introduction of the economic Externalities

this ppt contains the content of externalities

2. What are externalities?
什么是外部效应？

3. WHAT ARE EXTERNALITIES?
•Externalities refer to the unintended side effects or consequences of an
economic activity or transaction that affect third parties who are not
directly involved in that activity or transaction.
•These effects can be either positive or negative and are typically not
reflected in the costs or benefits considered by the individuals or
entities involved in the activity.
•外部效应指的是经济活动带来的非预期的副作用或结果，这些副作用或结
果会影响到那些未直接参与该活动的第三方。
•这些影响可能是积极的，也可能是消极的，并且通常不会体现在参与该活
动的个人或实体所考虑的成本或收益之中。

4. Externalities
Externalities are spill-over effects from
production and/or consumption for which no
appropriate compensation is paid to one or
more third parties affected
外部效应是指生产或消费过程中产生的溢出效应，
而这些效应所影响的第三方却未获得相应的补偿。

5. WHY ARE EXTERNALITIES INEVITABLE?
•Inter-connectedness of Economic Agents: In a modern economy, individuals, firms,
and governments engage in a wide range of economic activities. These interactions
often have ripple effects that extend beyond the immediate parties involved. For
example, when a factory produces goods, it may emit pollutants into the environment,
affecting neighboring communities.
•经济主体的相互关联：在现代经济中，个人、企业以及政府参与着各种各样的经济活动。
这些互动往往会产生连锁反应，其影响范围超出了直接相关的各方。例如，当一家工厂
生产产品时，可能会向环境中排放污染物，从而影响到周边社区。

6. WHY ARE EXTERNALITIES INEVITABLE?
•Property Rights and Transaction Costs: Property rights are not always well-defined,
and transaction costs can be high, making it difficult to negotiate and enforce
agreements that internalize externalities.
•Public Goods: Public goods, such as clean air often cause positive externalities
because they benefit everyone, whether they contribute to their provision. Individuals
may underinvest in such goods, assuming others will bear the costs.
•产权与交易成本：产权往往并不明确界定，而交易成本也可能很高，这使得协商和执行
能够将外部性内部化的协议变得困难重重。
•公共物品：公共物品，比如清新的空气，通常会产生正外部性，因为它们对所有人有益，
无论他们是否参与其提供过程。个人可能会在这些物品上投资不足，因为他们认为其他
人会承担相关成本。

7. What are the main types of
externality to know about, analyse
and evaluate?
主要的外部性种类

8. WHAT ARE THE MAIN EXTERNALITIES?
•Negative externalities in production
•Negative externalities in consumption
•Positive externalities in production
•Positive externalities in consumption
•Mixed externalities

9. 负生产外部性
例如工厂生产过程
中的废弃物排放
负消费外部性
例如家庭废弃物、
噪音以及空气污染
等
积极的生产外部效应
例如植树造林项目以
及学术研究成果的免
费共享
积极的消费外部效应
例如在疫情时期为保
护公众健康而进行的
疫苗接种活动

10. What is the difference between
private cost and external cost?
个人成本与外部成本之间的区别是什么？

11. PRIVATE COST EXTERNAL COST
当一个主体的活动对第三方造成负
面影响时，就会产生外部成本。这
些成本会由其他主体承担，并且导
致社会成本高于私人成本。
私人成本是指直接参与某一交易
的生产者或消费者所面临的内部
成本。例如，拥有和运营一辆汽
车所产生的私人成本。

12. What is the difference between private
benefit and external benefit?
私人收益与外部收益之间的区别

13. PRIVATE BENEFIT EXTERNAL BENEFIT
社会福利不仅包含个人层面的收益，还包
括因生产和/或消费而可能产生的外部收益。
私人利益指的是个人主体（如消费者或
企业）在生产或消费某种物品时所获得
的益处、满足感或效用。

14. PROPERTY RIGHTS AND EXTERNALITIES
•产权明确了资源和资产的所有权、控制权以及相关责任。
•当产权界定清晰时，就更容易确定谁应当承担该项活动的成本或享受其带来的收益。
•清晰界定的产权有助于参与经济活动的各方进行协商和谈判。
•产权有助于避免或减轻 公共资源因缺乏所有权而被过度使用 的情况。

16. Examples of negative production externalities
1
2
Farming - UK farming causes over a quarter of cities’ particle
pollution, discharges into rivers
农业——英国的农业活动导致城市约四分之一的颗粒物污染，并且
还有污染物排放的情况。
Chemical factories - toxins in the water and soil close to 3M's
Antwerp factory found to have caused serious long-term health
problems
化工厂— 位于 3M 工厂附近的水和土壤中的有毒物(被发现已导致严重的长期健
康问题

17. Air pollution from
factories
Pollution from
fertilizers
Industrial waste
Noise pollution Space junk
NEGATIVE EXTERNALITIES FROM
PRODUCTION

18. Examples of negative consumption externalities
1
2
Plastic waste – such as consumption of ready meals / wet wipes.
Greenpeace survey - Plastic packaging disposal tops 100 billion
pieces a year
塑料废弃物——比如食用即食食品/使用湿巾。一项调查表明每年塑料包装的处理
量高达 1000 亿件。
Passive smoking – inhalation of second-hand smoke
associated with respiratory infections, such as pneumonia and
bronchitis
二手烟

19. Particulates from
vehicle pollution
Household waste Noise pollution
from neighbours
Air pollution from
smokers
Traffic congestion Impact of
gambling
addiction on
families
Litter damaging
beaches &
waterways
Spillover costs
from rising levels
of obesity

21. Positive Externalities
积极外部性
Positive externalities exist when third parties benefit
from the spill-over effects of production/consumption.
When there are positive externalities, social benefits
exceed private benefits.
当生产或消费所产生的溢出效应使第三方受益时，就存在
正外部性。当存在正外部性时，社会收益会超过私人收益。

22. Social Benefit
社会福祉
Social benefit = private benefit +
external benefit

23. Examples of positive consumption externalities
消费的正面外部效应示例
1
2
External benefits from libraries, museums and other freely-
available public spaces
图书馆、博物馆及其他免费开放的公共空间所带来的外部效益
Community take-up of vaccines and wearing face masks
during the pandemic
疫情期间社区疫苗的接种情况以及民众佩戴口罩的情况

25. What are mixed externalities?
什么是混合外部性？

26. Mixed Externalities
Mixed externalities occur when production and/or
consumption leads to both external costs and external
benefits. The socially optimum level of output will
depend on the extent and value of these negative and
positive externalities.
当生产或消费行为同时带来外部成本和外部收益时，就会
出现混合型外部效应。社会最优的产出水平将取决于这些
负面和正面外部效应的规模及价值。

27. WHAT ARE MIXED EXTERNALITIES?
•Mixed externalities, also known as "partially internalized externalities,"
occur when an economic activity generates both positive and negative
externalities simultaneously.
•混合型外部效应，也被称为“部分内部化外部效应”，指的是当一项经济活动同时产生正
外部效应和负外部效应时的情况。

28. WHAT ARE MIXED EXTERNALITIES?
•In other words, the same activity or transaction has both beneficial and harmful
effects on third parties who are not directly involved.
•Mixed externalities can be more complex to address than cases with purely positive
or negative externalities because policymakers need to consider both types of effects
and find ways to encourage the positive aspects while mitigating the negative ones.
•换句话说，一项经济活动对未直接参与其中的第三方同时产生积极和消极影响。
•混合型外部性比只有正外部性或只有负外部性的情况更难处理，因为政策制定者需要考
虑这两种影响，并找到既能鼓励积极方面又能减轻消极影响的方法。

29. EXAMPLES OF MIXED EXTERNALITIES (1)
•Consider the use of automobiles in a congested urban area.
•This situation can result in mixed externalities:
•Negative Externality: The increased use of cars in a city leads to traffic congestion,
air pollution, and noise pollution, which negatively affect residents' quality of life and
health.
•Positive Externality: On the positive side, the availability of cars provides
convenience and mobility to individuals, making it easier for them to access jobs,
education, and services. It also contributes to economic activity through
transportation and supports various industries, such as automotive manufacturing.
•考虑在交通拥堵的城区使用汽车的情况。
•负面外部效应：城市中汽车使用量的增加导致交通拥堵、空气污染和噪音污染，这会对居民的生
活(量和健康产生负面影响。
•正面外部效应：从积极的方面来看，汽车的可用性为个人提供了便利和机动性，使他们更容易获
得工作、教育和服务。它还通过交通促进了经济活动，并支持了诸如汽车制造业等各类行业。

30. EXAMPLES OF MIXED EXTERNALITIES (2)
•Example: Agricultural Pesticide Usage. In modern agriculture, the use of pesticides to protect
crops from pests and diseases can result in mixed externalities:
•Negative Externality: When farmers use pesticides, there is a risk of environmental pollution.
Pesticides can leach into the soil, contaminating groundwater and nearby water bodies.
Additionally, they can harm non-target organisms like beneficial insects, birds, and aquatic life.
•Positive Externality: On the positive side, the use of pesticides can lead to increased
agricultural productivity and higher crop yields. This contributes to food security, lowers food
prices, and supports the livelihoods of farmers and agricultural workers. In turn, it can benefit
society by reducing the risk of food shortages and price spikes.
•农业农药使用。在现代农业中，使用农药会产生混合的外部效应：
•负面外部效应：当农民使用农药时，存在环境污染的风险。农药可能会渗入土壤，污染地下水和
附近的水体。此外，它们还可能伤害非目标生物，如有益昆虫、鸟类和水生生物。
•正面外部效应：从积极的方面来看，农药的使用可以提高农业生产力和作物产量。这有助于保障
粮食安全，降低食品价格，并支持农民和农业工人的生计。反过来，这还能为社会带来好处，减
少粮食短缺和价格波动的风险。

32. What do we mean by regulatory
intervention to reduce externalities?
“通过监管手段来减少外部影响”具体指的是？

33. Smoking bans in public
places
Minimum age laws for
tanning salons / gambling
Maximum CO2 emissions
for new vehicles
Recycling directives for
household appliances
Banning wet wood for use in
indoor wood burners
Fishing quotas to protect
stocks from over-fishing
REGULATORY INTERVENTIONS WITH EXTERNALITIES

35. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY SECTOR IN THE EU
欧盟各行业温室气体排放量
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Emissions in MtCO₂e
Energy supply Transport Industry
Agriculture Residential/commercialInternational shipping
International aviation Waste Other combustion

36. WHAT IS CARBON PRICING? 什么是碳定价
•There are two main types of carbon pricing mechanisms: cap-and-trade systems
and carbon taxes.
•Cap-and-trade systems place a cap on the total amount of carbon emissions and
allow companies to trade emissions permits.
•Carbon taxes simply tax companies based on their emissions, without a specific cap.
•Some countries use emissions performance standards, which set performance
standards for specific industries and allow them to trade credits based on how much
they exceed the standard.
•碳定价机制主要有两种类型：总量控制与交易制度以及碳税。
•总量控制与交易制度会对碳排放总量设定上限，并允许企业进行排放许可的交易。
•而碳税则只是根据企业的排放量对其进行征税，没有设定具体的上限。
•一些国家采用排放绩效标准，即为特定行业设定绩效标准，并允许它们根据超出标准的幅度进行
信用交易。

37. NUMBER OF CARBON PRICING MECHANISMS
2
455556666777789910
1516
19
21
23
31
36
38
40
43
45
55
58
64
68
73
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
2023
*
Number of carbon pricing mechanisms in
operation
Carbon pricing mechanisms in operation worldwide 1990-2023

38. What is carbon trading?
什么是碳交易？

39. TRADEABLE POLLUTION PERMITS 可交易的污染许可证
Carbon trading Cap and trade
Carbon trading is a form of pollution control that uses the market mechanism to change relative prices
and the incentives of producers and consumers to reduce their total carbon emissions
碳交易是一种污染控制手段，它通过市场机制来调整相对价格以及生产者和消费者的激励机制，以减少
他们的总碳排放量。

40. •Tradeable pollution permits are a mechanism used to regulate pollution using market
forces
•Carbon permits give companies the right to pollute up to a certain amount.
•These permits can be traded on a market, so companies that need to pollute more can
buy permits from companies that don't need to use all their allotted pollution allowance.
•This system creates an incentive for companies to reduce their pollution, as they can
make money by selling their unused pollution permits.
•Carbon permits can be auctioned each year to raise revenue to help fund climate action
policies.
•可交易的污染许可证是一种利用市场来控制污染的机制。
•碳许可证赋予企业一定的污染额度，允许其在该额度内进行污染排放。
•这些许可证可以在市场上进行交易，因此需要更多污染排放的企业可以向不需要使用完其分配的污
染额度的企业购买许可证。
•这种制度为企业减少污染创造了动力，因为它们可以通过出售未使用的污染许可证来获利。
•每年都会对碳许可证进行拍卖，以筹集资金用于支持气候行动政策。

41. What are the main (long-term) aims
of carbon trading?
碳交易的主要（长期）目标是什么？

42. LONG TERM AIMS OF CARBON TRADING
•Emission Reduction: The primary goal of carbon trading systems is to facilitate a
gradual and significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. By setting emissions
caps and gradually lowering them over time, these systems aim to drive industries
and organizations to adopt cleaner technologies and practices.
•减排：碳交易体系的主要目标是促进温室气体排放量的逐步显著减少。通过设定排放上
限并逐步降低这些上限，这些规定促使各个行业和组织采用更清洁的技术和做法。
•Promotion of Renewable Energy: Carbon trading systems often result in increased
investments in renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydropower. As the
cost of emitting carbon increases, it becomes more economically attractive for
companies to transition to cleaner energy sources.
•促进可再生能源：碳交易体系通常会导致对风能、太阳能和水力发电等可再生能源的投
资增加。随着排放碳的成本上升，企业转向更清洁的能源来源在经济上也变得更具吸引
力。