language variation and change Presentation1.pptx

The Concept of Language Variation and Change
What language variation and change share in common
How Does Language Change?
Labov’s Principles and
types of language variation
Geographical variation
Social variation
contextual variation
Bi/multilingualism
Speech Accommodation
Gender

1. University of Gondar College of Social Sciences and Humanities Department of English Language and Literature Postgraduate Program (PhD in Applied Linguistics) Course Title: Issues in Sociolinguistics ( APLI 712) Presentation on: “Language variation and change'' and '' Monolingualism , Bilingualism and Multilingualism'' By Destaw Wagnew Course Instructor: Zelalem Leyew  (Prof.) Nov, 2023 Gondar,Ethiopia

2. Presentation Outline Introduction The Concept of Language Variation and Change What language variation and change share in common How Does Language Change? Labov’s Principles and Assumptions Common types of language variation Geographical variation Social variation contextual variation Language Contact Bi/multilingualism Code Switching Borrowing Monolingualism Conclusion

3. Introduction Many fields had role for today’s language variation study(Historical L., Generative grammar , applied L…) Dialectologists -interested in registering language use –were being sociolinguists. However, many of its research aspects were unacceptable to modern sociolinguists. B/c of sampling: only older, male, rural speakers were informants. This went against the basic principle of all sociolinguists: the choice of informants be random and thus unbiased

4. Intro…cont’d Characteristic of sociolinguistic methods are the following features: 1) The prior definition of one's area of investigation 2) The impartial choice of informants 3) The choice of optimal methods of investigation (e.g. tape recording rather than questionnaire) Human language boasts over 6,900 living varieties, This lets linguists to question around :the variable qualities of human languages, and language contact ( Sankoff 2013).

5. Intro…cont’d The study of language variation works in harmony with synchronic and diachronic explanations of how language variation works in society: (with reference to social factors) and in the mind The fundamental unit of change is not the rule but the environmental constraint within the rule( Labov 1982) Eg.In many part of the England and Wales , Standard English has lost the pronunciation of post vocalic /r/. Accents with post vocalic /r/ are regarded as rural and uneducated;

6. In cities like New York , pronouncing/ r/ is regarded as prestigious. Variationist Sociolinguistics views the behavior of the dependent variable as it distributes across a series of external (social) or internal (grammatical)factors. i.e. How the choice of a particular variant is influenced by different aspects of the contexts in which it occurs ( Sankoff 1988b: 985) is more in concern

7. The Concept of Language Variation and Change Language variation: the diversity of language use within and across speech communities. Influenced by many factors, such as geography, ethnicity, age, gender, education, occupation, and style. For example, speakers of English may use different accents, words, grammar, and expressions depending on where they live, who they interact with, and what situation they are in. The variable : an abstract representation of the source of variation, realised by two or more variants, e.g ‘think’ / / : [], [f].

8. Language change: historical development and transformation of language over time . Can be caused by internal factors , such as linguistic innovation, analogy and simplification and by external factors , such as language contact, diffusion and shift . Eg . English has changed significantly from its origins as a Germanic languages to its current status Also influenced by various languages such as Latin, French, and Arabic. Language change can be traced through different sources , such as historical documents, comparative methods, and reconstruction techniques.

9. language change is unpredictable(David ,1996) A static view on language : standard language is fixed, with little or no variability at all. There are certain prescribed rules which cannot be neglected, The standard allows of one variant of grammatical feature, and speakers may conclude that only one alternative is the correct choice. However, “a dynamic view on language recognizes the existence of change, informs us about it and focuses on those areas where change is ongoing“ (Croft, 2000: 45).

10. What language variation and change share in common Language variation and language change are closely related phenomena variation is often the source and result of change. Variation provides the potential for change, as speakers may adopt or create new forms of language to express their identity, attitude, or preference. Some forms of language may become more widespread, dominant, or standard over time, while others not

11. change starts variably in a limited, natural linguistic environment and then spread from it to other environments (Bailey, 1973). The variable change in the earliest environment would ideally show greater variability than changes in other environments where the change started later (Wolfram 2006) The variation we observe in today’s speech might be a cause of tomorrow’s change. change is to be found in variation, at all linguistic levels.

12. How Does Language Change? Labov proposed three phases on language change: 1) origin , a period in which many variants exist for one and the same phenomenon, 2) propagation , the period in which one of the variants establish itself 3) conclusion in which the remaining variants are done away with. External factors can accelerate the process of language change: social pressure from above or below. These three phases correspond to the beginning, middle and end of language change

13. Linguists generally divide language variation and change between two overarching areas: diachronic variation : the differences found in one language variety at two different points in time examined over the span of centuries to trace their developments. predominant form of language variation analysis until a shift in linguistic priorities, fostered by de Saussure (1916) and Bloomfield (1933), turned linguists’ attention to synchronic study. synchronic language variation examine the qualities of one or more varieties at a single point in time. eg W. Labov’s study

14. Labov proved his theories on language variation and language change by investigating (in an anonymous manner) the English of various employees in New York department stores. Informants from differing social status. Results : the employees with higher socioeconomic status pronounced the rhotic / r / more frequently than the lower ones. Hence, linguistic variable (r) was an indicator of social stratification in all the three stores 

15. Labov’s Principles and Assumptions 1 ) Linguistic variation was socially determined ( Basic assumption) 2) Speakers were in a double bind :through the use of a local variety, they show identification with their locality and aspire to social acceptability 3)Employs Covert interview methods minimized observers’ paradox ( Behavior of informants changes under observation)

16. Common types of language variation Geographical variation Early dialectologists focused study of language variation on geographical dialects of rural areas. concerned to record many dialect features before they were lost . Assumption : real and ‘pure’ dialects were in the rural speech of older and uneducated speakers unlike in the city ‘ shift- all language varieties are subject to variation and change. Dialectologists, then, began to incorporate social as well as geographical information into their dialect surveys. This paved the way for urban dialectology which lead to ‘sociolinguistics’. A form of a language that people speak in a particular part of a country, containing some different words and grammar, is termed as dialect . Eg . Gondar, Gojam and Wollo dialects of Amharic language

17. Social variation Social organizations Two opposing approaches :social network and social stratification. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION concerns the hierarchical structure of a society, arising from inequalities of wealth, power and other status It gives rise linguistically to social-class dialects. Social mobility is possible , the movement up or down the social hierarchy Social classes are not clearly defined or labeled entities. They are simply aggregates of people with similar socioeconomic characteristics

18. SOCIAL NETWORK Linguistic variation can be analyzed in terms of social networks: i.e the grouping of people based on the frequency and quality of interaction . The relationships individuals contract with others Social networks are defined by who your friends are, who lives near, who you work with A researcher can build a network from all these answers Net works can be distinguished in terms of the quality of the ties between individuals. Uniplex tie : if the network tie between individuals is based on one relationship, e.g. the two people work together, or are family members, or have children in the same club. Multiplex tie: if two people know each other in several different roles, e.g best friends, and they take the same courses at university, work together on weekends. A dense social network is one where all members know each other. If you ask five people, each one should mention the other four. Loose social network: not all members know each other

19. Social Class Dialects ( Sociolects ) We will be able to tell a speaker’s social status on the basis of the variety of language he/she uses- in western world The variety of language that is used by a particular social class is called a sociolect . A sociolect may include phonological, grammatical, lexical, and phonetic (accent) differences. The different classes of society are separated by social barriers and distance , similar to ‘geographical ones’. So, the diffusion of linguistic features may be halted by barriers of social class, age, race, religion, etc, and social distance may also have the same effect as geographical distance. This type of social differentiation is known as social stratification .

20. Sociolect (or social dialect): a socially distinct variety. Speaker A speaker B ‘I done it yesterday’ ‘I did it yesterday’ ‘He ain’t got it ‘ ‘He hasn’t got it’ Grammatical, phonetic, phonological differences give us clues about their social background. Social class accents

21. The suffix – ing of English, as in coming , is pronounced / ɪn / and / ɪŋ /, as in / kʌmɪn/ and /ˈkʌmɪŋ/ the two pronunciations have different social distributions: the former is a typical standard pronunciation and the latter a typical non-standard pronunciation. The English suffixes / ɪŋ /,and / ɪn / are different linguistic items. How it appeared in such a way is that: In the end of the 18th century, members of the new middle class started using the pronunciation /- ɪŋ / instead of the traditional / ɪn / the upper class and the lower class used the conservative pronunciation /- ɪn /, Today, the pronunciation /- ɪŋ / has been adopted also by the upper class, /- ɪn / pronunciation is nowadays regarded as «careless» and as belonging to lower class sociolects .

22. Language and Gender Gender’ has replaced ‘sex’ in sociolinguistics. Sex: biologically or physiologically based distinction between males and females. Gender: a social and cultural notion. It indicates the social identity constructed through social action, and obedience to certain cultural norms and prescriptions. Women tend to use a more standard type of language than their male counterparts Genderlect

23. Language and Ethnicity Ethnic-group differentiation - social differentiation -has linguistic differentiation associated with it. Separate identity of ethnic groups is signaled by distinct varieties of the same language, Ethnic groups tend to form separate communities within a country. e.g. Jewish, Italians in New York. Ethiopian society is a good example for this as different ethnics use d/t accents of the same language as manifestation of identity. Ethnolect –a variety of a language spoken by a certain ethnic/cultural subgroup

24. Contextual Variation Contextual variation is variation within the individual: we all vary our language between contexts. Style Refers to the distinctive way of speaking or writing. People adopt different styles in different contexts. The influence of the addressee on the speaker’s language Solidarity (social closeness) between participants is an important influence on speech style. Casual, relaxed, vernacular forms with friends Standard forms with strangers Many factors affect social distance\solidarity between people

25. Slang and Jargon Slang -very informal language variety Includes new and sometimes not polite words and meanings. used among particular groups of people, eg.teen -agers Not used in serious speech or writing. Eg . kerb crawler=person who drives slowly to view street prostitutes Jargon is a set of vocabulary items used by members of particular professions/jobs, that is, their technical terms . For example, linguists have a large vocabulary that is not well understood by non-linguists All professions/jobs have their own jargons. Accountant's jargon , farmer’s jargon ,jargon of shepherds.

26. Speech Accommodation The notion of accommodation developed from the work of Howard Giles and his associates. To approximate one’s speech to that of the partner in conversation for a variety of reasons: to make him feel at ease, in order to be accepted, Speakers tend to change the way they are speaking depending on who they are talking to . Speakers may Converge (modify their speech to sound similar)or diverge (maintain linguistic distinctiveness to distinguish themselves from interlocutor e.g. some minority ethnic groups). Motivation: in the case of convergence to express solidarity or reduce social distance, polite speech strategy, . Upward / downward convergence Short-term / long term accommodation

27. Bi/multilingualism A bilingual is an individual who speaks two languages and uses them in everyday communication one language nearly always predominates with any given individual. True bilingualism is rare to get Not all bilinguals speak two languages at the same level

28. Multilingualism is the ability to use three or more languages either separately or in various degrees of code-mixing. Competence in each language varies according to such factors as occupation, and education. Degree of proficiency is not essential; basic speaking and listening skills (communicative skills) of the speaker(s) are all it takes to be considered as bilingual or multilingual.

29. Diglossia : A situation in which two forms of the same language co-exist in a complementary relationship in a society. High variety, low variety. Both forms are grammatically distinct, don’t overlap. Each variety has its domains, The term is extended to refer to any two languages, even related ones, that has this kind of social and functional distribution. Polyglossia : several H, M and L varieties of languages co-exist in a complex multilingual society,

30. Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition Primary context / natural bilingualism : situations in which a child acquires both languages in a naturalistic setting without any structured instruction Secondary context / school bilingualism : situations in which a child acquires one of the languages in a structured setting, usually school. Naturalistic fused setting : no separation of context for both languages; child is exposed to both languages in the same context. Naturalistic separate setting : one parent, one language model; but also applies to other interlocutors, i.e., siblings, peers, grandparents, etc. Elective bilinguals : individuals who have some element of choice about learning a second language. Circumstantial bilinguals : individuals who have no choice about learning a second language; indigenous colonized or minority groups.

31. Age of Acquisition critical period We have a superior language learning capacity early in life which will disappear or decline with maturation. Some exceptions no clear cut-off age Possible factors: neurological aptitudes attitude motivation nature of exposure

32. Importance of Being Bi/Multilingual Tolerance and respect towards other cultures Employment opportunities Abroad study Effectiveness of speech Personal growth

33. Monolingualism Monolingual is one who does not have access to more than one linguistic code as a means of social communication. Monolingual mindset: seeing everything in terms of a single language ,seeing plurilingualism as deviant, out of the norm( Clyne 2004) South Korea, one of the most linguistically homogenous in the world . View English as un-Korean: incompatible with Korean national identity, and self-deprecation, a view that Koreans are unable to acquire English to a high degree of communicative competence. Similarly Australia and Britain claim that they have no aptitude for foreign language learning(Edwards , 1994).

34. Attitude of monolinguals to bi/ multilinguals There is a general view that monolingual is a norm in most societies, viewing multilingualism out of the norm. Monolinguals have generally a negative attitude to bi/ multilinguals choosing the right language is quite a important to convey our message Bi/ multilinguals are known in code switching ,and People usually feel uncomfortable when they are engaged in a conversation where mixing is unreasonable. Monolinguals usually consider the speaker as boasting and underestimating them. N ot only monolinguals but also bilinguals themselves also feel uncomfortable by their switching ( zelalem ,1998)

35. Summary In the observable world, it is a constant fact that change is continual and inevitable; the situation is no different in human language. Sociolinguistics deals with an extremely wide range of observable phenomena that relate to language and society in ways that call for systematic explanations. Variationists quantitatively describe linguistic systems. The descriptions contribute to the accurate explanation of the wide range of human language, the observable parts of language must reflect its mental aspects.

36. The nature of language change and variation has to be analyzed, taking into account different contexts of usages, the attitudes of speakers, as well as regional and social varieties. This clearly places such studies in the area of sociolinguistics. language change may be regarded as the variation over time. All variation and change can be viewed as the outcome of some form of contact between different individuals or members of different groups Bi/multilingualism, bidialectism , code switching, dialect labeling are result of mobility, migration, urbanization, new towns.

37. Thank you!