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1. Pharmacy Dr. Mian M. Asad Sardar Date: Oct 14, 2024

2. Introduction 1. Pharmacy: “Derived from the Greek word ‘ Pharmakon ’ = drug , is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences.” It helps in ensuring the safe and effective use of drugs. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 2

3. Introduction “Pharmacy is the art & science of preparing & dispensing medications & the provision of drug-related information to the public”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 3

4. Introduction Pharmacy is also the term for an establishment where pharmacy is practice(Synonym: Drug store).The first pharmacy in Europe (still working) was opened in1241 in Trier, Germany. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 4

5. Introduction The word pharmacy is derived from its root word pharma which was the term used since 1400-1600s. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 5

6. Introduction 2.Pharmaceutics: Drugs which are obtained from various sources are rarely administered in their pure chemical form. Generally drugs are combined with other inert substances ( excipients ) and converted into suitable form of administration commonly termed as dosage form. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 6

7. Introduction “Pharmaceutics is a branch of Pharmacy which includes the study of formulation of drug into dosage form”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 7

8. Introduction “Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with all aspects of the process of turning a new chemical entity (NCE)/ Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) into a medication, able to be safely and effectively used by patients in the community”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 8

9. Introduction “Pharmaceutics is the science of dosage form design”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 9

10. Introduction There are many chemicals with known pharmacological properties but a raw chemical is of no use to a patient. “Pharmaceutics deals with the formulation of a pure drug substance into a dosage form”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 10

11. Introduction 3.Pharmacists : “Pharmacists are health professionals who practice the science of pharmacy”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 11

12. Introduction Pharmacists are the experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize medication use to provide patients with positive health outcomes. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 12

13. Introduction The continuing and expanding need for Pharmacists can be demonstrated by the society’s ever increasing requirements, growing variety and demand for drugs . It emphasis on research to find new, safe and effective remedies. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 13

14. Introduction WHO Recommendations for Pharmacists . The World Health Organization’s has laid down a pharmacist / population ratio of 1:2000 for optimal healthcare delivery. In Pakistan this ratio is even more than 1-21000. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 14

15. Introduction According to an estimate, there are 20000 pharmacists in the country, while the country needs 78,000 pharmacists for a population of 170,000,000; a target that is still far from being reached. Perhaps building new Pharmacy institutes is the need of the hour. . Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 15

16. Introduction Physical pharmacy: “Physical pharmacy integrates knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry and applies them to the pharmaceutical dosage form development”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 16

17. Introduction It focus on the theories behind the phenomena needed for dosage form design. Enable the pharmacist to make rational decisions on scientific basis concerning the art and technology of solutions, suspensions, emulsions, etc. Physical pharmacy provides the basis for understanding the chemical and physical phenomena that govern the in vivo and in vitro actions of pharmaceutical products. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 17

18. History and Literature of Pharmacy Different eras of pharmacy The evolution of the profession of pharmacy can be divided into five historical periods ANCIENT ERA- The beginning of time to AD 1600 EMPIRIC ERA- 1600-1940 INDUSTRIALIZATION ERA- 1940-1970 PATIENT CARE ERA- 1970-present BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING ERA- The new horizon Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 18

19. History and Literature of Pharmacy Different eras of pharmacy Others RELIGIOUS PERIOD PHILOSOPHIC PERIOD EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD SCIENTIFIC PERIOD Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 19

20. History and Literature of Pharmacy Different eras of pharmacy ANCIENT ERA- The beginning of time to AD 1600 ( ANTIQUITY) People used the water, plants and earth around them for soothing compresses on wounds and ailments. Used leaves, mud, and cool water to stop bleeding and heal wounds. They used these methods by observing how animals heal their wounds. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 20

21. History and Literature of Pharmacy Documented experiences of healing with clay tablets , provided the earliest known written record. Babylon often called the cradle of civilization( it is the first place where complex urban centers grew or civilized), provides the earliest known record of practice of the art of the apothecary(one who prepares and sells drugs or compounds for medicinal purposes) . Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 21

22. History and Literature of Pharmacy EGYPTIAN TIMES BABYLONIANS For the Babylonians, medical care was provided by two classes of practitioners: The asipu ( magical healer ) The asu ( empirical healer ) Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 23

23. History and Literature of Pharmacy The asipu ( magical healer ) The asipu relied more heavily on spells and magical stones far more than plant materials. The asu ( empirical healer ) The asu drew upon a large collection of drugs and manipulated them into several dosage forms that are still basic today such as suppositories, pills and ointments. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 24

24. History and Literature of Pharmacy Days Of Papyrus Ebers : Though Egyptian medicine dates from about 2900 B.C, best known and most important Pharmaceutical record is the “Papyrus Ebers ”(1600 B.C), a collection of 800 prescriptions mentioning 700 drugs. The drugs are chiefly botanical although mineral and animal drugs are also noted. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 25

25. History and Literature of Pharmacy Greek Civilization: Asklepious (God Of Healing) At the touch of his hands or of the tongue of his sacred serpent, miraculous things happened. Sacred serpent gradually emerged as the official symbol of medicine around the world. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 26

26. History and Literature of Pharmacy On the right hand of Asklepious stood Hygeia, one of his daughter Her arm entwined by a serpent and holding a bowl thought to have contained a healing poison. And in the earliest records one finds a similar mixed concept of drug or Pharmakon , a Greek word that meant “magic spells’’ or “poison”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 27

27. History and Literature of Pharmacy Hippocrat ( tibe unani ): Hippocrates known as the “father of medicine”. He is one of the most important name in the development of Pharmacy as a profession based on scientific knowledge rather than a mixture of medicine and spiritual acts. During this period the word Pharmakon came to mean “a purifying remedy”. He mentioned around 200-400 drugs as well as methods of carrying out various Pharmaceutical processes. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 28

28. History and Literature of Pharmacy Claudius Galen: He was a renowned Greek Pharmacist and Physician. He practiced and taught both medicine and pharmacy in Rome, his Principles of Preparing and compounding medicines ruled in the western world for 1500 years. He aimed to create a perfect system of Physiology, Pathology and treatment of illness. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 29

29. History and Literature of Pharmacy It was his tremendous work in the field of crude natural origin drugs that still today his name is associated with that class of pharmaceuticals compounded by mechanical means –“ Galenical Preparations(standard medicinal preparations containing one or more active constituents of a plant and made by a process that leaves the inert and other undesirable constituents of plants undissolved )”. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 30

30. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. World-wide there are many symbols, Signs and Badges used to represent Pharmacy. There is no standard representation of them, but the illustrations here have been chosen to give the simplest and clearest image available for each one. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 31

31. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 1. The one snake on a staff(limb) symbol is called the Serpent of Epidaurus(a city in G reece) . Aesculapius was one of the Greek GODS of medicine , and is usually depicted carrying a staff with a snake coiled around it. The snake was a symbol of wisdom, immortality( lafani ) and healing in Middle and far Eastern cultures Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 32

32. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 1. Serpent of Epidaurus Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 33

33. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 2. The bowl with a snake coiled around it is called the Bowl of Hygeia with the serpent of Epidaurus, and is a variant the above. Hygeia was Aesculapius’s daughter and a Greek Goddess of health. Her symbol was a serpent drinking from a bowl. The vessel is usually depicted with a long stem and a shallow, wide bowl as seen here. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 34

34. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 2. Bowl of Hygeia Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 35

35. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 3. The symbol of two snakes on a staff is called the Caduceus (The word Caduceus comes from the Latin caduceus meaning herald. This is because the symbol was assigned to Hermese , the herald (messenger) of the Gods. According to the legend, the emblem Hermes/Mercury wanted to stop a fight between two snakes, and so he threw his rod at them). The staff, depicted with wings, is that of Mercury (Roman) or Hermes (Greek), messenger of the Gods . Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 36

36. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. The history and meaning of this symbol is complicated. In the West it has been adopted as a symbol of medicine since the 19th century, probably because of its similarity to the serpent of Epidaurus on the staff of Aesculapius. It is generally considered less suitable for pharmacy than the one snake motif, but is more popular for use as a general medical symbol. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 37

37. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 3.Caduceus Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 38

38. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 4. The serpent around a palm tree symbol is used by French and Portuguese pharmaceutical bodies, and was introduced in the 19th century. The snake is associated with healing, as discussed above, but here has a more specific meaning. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 39

39. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 40

40. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. The palm tree represents the vegetable kingdom, the serpent the animal kingdom, and the rocks at the palm tree’s base the mineral kingdom. The serpent and palm tree shown here is the design used by the Portuguese Order of Pharmacists. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 41

41. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 5. The Green Cross : The Green Cross was first introduced as a pharmaceutical symbol in Europe in the early 20 th century as a replacement for the Red Cross. The Red Cross, previously used by some medical institutions and pharmacists, was adopted by the International Red Cross in 1863, necessitating the need for an alternative. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 42

42. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 5. The Green Cross : Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 43

43. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 5. The Green Cross: The Green Cross was not used in Britain until 1984,but when it was adopted by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain as a standard symbol for British pharmacy. The Society stipulated that it should be produced in a specified shade of green, or in black and white, and that the words pharmacy or pharmacist, or the Society’s name, should appear with it. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 44

44. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 6. The Mortar and Pestle: The mortar and pestle has long been used as a pharmaceutical symbol in Britain and on the European mainland, and is still widely employed as a pharmacy shop sign in Scotland. The mortar and pestle are tools of traditional pharmacy, hence their use as symbol easily recognizable . Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 45

45. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 6. The Mortar and Pestle: Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 46

46. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 7. The carboy : (a large bottle for holding corrosive liquids) A glass vessel with a globular base tapering to a narrow neck, was commonly displayed filled with brightly colored liquids in pharmacy shop windows well into the second half of this century, and has come to be a symbol of pharmacy. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 47

47. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 7. The carboy : The term carboy is a corruption of the Persian word qarabah or qarabah, meaning “large flagon” large usually metal or pottery vessel (as for wine) , and the carboy is thought to originate from the Near East, where drug sellers used large glass vessels, filled with colored liquids, especially rosewater and wine, in their stalls. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 48

48. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 7. The carboy : Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 49

49. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 8. The recipe sign: The recipe sign appears at the start of prescriptions. Although universally accepted as an abbreviation of “recipe” (Latin for ‘take thou’), it has also been suggested that it is the astronomical sign of the planet Jupiter. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 50

50. History and Literature of Pharmacy Pharmacy Symbols. 8. The recipe sign: Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 51

51. History and Literature of Pharmacy 2. EMPIRIC ERA-1600-1940 The Pharmacopeia became a regulatory tool for pharmacists. Benjamin Franklin started the first hospital in 1751. It had a pharmacy and the first hospital pharmacist was Jonathan Roberts. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 52

52. History and Literature of Pharmacy 1821 The Philadelphia College of Pharmacy was founded. William Proctor-The father of American shop. Pharmacy. He devoted his time and attention to the advancement of pharmacy. He owned an apothecary. The major contribution of pharmacists to science was in the area of chemistry. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 53

53. History and Literature of Pharmacy 3. INDUSTRIALIZATION ERA-1940-1970 The development of manufacturing pharmacy began. Rapid mass production of medicines Standardization, biologically prepared products, complex chemical synthesis, and increased use of parenteral medications were all part of this era. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 54

54. History and Literature of Pharmacy 4. PATIENT CARE ERA-1970-present The beginning of this era concentrated on research to develop new medicines. Research on medications was done. New drugs were developed. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 55

55. History and Literature of Pharmacy Had a lot of adverse reactions to drugs so drug review and monitoring resulted. Pharmacists began to take a more hands on role in dispensing medications and patient education. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 56

56. History and Literature of Pharmacy 5. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING ERA- The new horizon The development of genetically modified products , vaccines and blood extracted products are examples of this latest era. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 57

57. History and Literature of Pharmacy Religious Period Start when art of healing got transferred from hands of tribal chief to religious chief. Power of healing from GOD. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 58

58. History and Literature of Pharmacy 2. Philosophic Period. Nestorious was first who opposed the ideas of religious chief. His followers settled in Iran and established a center for treatment(Hospital) Concept of Galenicals {a medicine (natural) made by extracting one or more active constituent of plant}. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 59

59. History and Literature of Pharmacy 3.Experimental Period Role of Muslim Scientists In the field of pharmacy, the first drug stores were opened by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754, while the first apothecary shops were also founded by Muslim practitioners , under the  Abbasi  Caliphate during the Islamic Golden Age. By the 9th century, these pharmacies were state-regulated. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 60

60. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists A renowned name behind the development of the Muslim pharmacy is Abul al Qasim as Zahhrawi (936_1013) who is also known as Abulcasis in the western world. The world famous physician, surgeon and scientist of Arabian as well as considered as the father of modern surgery was the first one to prepare medicine by the processes of distillation as well as sublimation. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 61

61. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists His book on liver servitors is a very important book in this regards in which he gave some recipes to the readers to prepare the simple products, compounding which the physicians and chemists can produce the complex drugs which were in use at that time. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 62

62. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists Sabur Ibn Sahl (d 869), was the first physician in the world who started writing a book on pharmacy in which he has described a variety of drugs as well as the dosage and remedies of different ailments. He was, however, the first physician to initiate pharmacopoeia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 63

63. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists Al- Biruni  (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology entitled  Kitab al- Saydalah   ( The Book of Drugs ), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 64

64. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists Ibn Sina ( Avicena )in his book gave a list of more than 700 preparations of drugs, the properties of these drugs. The mode of action and the indication of the drugs were also there. In the cannon of medicine Ibn Sina actually devoted an entire volume to the simple drugs that are easy to prepare at home. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 65

65. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists Al Razi and Bu Ali sena were great physicians who wrote 99 books. The most famous book is “ Qitab al qanoon al tibb ”, Qanon of medicine. From this little beginning, the science of medicine and pharmacy gradually emerged from separate path. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 66

66. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists There is a great contribution of muslims in the field of biology and medicine before 1500A.D. They include Abu Hashim who worked in the field of chemistry as well as medicine. Such as physicians diagnosing the diseases and prescribing the remedies and the pharmacist specializing in collection, preparation and compounding of the substances. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 67

67. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists The advances made in the Middle East in botany and chemistry led medicine in medieval Islam substantially to develop pharmacology. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 68

68. History and Literature of Pharmacy Role of Muslim Scientists   Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi  ( Rhazes ) (865-915), acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 69

69. History and Literature of Pharmacy 4.Scientific Period Scientific trend in pharmacy and medicine in 19 th Centuries Pharmacopoeias Alkaloids , Heterosides ( a glycoside that on hydrolysis yields a non carbohydrate as well as a glycose ), Glycosides ( In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body. In formal terms, a glycoside is any molecule in which a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to another group via a glycosidic bond ) Poly-Pharmacy Fungi(Penicillin), New class of Therapeutics called Antibiotics Tablets, Capsules, injections and ampoules Pasteurization , Serum and Vaccines Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 70

70. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY The books containing the standards for drugs and other related substances are known as pharmacopoeia and formularies - collectively these books are known as the drug compendia. The pharmacopoeias or formularies contain a list of drugs and other related substances regarding their source, descriptions,  standards, tests, formulae for preparing the same, action and uses, doses, storage conditions etc. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 71

71. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY These books are prepared under the authority of the Government of the respective countries. The word “pharmacopoeia” is derived from the Greek words ‘ pharmacon ’ meaning ‘drug’ and ‘ poieo ’ means ‘make’. Literally it means that it is a list of medicinal substances, crude drugs and formulae for making preparations from them. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 72

72. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY ORIGIN Prior to Pharmacopoeias apothecary have to look for guidance and knowledge to books written by individuals who have achieved fame in medicines. These books may be divided into 2 classes: The Herbal The Formularies Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 73

73. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY THE HERBAL These books contain information about medicinal plants, their properties and recipes for preparing remedies. The most important book was “The Meteria Medica ” It contains more than 600 plants and herbs having medicinal value and also animal and mineral substances. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 74

74. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY THE FORMULARIES These are supplementary to Pharmacopoeias. The scope of Pharmacopoeia is mainly restricted to drugs and preparations which at the time of publication are of sufficient Importance. Information regarding drugs and preparations which are widely used but are not official and also the recently introduced substances which have not yet proved sufficiently important for inclusion in pharmacopoeia must be sought elsewhere. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 75

75. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOPOEIA The development of Pharmacopoeia must be credited to the discovery of printing techniques in the15th century. 1st book published by College of Florence in1498. It contains the important work of Nicholas. Medical Act of 1858 ordered the fusion of London, Edinburgh and Dublin pharmacopoeias to form British Pharmacopoeia. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 76

76. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY These books are revised from time to time so as to introduce the latest information available as early as possible after they become established. In order to keep the size of book within reasonable limit it becomes necessary to omit certain less frequently used drugs and pharmaceutical adjuvants  ( an additive that enhances the effectiveness of medical treatment ) from each new edition of the book. Therefore, in each new edition of these books certain new monographs are added while the older ones are deleted. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 77

77. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY For the preparation of these books the expert opinion of medical practitioners, teachers and pharmaceutical manufacturers are obtained. CLASSIFICATION The drug-compendia are classified as: (i)             Official compendia (ii)            Non-official compendia Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 78

78. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY (i)             Official compendia Official compendia are the compilations of drugs and other related substances which are recognized as legal standards of purity, quality and strength by a government agency of respective countries of their origin. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 79

79. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY Pakistan Pharmacopeia(1973 by Ministry of Health Pakistan) (Drug Description, Storage condition, Drug Formula, Container description and biological assay)  British Pharmacopoeia (BP)( General Medical Council)(1948 with interval of five to 1973,1980,1988) British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC) ( Ref.Book )( 1903 Council of Pharmaceutical society,1 st edition in 1907 ) Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) United States Pharmacopoeia (USP )(1820 by United state pharmacopoeial Convention)(Strength , Quality, Purity, Pakaging and Labelling ) National Formulary (USP-NF)( 1988.American Pharmaceutical Association) The State Pharmacopoeia of USSR (Soviet Socialist Republic in 1866) International Pharmacopeias by WHO (Used in developing countries) Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 80

80. OFFICIAL BOOKS OF PHARMACY (ii)            Non-official compendia The book other than official drug compendia which are used as secondary reference sources for drugs and other related substances are known as non-official drug compendia. e.g.      Merck Index (1889) Extra Pharmacopoeia (Martindale) United States Dispensatory etc. Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 81

81. Aulton , M. E., & Taylor, K. M. (2017). Aulton's Pharmaceutics E-Book: The Design and Manufacture of Medicines : Elsevier Health Sciences . Sinko , P. J., & Singh, Y. (2011). Martin's physical pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences: physical chemical and biopharmaceutical principles in the pharmaceutical sciences : Walter Kluer . REFERENCES Pharmaceutics-IA (Physical Pharmacy) 82

82. Best of luck