Languages in the United States

This presentation attempts to introduce some of the major aspects of the linguistic situation in the United States. The first Part outlines significant moments in the development of the English language. It also sheds light on some of the consequences of this development on minority languages. The second part offers an overall picture of the language policies adopted in the United States.

1. Languages in the United States: Diversity or Uniformity? Mariam Bedraoui Master Student Moroccan American Studies Hassan II University, Casablanca 1

2. Quick Facts about USA (2000 Census) Population: approximately 310 M. The constitution designates no official language Common language: English Dominant variety: General American Minor languages: Spanish, French, German, Yiddish, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Native Indian Languages. Speakers of English: 82. 1 percent Speakers of Spanish: 10. 7 percent Speakers of other Indo- European languages: 3.8 percent Speakers of Asian languages: 2.7 percent 2

3. Languages in the USA: The Overall Picture 3

4. Outline An Overview of the Linguistic Situation in the USA American English Native American Languages Spanish French German Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the USA The Underlying Ideology Types of Policies Examples of policies 4

5. 1- English Language: Early Times on American Soil In 1787, the population in the first colonies was about 4 million. 90% came from the British Isles. Early English settlers established the linguistic tradition that would assimilate nearly all the other immigrant groups. Most subsequent settlers shifted to English language in two generations. 5

6. Immigration waves 6

7. American English In a letter addressed to the Congress in 1780, John Adams says: “English is destined to be in the next and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was or French is in the present age. The reason of this is so obvious, because the increasing population of America, and their universal connection and correspondence with all nations will [....] force their language into general use.” “Its [English] highest perfection, with every branch of human knowledge, is perhaps reserved for this Land of light and freedom.” Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In  A history of the English language . 7

8. American English 8

9. American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness 1- Vocabulary A number of words were imported from American Native languages into English. Example: moose- raccoon- opossum- porgy New words about the landscape and produce were coined. Examples: notch- watershed- foothill- clearing- eggplants- sweet potato. The individual character of the political system required the introduction of new words. Example: Congressional- congressman- presidential- statehouse. Some archaic uses of words were kept. Example: mad- fall- sick- rare 9

10. American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness 2- Pronunciation American English is old-fashioned It has qualities that were characteristic of 17 th and 18 th century English American English pronunciation is rhotic . It retains the flat (a) as in flat, path, grass, dance, half Americans speak more slowly and with less variety in the intonation. 10

11. American English: National Consciousness Prevalent political ideologies A distaste for anything that perpetuates the former dependence Independence necessitates separation at the linguistic level. 11

12. American English: National Consciousness A number of notable political and intellectual figures made strong claims about the need to promote American variety of English. 12

13. American English Spelling: Noah Webster Webster considers the alterations introduced to the American ways of spelling as an event “ of vast political consequence. A national language is a band of national union. Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country national, to call their attachments home to their own country, and to inspire them with the pride of national character.” Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In  A history of the English language . Change 1: c k Change 2 ou o Change 3 er re Change 4 que k Change 5 ce se musik : music physical Logic honour: honor favor color theatre : theater Center meter checque : check Risk Mask defence: defense Pretense recompense 13

14. Dominance of English Explicit Schemes English is the language of schooling It is the language of courtrooms It is required for federal grant application It is a specific requirement for many jobs Implicit Schemes Integration programs for immigrants Assimilation schemes for the indigenous population Sporadic punitive schemes Prominent Media sources in English language 14

15. 2- Native American Languages Before colonial settlement 250 American native languages 9 language families A great diversity between languages A 20 Million population Now 8 American native languages Most of them are extinct Old speakers A 2 million population 15

16. 3- Spanish It is English’s rival language. 34 M. Hispanics in 2007. 81% in the Midwest. Annexation of Louisiana in 1803 and Texas in 1823. The influx of Spanish speaking immigrants after the second World War . Most were Mexicans, and Cubans. The most popular foreign language at secondary school. 16

17. 4- French 13 M. Americans claim French ancestry. Only 1.3 M of them speak French at home. French was historically located in Louisiana and Northern New England. It is the most spoken language in four states: Louisiana, Maine, Vermont , New Hampshire. Two French varieties: Louisiana Creole and French Cajun. 17

18. 4- German 18

19. Languages in the USA: Diversity or Uniformity ? 19

20. Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the United States 20

21. !- The Ideology of Monolingualism Joshua Fishman: “America, America: spendthrift and gravedigger in the front of multilingualism” It is evident that the process of language shift has been a dominant American experience since the early colonial times. Two generations are enough to wipe out non- English language proficiency. 21

22. The ideology of English Monolingualism The English dominant groups in the USA have, throughout the three centuries, identified four major arguments to justify the ideology of English monolingualism . Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In  Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century. 22

23. A Variety of Policies 23

24. 2- Types of Language Policies Kloss (1977) developed a useful schema to categorize various types of official language policies and laws. 24

25. English- Only Movement The current English –only movement has been triggered by the large immigration movement of Hispanic population after WWII. The 1970’s was characterised by tolerance- based policies which culminated in the enactment of the federal act of bilingual education. In 1981, Senator S. I. Hayakawa introduced a constitutional amendment into the Senate that would make English language the official language of the USA. He succeeded to found a high- profile organisation, “US English” and raise huge funds to further its English- only agenda 25

26. English- Only Movement Within the first four years of the establishment of this organisation, 48 states contemplated constitutional amendment promoted by English-only movement. 23 states have adopted the amendment and declared English as an official language in their territories. 26

27. English-Plus Movement A lot of criticism of English- only policies has come from leaders of ethnic groups, minority- rights groups, immigrant groups and from educational and professional organisations. Opponents of English- only movement formed “English-plus” movement and advanced an alternative constitutional amendment called the “Cultural Rights Amendment”. It encouraged cultural diversity and education in English as well as education in secondary languages across the entire population, for natives and immigrants alike. English- plus resolutions have been passed in the states of Oregon, Washington, New Mexico and Rhode Island. 27

28. Conclusion Theodore Roosevelt 28

29. References Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In  A history of the English language . Prentice-Hall International editions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. González , R. D., & In Melis , I. (2000).  Language ideologies: Critical perspectives on the official English movement . Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English. Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In  Language in the USA: Themes for the 21st century . New York: Cambridge University Press. Karavanta , M., Mitsikopoulou , B., & Dendrinos , B. (January 01, 2008). Introduction: Theorizing New English( es ).  European Journal of English Studies, 12,  1, 1-14. Kloss , H. (1977). In  The American bilingual tradition . Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_lang.html http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-american-british.htm http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html http://en.wikipedia.org http://www.google.com/images 29