different
radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases, radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases,
parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private
radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone
operators or broadcast television stations).operators or broadcast television stations).
• Ranges of allocated frequencies are often referred to by their Ranges of allocated frequencies are often referred to by their
provisioned use (for example, cellular spectrum or television provisioned use (for example, cellular spectrum or television
spectrumspectrum
•Radio spectrumRadio spectrum refers to the part of the refers to the part of the
electromagnetic spectrumelectromagnetic spectrum corresponding to corresponding to radio frequenciesradio frequencies – that – that
is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently, is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently,
wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). Electromagnetic wavesElectromagnetic waves in in
this frequency range, called this frequency range, called radio wavesradio waves, are used for , are used for
radio communicationradio communication and various other applications, such as and various other applications, such as
heating.heating.
• The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the
government in most countries, coordinated by an international government in most countries, coordinated by an international
standards body called the standards body called the International Telecommunications UnionInternational Telecommunications Union
(ITU). Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated for different (ITU). Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated for different
radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases, radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases,
parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private
radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone
operators or broadcast television stations).operators or broadcast television stations).
• Ranges of allocated frequencies are often referred to by their Ranges of allocated frequencies are often referred to by their
provisioned use (for example, cellular spectrum or television provisioned use (for example, cellular spectrum or television
spectrumspectrum
VHF-Very High FrequenciesVHF-Very High Frequencies
•Very high frequencyVery high frequency ( (VHFVHF) is the ) is the ITUITU designation for designation for
the range of the range of radio frequencyradio frequency electromagnetic waveselectromagnetic waves from from
30 30 MHzMHz to 300 to 300 MHzMHz, with corresponding wavelengths of , with corresponding wavelengths of
ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF
are denoted are denoted high frequencyhigh frequency (HF), and the next higher (HF), and the next higher
frequencies are known as frequencies are known as ultra high frequencyultra high frequency (UHF). (UHF).
•Common uses for VHF are Common uses for VHF are FM radioFM radio broadcasting, broadcasting,
televisiontelevision broadcasting, land mobile stations broadcasting, land mobile stations
(emergency, business, private use and military), long (emergency, business, private use and military), long
range data communication up to several tens of range data communication up to several tens of
kilometres with kilometres with radio modemsradio modems, , amateur radioamateur radio, and , and
marine communicationsmarine communications..
• Air traffic controlAir traffic control communications and air navigation communications and air navigation
systems (e.g. systems (e.g. VORVOR, , DMEDME & & ILSILS) work at distances of ) work at distances of
100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude.100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude.
•Very high frequencyVery high frequency ( (VHFVHF) is the ) is the ITUITU designation for designation for
the range of the range of radio frequencyradio frequency electromagnetic waveselectromagnetic waves from from
30 30 MHzMHz to 300 to 300 MHzMHz, with corresponding wavelengths of , with corresponding wavelengths of
ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF ten to one meters. Frequencies immediately below VHF
are denoted are denoted high frequencyhigh frequency (HF), and the next higher (HF), and the next higher
frequencies are known as frequencies are known as ultra high frequencyultra high frequency (UHF). (UHF).
•Common uses for VHF are Common uses for VHF are FM radioFM radio broadcasting, broadcasting,
televisiontelevision broadcasting, land mobile stations broadcasting, land mobile stations
(emergency, business, private use and military), long (emergency, business, private use and military), long
range data communication up to several tens of range data communication up to several tens of
kilometres with kilometres with radio modemsradio modems, , amateur radioamateur radio, and , and
marine communicationsmarine communications..
• Air traffic controlAir traffic control communications and air navigation communications and air navigation
systems (e.g. systems (e.g. VORVOR, , DMEDME & & ILSILS) work at distances of ) work at distances of
100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude.100 kilometres or more to aircraft at cruising altitude.
AM and FMAM and FM
•AMAM (or (or Amplitude ModulationAmplitude Modulation) and ) and FMFM (or (or
Frequency ModulationFrequency Modulation) are ways of broadcasting ) are ways of broadcasting
radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of
electromagnetic waves. electromagnetic waves.
•AM works by modulating (varying) the AM works by modulating (varying) the amplitudeamplitude of the of the
signal or carrier transmitted according to the information signal or carrier transmitted according to the information
being sent, while the frequency remains constant.being sent, while the frequency remains constant.
• This differs from FM technology in which information This differs from FM technology in which information
(sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of the wave (sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of the wave
and the amplitude is kept constant. and the amplitude is kept constant.
•AMAM (or (or Amplitude ModulationAmplitude Modulation) and ) and FMFM (or (or
Frequency ModulationFrequency Modulation) are ways of broadcasting ) are ways of broadcasting
radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of radio signals. Both transmit the information in the form of
electromagnetic waves. electromagnetic waves.
•AM works by modulating (varying) the AM works by modulating (varying) the amplitudeamplitude of the of the
signal or carrier transmitted according to the information signal or carrier transmitted according to the information
being sent, while the frequency remains constant.being sent, while the frequency remains constant.
• This differs from FM technology in which information This differs from FM technology in which information
(sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of the wave (sound) is encoded by varying the frequency of the wave
and the amplitude is kept constant. and the amplitude is kept constant.
Amplitude ModulationAmplitude Modulation
•In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the "carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the
signal that is to be transmitted. The frequency signal that is to be transmitted. The frequency
and phase remain the same.and phase remain the same.
•AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM, AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM,
but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long
distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can
have more stations available in any frequency have more stations available in any frequency
range.AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz range.AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz
(OR) Up to 1200 bits per second.(OR) Up to 1200 bits per second.
•In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the "carrier wave" is modulated in amplitude by the
signal that is to be transmitted. The frequency signal that is to be transmitted. The frequency
and phase remain the same.and phase remain the same.
•AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM, AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM,
but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long but is cheaper and can be transmitted over long
distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can
have more stations available in any frequency have more stations available in any frequency
range.AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz range.AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz
(OR) Up to 1200 bits per second.(OR) Up to 1200 bits per second.
AM-Tx and RxAM-Tx and Rx
•Transmitter and receiver are simple but Transmitter and receiver are simple but
syncronization is needed in case of syncronization is needed in case of
SSBSC AM carrier. SSBSC AM carrier.
•Transmitter and receiver are simple but Transmitter and receiver are simple but
syncronization is needed in case of syncronization is needed in case of
SSBSC AM carrier. SSBSC AM carrier.
Frequency ModulationFrequency Modulation
•In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the "carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted.signal that is to be transmitted.
• The amplitude and phase remain the same.FM The amplitude and phase remain the same.FM
is less prone to interference than AM. However, is less prone to interference than AM. However,
FM signals are impacted by physical barriers.FM signals are impacted by physical barriers.
• FM has better sound quality due to higher FM has better sound quality due to higher
bandwidth.FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum bandwidth.FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum
from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per
second.second.
•In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or
"carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the "carrier wave" is modulated in frequency by the
signal that is to be transmitted.signal that is to be transmitted.
• The amplitude and phase remain the same.FM The amplitude and phase remain the same.FM
is less prone to interference than AM. However, is less prone to interference than AM. However,
FM signals are impacted by physical barriers.FM signals are impacted by physical barriers.
• FM has better sound quality due to higher FM has better sound quality due to higher
bandwidth.FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum bandwidth.FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum
from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400 bits per
second.second.
FM-TX and RXFM-TX and RX
•Transmitter and receiver are more Transmitter and receiver are more
complex as variation of modulating signal complex as variation of modulating signal
has to be converted and detected from has to be converted and detected from
corresponding variation in frequencies.(i.e. corresponding variation in frequencies.(i.e.
voltage to frequency and frequency to voltage to frequency and frequency to
voltage voltage
•Transmitter and receiver are more Transmitter and receiver are more
complex as variation of modulating signal complex as variation of modulating signal
has to be converted and detected from has to be converted and detected from
corresponding variation in frequencies.(i.e. corresponding variation in frequencies.(i.e.
voltage to frequency and frequency to voltage to frequency and frequency to
voltage voltage
Signal-to-noise ratioSignal-to-noise ratio (often (often
abbreviated abbreviated SNRSNR or or S/NS/N
•Signal-to-noise ratioSignal-to-noise ratio (often abbreviated (often abbreviated SNRSNR or or
S/NS/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that ) is a measure used in science and engineering that
compares the level of a desired compares the level of a desired signalsignal to the level of to the level of
background background noisenoise. It is defined as the ratio of signal . It is defined as the ratio of signal
power to the noise power, often expressed in power to the noise power, often expressed in decibelsdecibels. A . A
ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more
signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for
electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal
(such as isotope levels in an (such as isotope levels in an ice coreice core or or
biochemical signalingbiochemical signaling between cells). between cells).
•The signal-to-noise ratio, the The signal-to-noise ratio, the bandwidthbandwidth, and the , and the
channel capacitychannel capacity of a of a communication channelcommunication channel are are
connected by the connected by the Shannon–Hartley theoremShannon–Hartley theorem
abbreviated abbreviated SNRSNR or or S/NS/N
•Signal-to-noise ratioSignal-to-noise ratio (often abbreviated (often abbreviated SNRSNR or or
S/NS/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that ) is a measure used in science and engineering that
compares the level of a desired compares the level of a desired signalsignal to the level of to the level of
background background noisenoise. It is defined as the ratio of signal . It is defined as the ratio of signal
power to the noise power, often expressed in power to the noise power, often expressed in decibelsdecibels. A . A
ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more
signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for
electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal
(such as isotope levels in an (such as isotope levels in an ice coreice core or or
biochemical signalingbiochemical signaling between cells). between cells).
•The signal-to-noise ratio, the The signal-to-noise ratio, the bandwidthbandwidth, and the , and the
channel capacitychannel capacity of a of a communication channelcommunication channel are are
connected by the connected by the Shannon–Hartley theoremShannon–Hartley theorem
Satellite telephoneSatellite telephone, ,
SSatellite phoneatellite phone
•A A satellite telephonesatellite telephone, , satellite phonesatellite phone, or , or
satphonesatphone is a type of is a type of mobile phonemobile phone that that
connects to orbiting connects to orbiting satellitessatellites instead of instead of
terrestrial terrestrial cell sitescell sites..
• They provide similar functionality to terrestrial They provide similar functionality to terrestrial
mobile telephones; mobile telephones; voicevoice, ,
short messaging serviceshort messaging service and low-bandwidth and low-bandwidth
internetinternet access are supported through most access are supported through most
systems.systems.
•Depending on the architecture of a particular Depending on the architecture of a particular
system, coverage may include the entire system, coverage may include the entire EarthEarth, ,
or only specific regions.or only specific regions.
SSatellite phoneatellite phone
•A A satellite telephonesatellite telephone, , satellite phonesatellite phone, or , or
satphonesatphone is a type of is a type of mobile phonemobile phone that that
connects to orbiting connects to orbiting satellitessatellites instead of instead of
terrestrial terrestrial cell sitescell sites..
• They provide similar functionality to terrestrial They provide similar functionality to terrestrial
mobile telephones; mobile telephones; voicevoice, ,
short messaging serviceshort messaging service and low-bandwidth and low-bandwidth
internetinternet access are supported through most access are supported through most
systems.systems.
•Depending on the architecture of a particular Depending on the architecture of a particular
system, coverage may include the entire system, coverage may include the entire EarthEarth, ,
or only specific regions.or only specific regions.
SatphoneSatphone
•A fixed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may include A fixed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may include
large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a steerable large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a steerable microwavemicrowave
antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead
satellites.satellites.
• Smaller installations using Smaller installations using VoIPVoIP over a two-way over a two-way satellite broadbandsatellite broadband
service such as service such as BGANBGAN or or VSATVSAT bring the costs within the reach of bring the costs within the reach of
leisure vessel owners. leisure vessel owners. InternetInternet service satellite phones have service satellite phones have
notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be possible to get notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be possible to get
a consistent signal near a window or in the top floor of a building if a consistent signal near a window or in the top floor of a building if
the roof is sufficiently thin.the roof is sufficiently thin.
• The phones have connectors for external antennas that can be The phones have connectors for external antennas that can be
installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the
use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems.use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems.
•A fixed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may include A fixed installation, such as one used aboard a ship, may include
large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a steerable large, rugged, rack-mounted electronics, and a steerable microwavemicrowave
antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead antenna on the mast that automatically tracks the overhead
satellites.satellites.
• Smaller installations using Smaller installations using VoIPVoIP over a two-way over a two-way satellite broadbandsatellite broadband
service such as service such as BGANBGAN or or VSATVSAT bring the costs within the reach of bring the costs within the reach of
leisure vessel owners. leisure vessel owners. InternetInternet service satellite phones have service satellite phones have
notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be possible to get notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be possible to get
a consistent signal near a window or in the top floor of a building if a consistent signal near a window or in the top floor of a building if
the roof is sufficiently thin.the roof is sufficiently thin.
• The phones have connectors for external antennas that can be The phones have connectors for external antennas that can be
installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the
use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems.use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems.
Geosynchronous satelliteGeosynchronous satellite
•A A geosynchronous satellitegeosynchronous satellite is a is a satellitesatellite in in
geosynchronous orbitgeosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period the same as , with an orbital period the same as
the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the
same position in the sky after each same position in the sky after each sidereal daysidereal day, and , and
over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that
is typically some form of is typically some form of analemmaanalemma.Orbit si about 36000 .Orbit si about 36000
kms above a point of Earth.kms above a point of Earth.
• A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the
geostationary satellitegeostationary satellite, which has a , which has a
geostationary orbitgeostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit
directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of
geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the
Tundra elliptical orbitTundra elliptical orbit
•A A geosynchronous satellitegeosynchronous satellite is a is a satellitesatellite in in
geosynchronous orbitgeosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period the same as , with an orbital period the same as
the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the
same position in the sky after each same position in the sky after each sidereal daysidereal day, and , and
over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that
is typically some form of is typically some form of analemmaanalemma.Orbit si about 36000 .Orbit si about 36000
kms above a point of Earth.kms above a point of Earth.
• A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the
geostationary satellitegeostationary satellite, which has a , which has a
geostationary orbitgeostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit
directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of
geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the
Tundra elliptical orbitTundra elliptical orbit
Advantage of Advantage of Geosynchronous Geosynchronous
satellites satellites
•Geosynchronous satellites have the advantage of Geosynchronous satellites have the advantage of
remaining permanently in the same area of the sky, as remaining permanently in the same area of the sky, as
viewed from a particular location on Earth, and so viewed from a particular location on Earth, and so
permanently within view of a given ground station. permanently within view of a given ground station.
Geostationary satellites have the special property of Geostationary satellites have the special property of
remaining permanently fixed in exactly the same position remaining permanently fixed in exactly the same position
in the sky, meaning that ground-based antennas do not in the sky, meaning that ground-based antennas do not
need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction. need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction.
•Such satellites are often used for communication Such satellites are often used for communication
purposes; a purposes; a geosynchronous networkgeosynchronous network is a is a
communication network based on communication with or communication network based on communication with or
through geosynchronous satellites.through geosynchronous satellites.
satellites satellites
•Geosynchronous satellites have the advantage of Geosynchronous satellites have the advantage of
remaining permanently in the same area of the sky, as remaining permanently in the same area of the sky, as
viewed from a particular location on Earth, and so viewed from a particular location on Earth, and so
permanently within view of a given ground station. permanently within view of a given ground station.
Geostationary satellites have the special property of Geostationary satellites have the special property of
remaining permanently fixed in exactly the same position remaining permanently fixed in exactly the same position
in the sky, meaning that ground-based antennas do not in the sky, meaning that ground-based antennas do not
need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction. need to track them but can remain fixed in one direction.
•Such satellites are often used for communication Such satellites are often used for communication
purposes; a purposes; a geosynchronous networkgeosynchronous network is a is a
communication network based on communication with or communication network based on communication with or
through geosynchronous satellites.through geosynchronous satellites.
Cybersecurity standardsCybersecurity standards
•Cybersecurity standardsCybersecurity standards are security are security
standards which enable organizations to practice standards which enable organizations to practice
safe security techniques to stop safe security techniques to stop
cybersecurity attackscybersecurity attacks..
• These guides provide general outlines as well These guides provide general outlines as well
as specific techniques for implementing as specific techniques for implementing
cybersecuritycybersecurity..
• For certain standards, For certain standards, cybersecurity cybersecurity
certificationcertification by an accredited body can be by an accredited body can be
obtained. There are many advantages to obtained. There are many advantages to
obtaining certification including the ability to get obtaining certification including the ability to get
cybersecurity insurance.cybersecurity insurance.
•Cybersecurity standardsCybersecurity standards are security are security
standards which enable organizations to practice standards which enable organizations to practice
safe security techniques to stop safe security techniques to stop
cybersecurity attackscybersecurity attacks..
• These guides provide general outlines as well These guides provide general outlines as well
as specific techniques for implementing as specific techniques for implementing
cybersecuritycybersecurity..
• For certain standards, For certain standards, cybersecurity cybersecurity
certificationcertification by an accredited body can be by an accredited body can be
obtained. There are many advantages to obtained. There are many advantages to
obtaining certification including the ability to get obtaining certification including the ability to get
cybersecurity insurance.cybersecurity insurance.
Digital signal processingDigital signal processing
((DSPDSP))
•Digital signal processingDigital signal processing ( (DSPDSP) ) is the mathematical is the mathematical
manipulation of an information signal to modify or improve it in manipulation of an information signal to modify or improve it in
some way. It is characterized by the representation of discrete some way. It is characterized by the representation of discrete
time, discrete frequency, or other discrete domain time, discrete frequency, or other discrete domain signalssignals by a by a
sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these
signals.signals.
•The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress
continuous real-world continuous real-world analog signalsanalog signals. Usually, the first step is . Usually, the first step is
conversion of the signal from an analog to a digital form, by conversion of the signal from an analog to a digital form, by
samplingsampling and then digitizing it using an and then digitizing it using an
analog-to-digital converteranalog-to-digital converter (ADC), which turns the analog signal (ADC), which turns the analog signal
into a stream of discrete digital values. Often, however, the into a stream of discrete digital values. Often, however, the
required output signal is also analog, which requires a required output signal is also analog, which requires a
digital-to-analog converterdigital-to-analog converter (DAC). Even if this process is more (DAC). Even if this process is more
complex than analog processing and has a complex than analog processing and has a discrete value rangediscrete value range
, the application of computational power to signal processing , the application of computational power to signal processing
allows for many advantages over analog processing in many allows for many advantages over analog processing in many
applications, such as applications, such as error detection and correctionerror detection and correction in in
transmission as well as transmission as well as data compressiondata compression
•Digital signal processing and Digital signal processing and analog signal processinganalog signal processing are are
subfields of subfields of signal processingsignal processing. DSP applications include . DSP applications include audioaudio
and and speech signal processingspeech signal processing, sonar and radar signal , sonar and radar signal
processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation,
statistical signal processing, statistical signal processing, digital image processingdigital image processing
((DSPDSP))
•Digital signal processingDigital signal processing ( (DSPDSP) ) is the mathematical is the mathematical
manipulation of an information signal to modify or improve it in manipulation of an information signal to modify or improve it in
some way. It is characterized by the representation of discrete some way. It is characterized by the representation of discrete
time, discrete frequency, or other discrete domain time, discrete frequency, or other discrete domain signalssignals by a by a
sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these
signals.signals.
•The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress
continuous real-world continuous real-world analog signalsanalog signals. Usually, the first step is . Usually, the first step is
conversion of the signal from an analog to a digital form, by conversion of the signal from an analog to a digital form, by
samplingsampling and then digitizing it using an and then digitizing it using an
analog-to-digital converteranalog-to-digital converter (ADC), which turns the analog signal (ADC), which turns the analog signal
into a stream of discrete digital values. Often, however, the into a stream of discrete digital values. Often, however, the
required output signal is also analog, which requires a required output signal is also analog, which requires a
digital-to-analog converterdigital-to-analog converter (DAC). Even if this process is more (DAC). Even if this process is more
complex than analog processing and has a complex than analog processing and has a discrete value rangediscrete value range
, the application of computational power to signal processing , the application of computational power to signal processing
allows for many advantages over analog processing in many allows for many advantages over analog processing in many
applications, such as applications, such as error detection and correctionerror detection and correction in in
transmission as well as transmission as well as data compressiondata compression
•Digital signal processing and Digital signal processing and analog signal processinganalog signal processing are are
subfields of subfields of signal processingsignal processing. DSP applications include . DSP applications include audioaudio
and and speech signal processingspeech signal processing, sonar and radar signal , sonar and radar signal
processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation,
statistical signal processing, statistical signal processing, digital image processingdigital image processing
2D and 3D visualization2D and 3D visualization
managed as a single design with 2D and 3D visualization.
Today’s complex products require a new design approach where multiple boards can be
managed as a single design with 2D and 3D visualization.
Today’s complex products require a new design approach where multiple boards can be
3D product visualization3D product visualization
•3D product visualization is becoming a 3D product visualization is becoming a
critical need as the electrical and critical need as the electrical and
mechanical designs converge with little mechanical designs converge with little
room for error. Detection at the prototype room for error. Detection at the prototype
phase may be too late. phase may be too late.
•3D product visualization is becoming a 3D product visualization is becoming a
critical need as the electrical and critical need as the electrical and
mechanical designs converge with little mechanical designs converge with little
room for error. Detection at the prototype room for error. Detection at the prototype
phase may be too late. phase may be too late.
Computer-aided technologiesComputer-aided technologies
((CAx)CAx)
•Computer-aided technologiesComputer-aided technologies ( (CAx CAx is a broad term that means the is a broad term that means the
use of use of computercomputer technology to aid in the technology to aid in the designdesign, analysis, and manufacture , analysis, and manufacture
of products.of products.
•Advanced CAx tools merge many different aspects of the Advanced CAx tools merge many different aspects of the
product lifecycle managementproduct lifecycle management (PLM), including design, (PLM), including design,
finite element analysisfinite element analysis (FEA), manufacturing, production planning, product (FEA), manufacturing, production planning, product
•Computer-aided designComputer-aided design (CAD) (CAD)
•Computer-aided engineeringComputer-aided engineering (CAE) (CAE)
•Computer-aided industrial designComputer-aided industrial design (CAID) (CAID)
•Computer-aided manufacturingComputer-aided manufacturing (CAM) (CAM)
•Computer-aided requirements captureComputer-aided requirements capture (CAR) (CAR)
•Computer-aided rule definitionComputer-aided rule definition (CARD) (CARD)
•Computer-aided rule executionComputer-aided rule execution (CARE) (CARE)
•Computer-aided software engineeringComputer-aided software engineering (CASE) (CASE)
•Computer-assisted surgeryComputer-assisted surgery (CAS) (CAS)
–Computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS)Computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS)
•Computational fluid dynamicsComputational fluid dynamics (CFD) (CFD)
((CAx)CAx)
•Computer-aided technologiesComputer-aided technologies ( (CAx CAx is a broad term that means the is a broad term that means the
use of use of computercomputer technology to aid in the technology to aid in the designdesign, analysis, and manufacture , analysis, and manufacture
of products.of products.
•Advanced CAx tools merge many different aspects of the Advanced CAx tools merge many different aspects of the
product lifecycle managementproduct lifecycle management (PLM), including design, (PLM), including design,
finite element analysisfinite element analysis (FEA), manufacturing, production planning, product (FEA), manufacturing, production planning, product
•Computer-aided designComputer-aided design (CAD) (CAD)
•Computer-aided engineeringComputer-aided engineering (CAE) (CAE)
•Computer-aided industrial designComputer-aided industrial design (CAID) (CAID)
•Computer-aided manufacturingComputer-aided manufacturing (CAM) (CAM)
•Computer-aided requirements captureComputer-aided requirements capture (CAR) (CAR)
•Computer-aided rule definitionComputer-aided rule definition (CARD) (CARD)
•Computer-aided rule executionComputer-aided rule execution (CARE) (CARE)
•Computer-aided software engineeringComputer-aided software engineering (CASE) (CASE)
•Computer-assisted surgeryComputer-assisted surgery (CAS) (CAS)
–Computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS)Computer-aided surgical simulation (CASS)
•Computational fluid dynamicsComputational fluid dynamics (CFD) (CFD)
Chip-Package-Board Co-Chip-Package-Board Co-
designdesign
•Poor I/O assignments on a newly Poor I/O assignments on a newly
designed package can leave a PCB designed package can leave a PCB
unroutable. Merging the packaging and unroutable. Merging the packaging and
PCB design into a single design solution PCB design into a single design solution
significantly increases design quality. significantly increases design quality.
designdesign
•Poor I/O assignments on a newly Poor I/O assignments on a newly
designed package can leave a PCB designed package can leave a PCB
unroutable. Merging the packaging and unroutable. Merging the packaging and
PCB design into a single design solution PCB design into a single design solution
significantly increases design quality. significantly increases design quality.
Flow Architect Studio 3DFlow Architect Studio 3D
Flow Architect Studio 3D Flow Architect Studio 3D
•Flow Architect Studio 3DFlow Architect Studio 3D is a software is a software
package for design and presentation. It package for design and presentation. It
enables you to design and visualize in enables you to design and visualize in 3D3D, ,
any scene you need for example: any scene you need for example:
buildings, interiors, spaces or your buildings, interiors, spaces or your
products.products.
• Flow helps you to present your work to Flow helps you to present your work to
others with screenshots, movies and a others with screenshots, movies and a
real-time real-time virtual 3D walkthroughvirtual 3D walkthrough
•Flow Architect Studio 3DFlow Architect Studio 3D is a software is a software
package for design and presentation. It package for design and presentation. It
enables you to design and visualize in enables you to design and visualize in 3D3D, ,
any scene you need for example: any scene you need for example:
buildings, interiors, spaces or your buildings, interiors, spaces or your
products.products.
• Flow helps you to present your work to Flow helps you to present your work to
others with screenshots, movies and a others with screenshots, movies and a
real-time real-time virtual 3D walkthroughvirtual 3D walkthrough
Digital image processingDigital image processing
•Digital image processing is the use of computer Digital image processing is the use of computer
algorithmsalgorithms to perform to perform image processingimage processing on on
digital imagesdigital images. As a subcategory or field of . As a subcategory or field of
digital signal processingdigital signal processing, digital image processing has , digital image processing has
many advantages over many advantages over analog image processinganalog image processing..
• It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied
to the input data and can avoid problems such as the to the input data and can avoid problems such as the
build-up of noise and signal distortion during processing. build-up of noise and signal distortion during processing.
Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps
more) digital image processing may be modeled in the more) digital image processing may be modeled in the
form of form of multidimensional systemsmultidimensional systems
•Digital image processing is the use of computer Digital image processing is the use of computer
algorithmsalgorithms to perform to perform image processingimage processing on on
digital imagesdigital images. As a subcategory or field of . As a subcategory or field of
digital signal processingdigital signal processing, digital image processing has , digital image processing has
many advantages over many advantages over analog image processinganalog image processing..
• It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied
to the input data and can avoid problems such as the to the input data and can avoid problems such as the
build-up of noise and signal distortion during processing. build-up of noise and signal distortion during processing.
Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps
more) digital image processing may be modeled in the more) digital image processing may be modeled in the
form of form of multidimensional systemsmultidimensional systems
PhotogrammetryPhotogrammetry
•PhotogrammetryPhotogrammetry is the science of making is the science of making
measurements from photographs, especially for measurements from photographs, especially for
recovering the exact positions of surface points. recovering the exact positions of surface points.
Moreover, it may be used to recover the motion Moreover, it may be used to recover the motion
pathways of designated reference points located on any pathways of designated reference points located on any
moving object, on its components and in the immediately moving object, on its components and in the immediately
adjacent environment.adjacent environment.
• Photogrammetry may employ high-speed imaging and Photogrammetry may employ high-speed imaging and
remote sensingremote sensing in order to detect, measure and record in order to detect, measure and record
complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields (see also complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields (see also sonarsonar, ,
radarradar, , lidarlidar etc.). Photogrammetry feeds the etc.). Photogrammetry feeds the
measurements from remote sensing and the results of measurements from remote sensing and the results of
imagery analysisimagery analysis into into computational modelscomputational models in an in an
attempt to successively estimate, with increasing attempt to successively estimate, with increasing
accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the
researched field.researched field.
•PhotogrammetryPhotogrammetry is the science of making is the science of making
measurements from photographs, especially for measurements from photographs, especially for
recovering the exact positions of surface points. recovering the exact positions of surface points.
Moreover, it may be used to recover the motion Moreover, it may be used to recover the motion
pathways of designated reference points located on any pathways of designated reference points located on any
moving object, on its components and in the immediately moving object, on its components and in the immediately
adjacent environment.adjacent environment.
• Photogrammetry may employ high-speed imaging and Photogrammetry may employ high-speed imaging and
remote sensingremote sensing in order to detect, measure and record in order to detect, measure and record
complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields (see also complex 2-D and 3-D motion fields (see also sonarsonar, ,
radarradar, , lidarlidar etc.). Photogrammetry feeds the etc.). Photogrammetry feeds the
measurements from remote sensing and the results of measurements from remote sensing and the results of
imagery analysisimagery analysis into into computational modelscomputational models in an in an
attempt to successively estimate, with increasing attempt to successively estimate, with increasing
accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the accuracy, the actual, 3-D relative motions within the
researched field.researched field.
Rugged ComputersRugged Computers
Latitude 12 Rugged Extreme
12" fully rugged flip-hinge convertible notebook
that adapts to changing conditions with a crisp
outdoor-readable display and glove-capable
multi-touch.
Latitude 12 Rugged Extreme
12" fully rugged flip-hinge convertible notebook
that adapts to changing conditions with a crisp
outdoor-readable display and glove-capable
multi-touch.
What Is A Klystron? And How What Is A Klystron? And How
Does It WorkDoes It Work
•Now that we have caught up on basic tube theory, and understand how a beam of Now that we have caught up on basic tube theory, and understand how a beam of
electrons can be formed in a vacuum, we are well on our way to understanding electrons can be formed in a vacuum, we are well on our way to understanding
how a KLYSTRON operates. how a KLYSTRON operates.
If we have a device, which generates a beam of electrons, we notice that the If we have a device, which generates a beam of electrons, we notice that the
electrons flow in a smooth steady stream at a particular uniform velocity. The electrons flow in a smooth steady stream at a particular uniform velocity. The
area of the tube that the electron beam travels down is known as the DRIFT area of the tube that the electron beam travels down is known as the DRIFT
TUBE. If we insert, within the beam a grid, we can use this grid to control the TUBE. If we insert, within the beam a grid, we can use this grid to control the
beam. As we increase the positive potential on the grid, (assuming that we do not beam. As we increase the positive potential on the grid, (assuming that we do not
go over a certain potential which is less than the anode voltage), the electrons go over a certain potential which is less than the anode voltage), the electrons
will be attracted to the grid, and by means of attraction, will be accellerated. On will be attracted to the grid, and by means of attraction, will be accellerated. On
the other hand, should we decrease the potential, making it more negative, it will the other hand, should we decrease the potential, making it more negative, it will
have the opposite effect on the beam, and try to slow down the electrons. have the opposite effect on the beam, and try to slow down the electrons.
We insert two grids, properly spaced for our experiment, and apply an We insert two grids, properly spaced for our experiment, and apply an
alternating current source to the grids, such that as one grid swings positive, the alternating current source to the grids, such that as one grid swings positive, the
other swings negative. This would mean that the electrons which are aproaching other swings negative. This would mean that the electrons which are aproaching
the positive going grid will be speeding up, as the ones aproaching the negative the positive going grid will be speeding up, as the ones aproaching the negative
going grid will be slowing down. As the phase of the AC cycle changes 180 going grid will be slowing down. As the phase of the AC cycle changes 180
degrees, we have the same effect, only backwards. The result would be a sort of degrees, we have the same effect, only backwards. The result would be a sort of
"slinky" effect, where the electron beam is interrupted, and moves along in "slinky" effect, where the electron beam is interrupted, and moves along in
bursts. This effect is known as VELOCITY MODULATION. In German, they say bursts. This effect is known as VELOCITY MODULATION. In German, they say
that electrons are moving in "Klystern". (Klyster is the German word for CLUSTER that electrons are moving in "Klystern". (Klyster is the German word for CLUSTER
or BUNCH). Hence, the name Klystron. or BUNCH). Hence, the name Klystron.
On the other end of our experimental Klystron, we have two more grids installed. On the other end of our experimental Klystron, we have two more grids installed.
The purpose of these are to "feel" the now pulsing beam of electrons as it passes The purpose of these are to "feel" the now pulsing beam of electrons as it passes
by them on their way to the anode. Note that an electron does not have to come by them on their way to the anode. Note that an electron does not have to come
into direct contact with a wire in order to induce an electric current in it. All it has into direct contact with a wire in order to induce an electric current in it. All it has
to do is pass near enough to generate the current in the wire via mutual to do is pass near enough to generate the current in the wire via mutual
inductance. inductance.
Does It WorkDoes It Work
•Now that we have caught up on basic tube theory, and understand how a beam of Now that we have caught up on basic tube theory, and understand how a beam of
electrons can be formed in a vacuum, we are well on our way to understanding electrons can be formed in a vacuum, we are well on our way to understanding
how a KLYSTRON operates. how a KLYSTRON operates.
If we have a device, which generates a beam of electrons, we notice that the If we have a device, which generates a beam of electrons, we notice that the
electrons flow in a smooth steady stream at a particular uniform velocity. The electrons flow in a smooth steady stream at a particular uniform velocity. The
area of the tube that the electron beam travels down is known as the DRIFT area of the tube that the electron beam travels down is known as the DRIFT
TUBE. If we insert, within the beam a grid, we can use this grid to control the TUBE. If we insert, within the beam a grid, we can use this grid to control the
beam. As we increase the positive potential on the grid, (assuming that we do not beam. As we increase the positive potential on the grid, (assuming that we do not
go over a certain potential which is less than the anode voltage), the electrons go over a certain potential which is less than the anode voltage), the electrons
will be attracted to the grid, and by means of attraction, will be accellerated. On will be attracted to the grid, and by means of attraction, will be accellerated. On
the other hand, should we decrease the potential, making it more negative, it will the other hand, should we decrease the potential, making it more negative, it will
have the opposite effect on the beam, and try to slow down the electrons. have the opposite effect on the beam, and try to slow down the electrons.
We insert two grids, properly spaced for our experiment, and apply an We insert two grids, properly spaced for our experiment, and apply an
alternating current source to the grids, such that as one grid swings positive, the alternating current source to the grids, such that as one grid swings positive, the
other swings negative. This would mean that the electrons which are aproaching other swings negative. This would mean that the electrons which are aproaching
the positive going grid will be speeding up, as the ones aproaching the negative the positive going grid will be speeding up, as the ones aproaching the negative
going grid will be slowing down. As the phase of the AC cycle changes 180 going grid will be slowing down. As the phase of the AC cycle changes 180
degrees, we have the same effect, only backwards. The result would be a sort of degrees, we have the same effect, only backwards. The result would be a sort of
"slinky" effect, where the electron beam is interrupted, and moves along in "slinky" effect, where the electron beam is interrupted, and moves along in
bursts. This effect is known as VELOCITY MODULATION. In German, they say bursts. This effect is known as VELOCITY MODULATION. In German, they say
that electrons are moving in "Klystern". (Klyster is the German word for CLUSTER that electrons are moving in "Klystern". (Klyster is the German word for CLUSTER
or BUNCH). Hence, the name Klystron. or BUNCH). Hence, the name Klystron.
On the other end of our experimental Klystron, we have two more grids installed. On the other end of our experimental Klystron, we have two more grids installed.
The purpose of these are to "feel" the now pulsing beam of electrons as it passes The purpose of these are to "feel" the now pulsing beam of electrons as it passes
by them on their way to the anode. Note that an electron does not have to come by them on their way to the anode. Note that an electron does not have to come
into direct contact with a wire in order to induce an electric current in it. All it has into direct contact with a wire in order to induce an electric current in it. All it has
to do is pass near enough to generate the current in the wire via mutual to do is pass near enough to generate the current in the wire via mutual
inductance. inductance.
Maxwell's equationsMaxwell's equations
•Maxwell's equationsMaxwell's equations are a set of are a set of partial differential equationspartial differential equations that, together with that, together with
the the Lorentz forceLorentz force law, form the foundation of law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamicsclassical electrodynamics, classical , classical
opticsoptics, and , and electric circuitselectric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and . These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and
communications technologies. Maxwell's equations describe how communications technologies. Maxwell's equations describe how electricelectric and and
magnetic fieldsmagnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by are generated and altered by each other and by chargescharges and and currentscurrents
. They are named after the Scottish physicist/mathematician . They are named after the Scottish physicist/mathematician James Clerk MaxwellJames Clerk Maxwell, ,
who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.
•The equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of The equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of
Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current, including the Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current, including the
complicated charges and currents in materials at the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomicatomic scale; it scale; it
has universal applicability but may be unfeasible to calculate. The has universal applicability but may be unfeasible to calculate. The
"macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary "macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary
fields that describe large-scale behavior without having to consider fields that describe large-scale behavior without having to consider
these atomic scale details, but it requires the use of parameters these atomic scale details, but it requires the use of parameters
characterizing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant materialscharacterizing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant materials..
•The term "Maxwell's equations" is often used for The term "Maxwell's equations" is often used for other formsother forms of Maxwell's equations. of Maxwell's equations.
For example, For example, space-time formulationsspace-time formulations are commonly used in high energy and are commonly used in high energy and
gravitational physics. These formulations, defined on gravitational physics. These formulations, defined on space-timespace-time rather than space rather than space
and time separately, are and time separately, are manifestlymanifestly compatible with compatible with specialspecial and and general relativitygeneral relativity. In . In
quantum mechanicsquantum mechanics and and analytical mechanicsanalytical mechanics, versions of Maxwell's equations , versions of Maxwell's equations
based on the based on the electricelectric and and magnetic potentialsmagnetic potentials are preferred. are preferred.
•Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations are not Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations are not
exact laws of the universe, but are a classical approximation to the more accurate exact laws of the universe, but are a classical approximation to the more accurate
and fundamental theory of and fundamental theory of quantum electrodynamicsquantum electrodynamics. In most cases, though, . In most cases, though,
quantum deviations from Maxwell's equations are immeasurably small. Exceptions quantum deviations from Maxwell's equations are immeasurably small. Exceptions
occur when the occur when the particleparticle nature of light is important or for very strong electric fields. nature of light is important or for very strong electric fields.
•Maxwell's equationsMaxwell's equations are a set of are a set of partial differential equationspartial differential equations that, together with that, together with
the the Lorentz forceLorentz force law, form the foundation of law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamicsclassical electrodynamics, classical , classical
opticsoptics, and , and electric circuitselectric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and . These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and
communications technologies. Maxwell's equations describe how communications technologies. Maxwell's equations describe how electricelectric and and
magnetic fieldsmagnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by are generated and altered by each other and by chargescharges and and currentscurrents
. They are named after the Scottish physicist/mathematician . They are named after the Scottish physicist/mathematician James Clerk MaxwellJames Clerk Maxwell, ,
who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.
•The equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of The equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of
Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current, including the Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current, including the
complicated charges and currents in materials at the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomicatomic scale; it scale; it
has universal applicability but may be unfeasible to calculate. The has universal applicability but may be unfeasible to calculate. The
"macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary "macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary
fields that describe large-scale behavior without having to consider fields that describe large-scale behavior without having to consider
these atomic scale details, but it requires the use of parameters these atomic scale details, but it requires the use of parameters
characterizing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant materialscharacterizing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant materials..
•The term "Maxwell's equations" is often used for The term "Maxwell's equations" is often used for other formsother forms of Maxwell's equations. of Maxwell's equations.
For example, For example, space-time formulationsspace-time formulations are commonly used in high energy and are commonly used in high energy and
gravitational physics. These formulations, defined on gravitational physics. These formulations, defined on space-timespace-time rather than space rather than space
and time separately, are and time separately, are manifestlymanifestly compatible with compatible with specialspecial and and general relativitygeneral relativity. In . In
quantum mechanicsquantum mechanics and and analytical mechanicsanalytical mechanics, versions of Maxwell's equations , versions of Maxwell's equations
based on the based on the electricelectric and and magnetic potentialsmagnetic potentials are preferred. are preferred.
•Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations are not Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations are not
exact laws of the universe, but are a classical approximation to the more accurate exact laws of the universe, but are a classical approximation to the more accurate
and fundamental theory of and fundamental theory of quantum electrodynamicsquantum electrodynamics. In most cases, though, . In most cases, though,
quantum deviations from Maxwell's equations are immeasurably small. Exceptions quantum deviations from Maxwell's equations are immeasurably small. Exceptions
occur when the occur when the particleparticle nature of light is important or for very strong electric fields. nature of light is important or for very strong electric fields.
ImagesImages
Traveling Wave Tubes, Klystrons & Traveling Wave Tubes, Klystrons &
MagnetronsMagnetrons
•Electron Energy magnets and assemblies Electron Energy magnets and assemblies
are used in sophisticated, performance-are used in sophisticated, performance-
critical components of advanced critical components of advanced
technology systems, such as traveling technology systems, such as traveling
wave tubes (TWTs), klystrons, and wave tubes (TWTs), klystrons, and
magnetrons. magnetrons.
•These are all used to amplify signals at These are all used to amplify signals at
microwave frequencies for high-microwave frequencies for high-
performing radar, communications and performing radar, communications and
electronic countermeasure systems.electronic countermeasure systems.
MagnetronsMagnetrons
•Electron Energy magnets and assemblies Electron Energy magnets and assemblies
are used in sophisticated, performance-are used in sophisticated, performance-
critical components of advanced critical components of advanced
technology systems, such as traveling technology systems, such as traveling
wave tubes (TWTs), klystrons, and wave tubes (TWTs), klystrons, and
magnetrons. magnetrons.
•These are all used to amplify signals at These are all used to amplify signals at
microwave frequencies for high-microwave frequencies for high-
performing radar, communications and performing radar, communications and
electronic countermeasure systems.electronic countermeasure systems.
WaveguidesWaveguides
Beam waveguide antennaBeam waveguide antenna
•A A beam waveguide antennabeam waveguide antenna is a particular is a particular
type of type of parabolic antennaparabolic antenna that transports the that transports the
signal between a stationary signal between a stationary transmittertransmitter or or
receiverreceiver and a movable dish by means of a and a movable dish by means of a
beam waveguide. With a conventional "front fed" beam waveguide. With a conventional "front fed"
parabolic antenna, the parabolic antenna, the antenna feedantenna feed, the small , the small
antenna that transmits or receives the radio antenna that transmits or receives the radio
waves reflected by the dish, is suspended at a waves reflected by the dish, is suspended at a
focusfocus, in front of the dish, and moves as the , in front of the dish, and moves as the
antenna is repositioned to track specific targets. antenna is repositioned to track specific targets.
•A A beam waveguide antennabeam waveguide antenna is a particular is a particular
type of type of parabolic antennaparabolic antenna that transports the that transports the
signal between a stationary signal between a stationary transmittertransmitter or or
receiverreceiver and a movable dish by means of a and a movable dish by means of a
beam waveguide. With a conventional "front fed" beam waveguide. With a conventional "front fed"
parabolic antenna, the parabolic antenna, the antenna feedantenna feed, the small , the small
antenna that transmits or receives the radio antenna that transmits or receives the radio
waves reflected by the dish, is suspended at a waves reflected by the dish, is suspended at a
focusfocus, in front of the dish, and moves as the , in front of the dish, and moves as the
antenna is repositioned to track specific targets. antenna is repositioned to track specific targets.
InternetInternet
•The Internet is a global system of interconnected The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networkscomputer networks
that use the standard that use the standard Internet protocol suiteInternet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several (TCP/IP) to link several
billion devices worldwide. It is an international billion devices worldwide. It is an international network of networksnetwork of networks that that
consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government government packet switchedpacket switched networks, linked by a broad array of networks, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such
as the inter-linked as the inter-linked hypertexthypertext documents and documents and applicationsapplications of the of the
World Wide WebWorld Wide Web (WWW), the (WWW), the infrastructureinfrastructure to support email, and to support email, and
peer-to-peerpeer-to-peer networks for networks for file sharingfile sharing and and telephonytelephony..
•The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the
United States governmentUnited States government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant
communication via computer networks. While this work, together with communication via computer networks. While this work, together with
work in the United Kingdom and France, led to important precursor work in the United Kingdom and France, led to important precursor
networks, they were not the Internet. There is no consensus on the networks, they were not the Internet. There is no consensus on the
exact date when the modern Internet came into being, but sometime in exact date when the modern Internet came into being, but sometime in
the early to mid-1980s is considered reasonable.the early to mid-1980s is considered reasonable.
• From that point, the network experienced decades of sustained From that point, the network experienced decades of sustained
exponential growth as generations of institutional, exponential growth as generations of institutional, personalpersonal, and , and mobilemobile
computers were connected to it.computers were connected to it.
•The Internet is a global system of interconnected The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networkscomputer networks
that use the standard that use the standard Internet protocol suiteInternet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several (TCP/IP) to link several
billion devices worldwide. It is an international billion devices worldwide. It is an international network of networksnetwork of networks that that
consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government government packet switchedpacket switched networks, linked by a broad array of networks, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such
as the inter-linked as the inter-linked hypertexthypertext documents and documents and applicationsapplications of the of the
World Wide WebWorld Wide Web (WWW), the (WWW), the infrastructureinfrastructure to support email, and to support email, and
peer-to-peerpeer-to-peer networks for networks for file sharingfile sharing and and telephonytelephony..
•The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the
United States governmentUnited States government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant
communication via computer networks. While this work, together with communication via computer networks. While this work, together with
work in the United Kingdom and France, led to important precursor work in the United Kingdom and France, led to important precursor
networks, they were not the Internet. There is no consensus on the networks, they were not the Internet. There is no consensus on the
exact date when the modern Internet came into being, but sometime in exact date when the modern Internet came into being, but sometime in
the early to mid-1980s is considered reasonable.the early to mid-1980s is considered reasonable.
• From that point, the network experienced decades of sustained From that point, the network experienced decades of sustained
exponential growth as generations of institutional, exponential growth as generations of institutional, personalpersonal, and , and mobilemobile
computers were connected to it.computers were connected to it.
TCP/IPTCP/IP
•TCP/IP, TCP/IP, TTransmission ransmission CControl ontrol PProtocol/rotocol/IInternet nternet
PProtocol, is a suite of communications protocols rotocol, is a suite of communications protocols
used to interconnect network devices on the used to interconnect network devices on the
Internet.Internet.
• TCP/IP implements layers of protocol stacks, TCP/IP implements layers of protocol stacks,
and each layer provides a well-defined network and each layer provides a well-defined network
services to the upper layer protocol. TCP and IP services to the upper layer protocol. TCP and IP
are the two protocols used by TCP/IP, as well as are the two protocols used by TCP/IP, as well as
the (higher) application, (lower) data link and the (higher) application, (lower) data link and
(lower) physical layer protocols (lower) physical layer protocols
•TCP/IP, TCP/IP, TTransmission ransmission CControl ontrol PProtocol/rotocol/IInternet nternet
PProtocol, is a suite of communications protocols rotocol, is a suite of communications protocols
used to interconnect network devices on the used to interconnect network devices on the
Internet.Internet.
• TCP/IP implements layers of protocol stacks, TCP/IP implements layers of protocol stacks,
and each layer provides a well-defined network and each layer provides a well-defined network
services to the upper layer protocol. TCP and IP services to the upper layer protocol. TCP and IP
are the two protocols used by TCP/IP, as well as are the two protocols used by TCP/IP, as well as
the (higher) application, (lower) data link and the (higher) application, (lower) data link and
(lower) physical layer protocols (lower) physical layer protocols
Decimal to Binary conversion Decimal to Binary conversion
exampleexample
exampleexample
Parity BitParity Bit
•Hamming codeHamming code
•In In communicationscommunications, parity checking refers to the use of , parity checking refers to the use of parity parity
bits bits to check that to check that datadata has been transmitted accurately. The has been transmitted accurately. The
parity bit is added to every data unit (typically seven or eight parity bit is added to every data unit (typically seven or eight
bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so
that all that all bytes bytes have either an odd number or an even number of have either an odd number or an even number of
set bits.set bits.
•Assume, for example, that two Assume, for example, that two devicesdevices are communicating with are communicating with
even even parityparity(the most common form of parity checking). As the (the most common form of parity checking). As the
transmitting device sends data, it counts the number of set bits transmitting device sends data, it counts the number of set bits
in each group of seven bits. If the number of set bits is even, it in each group of seven bits. If the number of set bits is even, it
sets the parity bit to 0; if the number of set bits is odd, it sets sets the parity bit to 0; if the number of set bits is odd, it sets
the parity bit to 1. In this way, every byte has an even number the parity bit to 1. In this way, every byte has an even number
of set bits. On the receiving side, the device checks each byte of set bits. On the receiving side, the device checks each byte
to make sure that it has an even number of set bits. If it finds to make sure that it has an even number of set bits. If it finds
an odd number of set bits, the receiver knows there was an an odd number of set bits, the receiver knows there was an
error during transmission.error during transmission.
•The sender and receiver must both agree to use parity checking The sender and receiver must both agree to use parity checking
and to agree on whether parity is to be odd or even. If the two and to agree on whether parity is to be odd or even. If the two
sides are not configured with the same sides are not configured with the same parity senseparity sense, ,
communication will be impossiblecommunication will be impossible
•Hamming codeHamming code
•In In communicationscommunications, parity checking refers to the use of , parity checking refers to the use of parity parity
bits bits to check that to check that datadata has been transmitted accurately. The has been transmitted accurately. The
parity bit is added to every data unit (typically seven or eight parity bit is added to every data unit (typically seven or eight
bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so
that all that all bytes bytes have either an odd number or an even number of have either an odd number or an even number of
set bits.set bits.
•Assume, for example, that two Assume, for example, that two devicesdevices are communicating with are communicating with
even even parityparity(the most common form of parity checking). As the (the most common form of parity checking). As the
transmitting device sends data, it counts the number of set bits transmitting device sends data, it counts the number of set bits
in each group of seven bits. If the number of set bits is even, it in each group of seven bits. If the number of set bits is even, it
sets the parity bit to 0; if the number of set bits is odd, it sets sets the parity bit to 0; if the number of set bits is odd, it sets
the parity bit to 1. In this way, every byte has an even number the parity bit to 1. In this way, every byte has an even number
of set bits. On the receiving side, the device checks each byte of set bits. On the receiving side, the device checks each byte
to make sure that it has an even number of set bits. If it finds to make sure that it has an even number of set bits. If it finds
an odd number of set bits, the receiver knows there was an an odd number of set bits, the receiver knows there was an
error during transmission.error during transmission.
•The sender and receiver must both agree to use parity checking The sender and receiver must both agree to use parity checking
and to agree on whether parity is to be odd or even. If the two and to agree on whether parity is to be odd or even. If the two
sides are not configured with the same sides are not configured with the same parity senseparity sense, ,
communication will be impossiblecommunication will be impossible
Hamming CodesHamming Codes
•In telecommunication, In telecommunication, Hamming codesHamming codes are a are a
family of linear error-correcting codes that family of linear error-correcting codes that
generalize the Hamming(7,4)-code invented by generalize the Hamming(7,4)-code invented by
Richard Hamming in 1950. Hamming codes can Richard Hamming in 1950. Hamming codes can
detect up to two-bit errorsdetect up to two-bit errors or or correct one-bit correct one-bit
errors without detection of uncorrected errorserrors without detection of uncorrected errors. .
By contrast, the simple parity code cannot By contrast, the simple parity code cannot
correct errors, and can detect only an odd correct errors, and can detect only an odd
number of bits in error. Hamming codes are number of bits in error. Hamming codes are
perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest
possible rate for codes with their block length possible rate for codes with their block length
and minimum distance 3 and minimum distance 3
•In telecommunication, In telecommunication, Hamming codesHamming codes are a are a
family of linear error-correcting codes that family of linear error-correcting codes that
generalize the Hamming(7,4)-code invented by generalize the Hamming(7,4)-code invented by
Richard Hamming in 1950. Hamming codes can Richard Hamming in 1950. Hamming codes can
detect up to two-bit errorsdetect up to two-bit errors or or correct one-bit correct one-bit
errors without detection of uncorrected errorserrors without detection of uncorrected errors. .
By contrast, the simple parity code cannot By contrast, the simple parity code cannot
correct errors, and can detect only an odd correct errors, and can detect only an odd
number of bits in error. Hamming codes are number of bits in error. Hamming codes are
perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest
possible rate for codes with their block length possible rate for codes with their block length
and minimum distance 3 and minimum distance 3
•Due to the limited redundancy that Hamming codes add Due to the limited redundancy that Hamming codes add
to the data, they can only detect and correct errors when to the data, they can only detect and correct errors when
the error rate is low. This is the case in computer the error rate is low. This is the case in computer
memory (ECC memory), where bit errors are extremely memory (ECC memory), where bit errors are extremely
rare and Hamming codes are widely used. In this rare and Hamming codes are widely used. In this
context, an extended Hamming code having one extra context, an extended Hamming code having one extra
parity bit is often used. Extended Hamming codes parity bit is often used. Extended Hamming codes
achieve a Hamming distance of , which allows the achieve a Hamming distance of , which allows the
decoder to distinguish between when at most one bit decoder to distinguish between when at most one bit
error occurred and when two bit errors occurred. In this error occurred and when two bit errors occurred. In this
sense, extended Hamming codes are single-error sense, extended Hamming codes are single-error
correcting and double-error detecting, abbreviated as correcting and double-error detecting, abbreviated as
SECDEDSECDED..
to the data, they can only detect and correct errors when to the data, they can only detect and correct errors when
the error rate is low. This is the case in computer the error rate is low. This is the case in computer
memory (ECC memory), where bit errors are extremely memory (ECC memory), where bit errors are extremely
rare and Hamming codes are widely used. In this rare and Hamming codes are widely used. In this
context, an extended Hamming code having one extra context, an extended Hamming code having one extra
parity bit is often used. Extended Hamming codes parity bit is often used. Extended Hamming codes
achieve a Hamming distance of , which allows the achieve a Hamming distance of , which allows the
decoder to distinguish between when at most one bit decoder to distinguish between when at most one bit
error occurred and when two bit errors occurred. In this error occurred and when two bit errors occurred. In this
sense, extended Hamming codes are single-error sense, extended Hamming codes are single-error
correcting and double-error detecting, abbreviated as correcting and double-error detecting, abbreviated as
SECDEDSECDED..
System SoftwareSystem Software
•Actually, a system software is any computer software which manages and controls Actually, a system software is any computer software which manages and controls
computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating
systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of
system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are
programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as
word processing or image manipulation. word processing or image manipulation.
System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or
rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include
loading programs, operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers, loading programs, operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers,
assemblers, linkers, and utility software. assemblers, linkers, and utility software.
Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system
software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally
agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so. agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so.
If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is
usually termed firmware while an application software is a subclass of computer usually termed firmware while an application software is a subclass of computer
software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task
that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with system software that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with system software
which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typically does which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typically does
not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user.
•Actually, a system software is any computer software which manages and controls Actually, a system software is any computer software which manages and controls
computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating
systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of
system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are system software. System software contrasts with application software, which are
programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as programs that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as
word processing or image manipulation. word processing or image manipulation.
System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or
rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include
loading programs, operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers, loading programs, operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers,
assemblers, linkers, and utility software. assemblers, linkers, and utility software.
Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system
software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally
agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so. agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so.
If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is
usually termed firmware while an application software is a subclass of computer usually termed firmware while an application software is a subclass of computer
software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task
that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with system software that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with system software
which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typically does which is involved in integrating a computer's various capabilities, but typically does
not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user.
Application softwareApplication software
•Typical examples of software applications are word processors, Typical examples of software applications are word processors,
spreadsheets, and media players. spreadsheets, and media players.
Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes
referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org, referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org,
which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several
other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate
applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some
commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each
application. And often they may have some capability to interact with application. And often they may have some capability to interact with
each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example, a spreadsheet each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example, a spreadsheet
might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even
though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application. though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application.
User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs.
User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor
macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even
email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software
themselves and often overlook how important it is. themselves and often overlook how important it is.
•Typical examples of software applications are word processors, Typical examples of software applications are word processors,
spreadsheets, and media players. spreadsheets, and media players.
Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes
referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org, referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org,
which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several
other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate other discrete applications, are typical examples. The separate
applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some
commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each
application. And often they may have some capability to interact with application. And often they may have some capability to interact with
each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example, a spreadsheet each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example, a spreadsheet
might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even might be able to be embedded in a word processor document even
though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application. though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet application.
User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs.
User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor User-written software include spreadsheet templates, word processor
macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even
email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software
themselves and often overlook how important it is. themselves and often overlook how important it is.
Thank You-Hope you find it Thank You-Hope you find it
usefuluseful
•Source of information: InternetSource of information: Internet
•World famous Swami Vivekananda(below)World famous Swami Vivekananda(below)
usefuluseful
•Source of information: InternetSource of information: Internet
•World famous Swami Vivekananda(below)World famous Swami Vivekananda(below)
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