Introduction to Pharmacognosy | History | Scope |Sources of Crude drugs | Classification of Crude Drugs

Introduction to Pharmacognosy
1. Definition
Pharmacognosy is the scientific and systematic study of crude drugs derived from natural sources such as plants, animals, and minerals.
It involves understanding their physical, chemical, structural, and biological characteristics, as well as the history, cultivation, collection, storage, and preparation of these substances for medicinal use and trade.
2. History of Pharmacognosy
The history of pharmacognosy traces back to the earliest human civilizations, where natural substances were used for healing and rituals. Ancient records from civilizations such as Egypt, India, China, and Greece document.
3. Scope of Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy today extends far beyond identifying natural drugs—it is a multidisciplinary science with broad applications in drug discovery, quality control, and biotechnology.
Key areas within its scope include:
1. Discovery and Development of New Drugs
2. Standardization and Quality Control
3. Phytochemical Studies
4. Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology
5. Biotechnology and Tissue Culture
6. Academic and Research Opportunities
7. Integration with Modern Medicine
8. Pharmacological and Toxicological Studies
4. Sources of Crude Drugs
Crude drugs are natural substances obtained from plants, animals, or minerals, used after simple processing (like drying or pulverizing) for medicinal purposes.
They may also come from marine environments.
a) Plant Sources
b) Animal Sources
c) Mineral Sources
d) Marine Sources
5. Classification of Crude Drugs
Crude drugs can be classified in several ways depending on their source, nature, chemical composition, or therapeutic use.
Each classification system serves a specific purpose in drug identification, study, and standardization.
A. Alphabetical Classification
• Drugs are arranged alphabetically by Latin or English names.
B. Taxonomical Classification
• Based on botanical or biological hierarchy: phylum → order → family → genus → species.
C. Morphological Classification
• Based on the part of the plant used or physical form of the drug.
D. Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification
• Drugs are grouped based on pharmacological action or therapeutic use. Useful for physicians and pharmacists.
E. Chemical Classification
• Based on the chemical nature of active constituents responsible for therapeutic activity.
F. Chemo-taxonomical Classification
• Combines chemical composition and taxonomic relationship. Based on the idea that plants belonging to the same taxonomic group often contain similar 6. Scheme for Pharmacognostic Study
To identify and evaluate a crude drug comprehensively, pharmacognostic studies follow a systematic scheme involving several parameters.

1. Introduction to Pharmacognosy Presented By – Mr. Swapnil Therkar 🌿

2. Definition History Scope Sources of Crude drugs Classification of Crude drugs Scheme for Pharmacognostic Studies INDEX 🌿

3. Introduction to Pharmacognosy Definition: It is the scientific and systematic study of physical, chemical, Structural and biological characteristics of crude drugs along with its history, method of cultivation, collection, storage and preparation for market for trading. Pharmacognosy (Greek Words) Pharmakon- Drug or Medicine -Gignosco/ Gnosis Knowledge/ to acquire knowledge Means to acquire knowledge of drug (crude drugs).

4. History The history of herbal medicine is as old as human civilization. Region Medicinal Texts, Documents and Books Egypt Edwin Smith Papyrus, Ebers Papyrus, Gynecological Papyrus Mesopotamia Diagnostic Handbook, Alkindus, De Gradibus India Ayurveda, Sushruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita China Yellow Emperor, Huangdi Neijing Greece Iliad and Odyssey are the earliest sources of Greek medical practice; Hippocratic medicine Persia Rhazes, Avicenna, The Canon of Medicine, The Book of Healing Syria Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon and Comprehensive Books on Medicine

5. Name Profession Work Period Ebers Papyrus Egyptian medical papyrus Herbal knowledge 1550 BC Pedanius Dioscorides Greek physician De Materia Medica : Compilation of Herbs 78 AD Aelius Galenus (Galen) Greek pharmacist Galenical Pharmacy (Extraction) 131–200 AD Hippocrates (Father of Medicine) Greek scientist Studied human anatomy and physiology 460–360 BC Aristotle (Father of Biology) Greek philosopher Animal kingdom 384–322 BC Theophrastus (Father of Botany) Greek philosopher Plant kingdom 370–287 BC Charaka Indian physician Charaka Samhita – Principles of Ayurveda and medicinal plants ~100 AD Sushruta Indian surgeon Sushruta Samhita – Surgical techniques and medicinal plant use ~600 BC Carl Linnaeus (Father of Taxonomy) Swedish botanist Binomial classification 1753 J. A. Schmidt German Lehr-Buch Der Materia Medica 1811 C.A. Seydler German Coined the word “ Pharmacognosy ” 1815 Friedrich Sertürner German chemist Isolated first alkaloid (morphine from opium) 1806 Scientists and Their Work in the Development of Pharmacognosy

6. Scopes of Pharmacognosy Pharmacognosy is the study of natural products and their sources. Its scope extends across various fields of drug discovery, quality control and formulation development including; Discovery and Development of New Drugs Standardization and Quality Control Phytochemical Studies Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology Biotechnology and Tissue Culture Academic and Research Opportunities Integration with Modern Medicine Pharmacological and Toxicological Studies

7. 1. Discovery and Development of Drugs Natural products are used as leads for new drug discovery . Examples: Morphine – from Opium Quinine – from Cinchona Paclitaxel – from Taxus 2. Standardization and Quality Control Ensures identity, purity and safety of crude drugs. Involves macroscopic , microscopic, chemical and chromatographic evaluations. Prevents adulteration and ensures therapeutic efficacy . 3. Phytochemical Studies Isolation and identification of bioactive compounds . Study of alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins. Helps understand mechanism of action and structural activity relationships (SAR) . 4. Ethnobotany & Ethnopharmacology Study of traditional medicinal plants used by tribes and local communities. Provides base for scientific validation and new drug discovery . 5. Biotechnology and Tissue Culture Use of plant tissue culture to produce secondary metabolites. Helps in conservation of rare medicinal plants . Enables large-scale production of active compounds. 6. Academic & Research Opportunities Teaching and research in colleges, research centers and industries . Careers in drug discovery, quality control, phytochemistry and regulatory affairs . 7. Integration with Modern Medicine Supports evidence-based herbal therapy . Promotes integration of Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani with modern medicine. 8. Pharmacological & Toxicological Studies Tests biological activities (e.g. anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial). Ensures safety and efficacy of herbal medicines.

8. Sources of Crude Drugs Crude The term “crude” means natural, raw or unrefined . In Pharmacognosy, it refers to a natural substance that has not been processed or purified . Example: Dried leaves of Senna , bark of Cinchona are crude materials. Drug A “drug” is any substance used for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of diseases in humans or animals. It may be natural, semi-synthetic or synthetic. Example: Morphine (natural), Aspirin (semi-synthetic), Paracetamol (synthetic). Crude drugs are natural substances that are obtained from plants, animals or minerals and are used after simple processing for medicinal purposes.

9. Plant Sources Flower Stem Plant Part Examples of Crude Drugs Root Ashwagandha ( Withania somnifera ), Valerian root ( Valeriana officinalis ), Ginseng ( Panax ginseng ) Rhizomes Turmeric ( Curcuma longa ), Zingiber ( Zingiber officinale ) Bark/ Stem Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum verum ), Cinchona ( Cinchona officinalis ), Sandlewood Fruit Amla ( Emblica officinalis ), Fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare ), Nutmeg ( Myristica fragrans ), Pepper ( Piper nigrum ) Leaves Senna ( Cassia angustifolia ), Tulsi ( Ocimum sanctum ), Tea ( Camellia sinensis ) Flower Clove ( Eugenia caryophillus ), Hibiscus ( Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ) Seeds Cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum ), Castor ( Ricinus communis ) Bulbs Onion ( Allium cepa ), Garlic ( Allium sativum )

10. Animal Sources Crude drugs obtained from animal tissues, secretions or excretion products used for medicinal purposes are termed in animal sources. Animal Source Crude Product Use / Active Principle Pig pancreas Insulin Antidiabetic hormone Cod fish liver Cod liver oil Source of Vitamins A & D Cattle / Ox gall Bile salts Digestive aid Honey bee Honey, Beeswax Demulcent, Ointments base Sheep Wool fat (Lanolin) Emollient, ointment base Hog / Ox Heparin Anticoagulant Cochineal insect Cochineal dye Coloring agent Honey

11. Mineral Sources Mineral Source Drug /Compound Uses Calcium carbonate Chalk Antacid Sulfur Sulfur powder Antiseptic Zinc oxide Calamine Skin protectant Ferrous sulfate Green vitriol Hematinic Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda Antacid Kaolin Hydrated aluminum silicate Antidiarrheal Mercuric chloride Corrosive sublimate Antiseptic Crude drugs obtained from naturally occurring minerals and inorganic substances are known as mineral sources . Chalk Sulphur

12. marine Sources Marine Source Drug / Substance Use Seaweeds (Laminaria) Agar, Alginates Thickening and emulsifying agent Shells (Oyster) Calcium carbonate Antacid Sponges Spongin, Iodine Source of iodine, absorbent Corals Coral powder Calcium supplement Red algae Carrageenan Thickening and Gelling agent Crude drugs obtained from marine (sea or oceanic) sources such as algae, sponges, shells, or sea animals are termed in Marine Sources. Seaweeds

13. Source Description Examples Plant Plant sources are the oldest source of drugs. More than 25% of drugs prescribed worldwide are obtained from plants and more than 150 active chemical compounds are from plants. Many synthetic drugs are also derived from plant sources. Examples: Digoxin (from Digitalis), Quinine and Quinidine (from Cinchona), Vincristine and Vinblastine (from Vinca), Atropine (from Belladonna). Animal Different animal-derived products are used for treatment and as nutritional supplements. Various organs, glands and animal secretions are major sources of some important drugs. Examples: Honey and Beeswax (from bees), Cod liver oil (from fish), Insulin (from animal pancreas), Wool fat (from sheep), Venoms (from snake). Mineral Minerals are naturally occurring solid crystalline inorganic substances made up of one or more elements combined together. They are used as medicine in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Chinese systems. Examples: Sulphur, Talc, Kaolin, Zinc oxide, Calamine (used as anti-itching agent), Shilajit (used as tonic), Bentonite. Marine Marine flora and fauna provide many compounds. Marine microorganisms, plants, invertebrates and vertebrates are used to isolate more than 1000 marine natural products. From those many have potential therapeutic uses. Examples: Agar (from red algae), Carrageenan (from red seaweed), Sodium alginate (from brown seaweed), Cod liver oil (from marine fish). Plant Tissue Culture Refers to growing and multiplying single cells, tissues or organs under aseptic and controlled conditions on specific media. It is useful for large-scale production of plants in limited areas, conservation of rare plants and production of secondary metabolites. Examples: Ajmalicine (antihypertensive) from Catharanthus roseus, Berberine (anti-inflammatory) from Thalictrum minus, Ginsenoside (immunomodulator) from Panax ginseng.

14. Classification of Crude Drugs Crude drugs can be classified in several ways depending on their source, nature, chemical composition or use which includes; Alphabetical Classification Taxonomical Classification Morphological Classification Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification Chemical Classification Chemo-taxonomical Classification

15. Alphabetical Classification The crude drugs are arranged according to the alphabetical order of their Latin or English names . This system is commonly used in pharmacopoeias and reference books for quick identification and easy searching of drugs. For Example; Alphabet Drug Name Source Use A Aconite Aconitum napellus Analgesic B Belladonna Atropa belladonna Anticholinergic C Cinchona Cinchona calisaya Antimalarial D Digitalis Digitalis purpurea Cardiac stimulant

16. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ Very simple and convenient system for tracing and referencing. No information about source, chemical nature or therapeutic use. Easy for quick location in pharmacopoeias and dictionaries. Not suitable for scientific study. No technical person is required for handling the system. Scientific and morphological nature can not be identified by this method.

17. Taxonomical Classification In this system, the drug are arranged according to taxonomical studies . The drugs are arranged according to their phylum, order, family, genus and species. It is purely a type of botanical classification or biological classification and restricted mainly for crude drugs from plant source. For Example; Family Genus Species Example Drugs Solanaceae Atropa Datura belladonna metel Belladonna Datura Apocynaceae Rauwolfia Catharanthus serpentina roseus Rauwolfia Vinca Rubiaceae Cinchona Cephaelis officinalis ipecacuanha Cinchona Ipecacuanha

18. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ Shows scientific relationships between plants such as same Family plants. Not applicable for animal or mineral drugs. Useful for botanists and plant taxonomists. Not always related to chemical constituents or uses. Fails to explain nature in their morphological studies.

19. Morphological Classification Drugs are classified based on the part of the plant used and represented into organized (Cellular) drugs and unorganized (Acellular) drugs. Organized (Cellular) Unorganized (Acellular) Organized Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are divided into leaves, Steam, root, seed rhizome,, fruit, flower, stem, hair and fibers. Unorganized Drugs are the products of plant, animal and mineral source and they are divided into dried latex, dried juice, dried extracts, gums, resins and fixed oils. Leaves: Senna, Datura Fruits: Fennel Bark: Cinchona, Cinnamon Seeds: Ispaghula, Nux-vomica Roots: Ashwagandha Dried Juice: Aloe Gums: Acacia, Tragacanth Resins: Colophony Waxes: Beeswax

20. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical nature is unknown When different parts of the plant contain different chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify them. This type of classification is very useful in identifying the adulteration. It does not give an idea about biological source, chemical constituents and uses. Useful for macroscopic identification and it is simple to use for beginners. Does not provide chemical or pharmacological information

21. Pharmacological Classification Here, the crude drugs are grouped according to pharmacological/ Therapeutic action of their chief active constituent or therapeutic uses. This classification is most useful for pharmacists and clinicians. For Example; Pharmacological Group Example Drug Source Use Cardiac Stimulant Digitalis Digitalis purpurea Heart failure Laxative Senna Cassia angustifolia Laxative Antimalarial Cinchona Cinchona calisaya Anti-Malarial Anticancer Vinca Catharanthus roseus Cancer treatment CNS Stimulant Coca Erythroxylon coca CNS Stimulant Antitussive Liquorice Glycyrrhiza glabra Cough relief

22. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ Even if, The chemical constituents of the crude drugs are not known they can be classified properly on the basis of therapeutic or pharmacological uses. Regardless of morphology, taxonomical status or chemical nature, the drugs are grouped together. Useful for therapeutic and clinical applications. Many Drugs can be classified based on their common pharmacological action. Helps correlate pharmacological effects with active constituents. A drug may belong to more than one class (e.g., Morphine – analgesic & sedative).

23. Chemical Classification The crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of important constituent present in the drug to which represents the pharmacological/ therapeutic activity of drug. Chemical Class Drug Example Active Constituent Use Alkaloids Belladonna Coffee, Tea Atropine Caffeine Antispasmodic CNS Stimulant Glycosides Digitalis Senna Digitoxin Sennosides Cardiac stimulant Laxative Volatile Oils Clove Eugenol Antiseptic Tannins Catechu Catechin Astringent Resins Asafoetida Resin acids Carminative Saponins Liquorice Glycyrrhizin Expectorant Steroids Dioscorea Diosgenin Hormone precursor

24. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ Helps understand pharmacological action and isolation methods. Drugs of different origin are grouped under similar chemical titles Useful in standardization and quality control. Not applicable to uncharacterized drugs. Chemical constituents are known hence Medicinal uses can be predicted. This type of classification makes no proper placement of drugs containing two different types of chemicals.

25. Chemo-taxonomical Classification In this system, The c lassification is based on the relationship between chemical constituents and botanical taxonomy. T he equal importance is given for taxonomical status and chemical constituents. For Examples; Family Common Chemical Group Example Drugs Solanaceae Tropane Alkaloids Belladonna, Datura Papaveraceae Isoquinoline Alkaloids Opium, Bloodroot Leguminosae Flavonoids Liquorice, Senna Umbelliferae Rutaceae Volatile oils Fennel, Caraway Lemon, Curry leaves

26. Advantages ✅ Disadvantages ❌ Combines chemical and botanical features. Complex and not always practical for beginners. Useful in predicting chemical constituents of unknown plants.

27. Scheme for Pharmacognostic Studies S. N. Parameter / Heading Details to be Included / Description Purpose / Importance 1 Official title, Synonyms Official name (as per pharmacopoeia, English/common names, regional/ vernacular names (Hindi, Sanskrit, etc.) To ensure correct identification and avoid confusion between local names. 2 Biological source and family Scientific classification (Family → Genus → Species); part of plant or animal used. To know taxonomy, source and part used in medicine. 3 Geographical source or habitat Native region, cultivation areas, soil and climate requirements. Source affects quality and chemical composition of the crude drug. 4 History and introduction Historical background, discovery, traditional and modern uses. Gives cultural and medicinal relevance of the drug.

28. 5 Cultivation, collection, and processing Propagation, harvesting time, drying, curing, storage and packing methods. Proper cultivation and post-harvest handling to maintain drug quality for long time. 6 Morphological characters Size, shape, color, surface, texture, fracture, odour, taste; diagrams or photos. First-line identification for authentication of crude drugs. 7 Microscopic (histological) characters Transverse/longitudinal sections, tissues (epidermis, xylem, phloem, trichomes, crystals, starch grains); powder microscopy. Helps confirm identity even in powdered or fragmented form. 8 Chemical constituents and qualitative tests Active constituents (alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, etc.); for confirmatory reactions and TLC/HPTLC profiles. Determines chemical nature and presence of bioactive compounds. 9 Pharmacological actions and uses Biological activities (anti-inflammatory, laxative, etc.), therapeutic uses and dosage forms/ preparations. Correlates active principles with pharmacological effects and uses. 10 Commercial varieties, substitutes and adulterants Trade varieties, closely related substitutes, and known adulterants; other distinguishing features. Helps ensure purity and authenticity in the drug trade. 11 Quality control parameters Organoleptic, physicochemical (moisture, ash values, extractive values), microbial load, chromatographic profile, heavy metals. Ensures safety, efficacy, and standardization of crude drugs.

29. S. N. Parameter / Heading Description for Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Remarks / Importance 1 Official title, synonyms, vernacular names Official title: Curcuma longa Rhizome (I.P.) Synonyms: Curcuma domestica Valeton Vernacular names: Turmeric (English), Haldi (Hindi), Haridra (Sanskrit), Halad (Marathi) Helps in correct identification and reference in pharmacopoeias. 2 Biological source and family Dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa , belonging to family Zingiberaceae. Confirms plant part and taxonomic source. 3 Geographical source or habitat Native to South and Southeast Asia; widely cultivated in India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh), Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia. Climate and soil influence curcumin content. 4 History and introduction Used in Ayurveda and Unani systems since ancient times as a coloring agent and medicine. Mentioned in Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas. Shows long-standing medicinal and cultural value. 5 Cultivation, collection, and processing Cultivation: Propagated by rhizomes; grows best in warm, humid climate. Harvesting: After 7–9 months when leaves turn yellow. Processing: Rhizomes are boiled or steamed, then dried and polished to obtain bright yellow colour. Proper post-harvest processing retains color and curcumin content. 6 Morphological (macroscopical) characters Shape: Cylindrical rhizomes. Size: 3–5 cm long, 1–2 cm thick. Color: Yellowish- brown externally, deep orange internally. Odour: Aromatic. Taste: Slightly bitter, pungent. Useful for visual identification of raw material. 7 Microscopic (histological) characters Transverse section shows cork, cortex, stele. Presence of parenchyma cells with starch grains and oleo-resin cells, scattered fibro-vascular bundles, and yellow coloring matter (curcumin). Powder microscopy: starch grains (oval), oil globules and fibers. Confirms identity and detects adulteration in powdered form. 8 Chemical constituents and qualitative tests Main constituents: Curcuminoids (curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bis-demethoxycurcumin), volatile oils ( tumerone , zingiberene). Tests: – Curcumin gives yellow colour turning red with alkali. – Liebermann-Burchard test → green color for steroids. – TLC shows curcumin spot (Rf ≈ 0.33) in chloroform: methanol (1:1). Determines presence of active compounds; aids in standardization. 9 Pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses Actions: Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, anticancer. Uses: For skin diseases, wounds, digestive disorders, arthritis, liver ailments. Links chemical constituents with biological activity. 10 Commercial varieties, substitutes, and adulterants Varieties: Curcuma longa (Indian), Curcuma aromatica (wild turmeric), Curcuma xanthorrhiza. Adulterants: Lead chromate (to enhance color), starch powder, cheaper Curcuma species. Detection: TLC, microscopic analysis, and chemical purity tests. Ensures quality and prevents contamination/adulteration. 11 Quality control parameters Foreign matter: ≤ 2%, Moisture content: ≤ 10%, Total ash: ≤ 8%, Acid-insoluble ash: ≤ 1% , Alcohol-soluble extractive: ≥ 9%, Water-soluble extractive: ≥ 12%, Curcumin content: 2–5%, w/w (by spectrophotometric/HPLC assay). Ensures purity, potency, and safety of crude drug. Example: Turmeric ( Curcuma longa )

30. References Deore, S. L. (2021). Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry- I: Theory and Practical. Hyderabad, India: PharaMed Press. Kar, A. (2007). Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (Rev. & expanded 2 nd Edition). New Age International (P) Ltd. Kokate, C. K., Purohit, A.P. & Gokhale S.B. (2022). Pharmacognosy (58 th Edition). Pune, India; Nirali Prakashan.

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