Lecture_2_Additional_Materials_2025.pptx

The lecture explores the integration of informatics and medical disciplines, focusing on digital learning tools, the development of students’ communication skills, and the use of technology in medical practice.

1. Lecture 2. Techniques and Materials

2. write the word “Materials” on the board. Students quickly shout out any words/associations (e.g., textbook, flashcards, videos, realia, online platforms).

3. Plan for the lecture 1. Language teaching techniques 2. Categorizing Techniques (mechanical, .meaningful and communicative drills) 3.Controlled techniques 4.Semi- controlled techniques 5.Free techniques 6.Textbooks(adaptation and evaluation) 7.Other Texts and Visual Aids

4. Questions for Reflection • What are the distinguishing characteristics of technique, task, activity, procedure, and other similar terms (that seem to be synonymous)? • What is the evolution of classroom techniques that led to our current understanding of communicative and task-based instruction? • What are some widely used techniques that can be chosen to accomplish various purposes in the classroom? • How might one evaluate the potential of a proposed textbook ? By what guidelines? What are some tips for choosing and adapting a textbook? • How can one analyze and evaluate potential materials to incorporate into a lesson?

5. T he distinguishing characteristics of technique, task, activity, procedure The term technique was introduced and defined, but it was noted in passing that some other commonly used terms have been used synonymously, including task, activity, procedure, practice, behavior, exercise , and even strategy .

6. 1. Technique Definition: A specific way or strategy a teacher uses to teach something in class. Characteristic: Small-scale, practical, and teacher-centered. Example: Using role-play, drilling, think-pair-share, or eliciting vocabulary.

7. Task Task usually refers to a specialized form of technique, or more appropriately a series of techniques, with real-world-related communicative goals. The common thread running through half a dozen definitions of task is its focus on the authentic use of language for meaningful communicative purposes beyond the language classroom

8. 2. Task Definition: A piece of work that learners do, usually with a communicative or problem-solving goal. Characteristic: Has a clear outcome (a product, solution, or decision), and learners focus on meaning. Example: Writing a letter, planning a trip, creating a survey.

9. Activity Activity usually refers to a reasonably unified set of student behaviors, limited in time, preceded by some direction from the teacher, with a particular objective. Activities include role-plays, drills,games , peer-editing, small-group information-gap exercises, and much more. Because an activity implies some sort of active performance on the part of learners , it is generally not used to refer to certain teacher behaviors like saying “good morning,” maintaining eye contact with students, explaining a grammar point , or writing a list of words on the chalkboard.

10. 3. Activity Definition: Any classroom exercise designed to engage students in learning. Characteristic: Broader than a task; may include practice, games, discussions, or problem-solving. Often focused on practice rather than just outcomes. Example: A vocabulary matching game, grammar drill, class debate.

11. Procedure Richards and Rodgers (2001) used the term procedure to encompass “ the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method” (p. 26)

12. 4. Procedure Definition: The step-by-step sequence of actions that the teacher and students follow to carry out a lesson or part of a lesson. Characteristic: A structured plan that includes techniques, activities, and tasks. Example: Warm-up discussion, Presentation of new vocabulary with flashcards , Pair-work role-play (task) , Feedback and correction

13. Summary in simple words: Technique = the tool/strategy (e.g., role-play, drilling). Task = a goal-oriented student work (e.g., write a report). Activity = any exercise to practice language (e.g., game, debate). Procedure = the full plan/sequence that combines techniques, tasks, and activities.

14. Exercise: Match and Classify Part A. Match each classroom example with the correct concept: technique, task, activity, or procedure. The teacher asks students to repeat new words aloud several times. Students design a poster about environmental problems and present it. A vocabulary bingo game is played in class. The teacher starts with a warm-up question, explains new grammar, organizes pair work, and finishes with feedback.

15. Part B. Fill in the blanks with the correct term (technique, task, activity, procedure): Role-play is an example of a ______ used to practice speaking. Writing an email to a foreign university is a ______ because it has a clear communicative outcome. A grammar quiz is a classroom ______ for checking knowledge. The teacher’s step-by-step plan of the lesson is called a ______.

16. Practice, Behavior, Exercise, Strategy In the language teaching literature, these terms, and perhaps some others, all refer in varying degrees of intensity to what is defined below as technique

17. Technique Anthony (1963) discussed and defined the term, the language teaching profession generally accepted technique as a superordinate term to refer to various activities that either teachers or learners perform in the classroom. In other words, techniques include all tasks and activities. They are almost always planned and deliberate. They are the product of a choice made by the teacher.

18. A lesson consist of a number of techniques, some teacher-centered, some learner-centered , some production-oriented, some comprehension-oriented, some clustering together to form a task, and some as tasks in and of themselves.

19. CATEGORIZING TECHNIQUES The Manipulation–Communication Continuum Techniques can be thought of as existing along a continuum of possibilities between highly manipulative and very communicative. At the extreme end of the manipulative side , a technique is totally controlled by the teacher and implies a predictable response from students (Kurtz, 2011). Choral repetition and cued substitution drills are examples of oral techniques at this extreme. Other examples are dictation (listening/writing) and reading aloud.

20. At the communicative extreme , student responses are open-ended and unpredictable . Examples include storytelling, brainstorming, role-plays, discussions, small group work, and some games. Teachers are usually in a less controlled role here, as students become free to be creative with their responses and interactions with other students. However, keep in mind that a modicum of teacher control, whether overt or covert, should always be present in the classroom . In the words of van Lier (2007), “the dynamism (and tension) between the planned and predictable and the improvised and unpredictable is essential in the development of true action-based pedagogy, and I would argue, in all pedagogy” (p. 54).

21. Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Techniques In the decades of the 1940s through the 1960s, language pedagogy was obsessed with drills, which occupied a good deal of class time. Current practice makes minimal—or we should say optimal—use of drilling. By definition, a drill is a mechanical technique that focuses on a minimal number of language forms (grammatical or phonological structures) through repetition. Drills can be choral, with the whole class repeating in unison, or individual. And they can take several forms, ranging from simple repetition to various substitution formats. Here are some examples of the latter: T: I went to the store yesterday. Ss : I went to the store yesterday. T: Bank. Ss : I went to the bank yesterday. T: In the morning Ss : I went to the bank in the mo

22. Mechanical drills have only one correct response from a student and have no implied connection with reality. What some have called meaningful drills ( Paulston & Bruder , 1976) can add some reality, but may stretch the concept of drill too far: T : The woman is outside. [ pointing out the window at a woman ] Where is she , Leyla? S1: The woman is outside. T: Right, she’s outside. Keiko, where is she? S2: She’s outside. T: Good, Keiko, she’s outside. Now, class, we are inside. Leyla ,where are we? S3: We are inside.

23. Mechanical Drills – Definition & Use Definition (Brown, 2001): Mechanical drills are language practice activities that require predetermined responses, where comprehension is not required—the focus is on form, accuracy, and habit formation, not meaning.These drills are fully controlled by the teacher. The student doesn’t need to understand the meaning deeply—they just respond with a correct structure.

24. Key Characteristics: Focus is on accuracy , not fluency. Practice is repetitive and form-focused . Requires minimal cognitive processing . Often used in Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) . Based on behaviorist theory : stimulus → response → reinforcement.

25. Examples of Mechanical Drills (from Brown) Drill Type Description & Example Repetition Drill Student repeats exactly what the teacher says. T: I am happy. <br> S: I am happy. Substitution Drill Student replaces one word or phrase with another. T: I have a book. <br> T: pencil <br> S: I have a pencil. Transformation Drill Student changes the sentence based on a prompt. T: I go to school. <br> T: past tense <br> S: I went to school. Chain Drill One student says something to another, who replies and passes it on. S1: What’s your name? <br> S2: My name is Anna. What’s your name? Minimal Pair Drill Practicing phonemic differences. T: ship / sheep – S: ship / sheep

26. When to Use Mechanical Drills Introducing new grammar or structure Teaching pronunciation or phonemic contrasts Reinforcing sentence patterns Suitable for beginner-level learners

27. Controlled versus Open-Ended Techniques Controlled Open-Ended T restricts communication Ss are free to improvise T elicits an intended response Ss ’ responses are spontaneous T emphasizes forms/structure Ss focus on meaning/communication T monitors Ss’ responses Ss are relatively unmonitored

28. Controlled Techniques Title : Controlled Techniques Subtitle : Teacher-Directed Language Practice Optional Visual : A checklist, gear icon, or students repeating after a teacher.

29. What Are Controlled Techniques? Techniques where students have almost no control over language output. Responses are predetermined , often focusing on form and accuracy . Used to develop pronunciation, grammar , or vocabulary in isolation. Example Statement : "Controlled techniques ensure accuracy through repetition and manipulation of language under tight teacher supervision."

30. Examples Technique Description Reading Aloud Students read a written text aloud Repetition Imitating teacher's spoken model Dictation Writing down exactly what the teacher says Substitution Drills Replacing a word in a sentence with another (given by teacher) Transformation Drills Changing sentences as directed (e.g., from present to past)

31. Semi-controlled Techniques Title : Semi-controlled Techniques Subtitle : Guided Practice with Some Student Choice Optional Visual : A path with branching options, suggesting limited freedom.

32. What Are Semi-controlled Techniques? Students have some freedom , but tasks are still structured by the teacher . Focus is on form + fluency ; grammar accuracy remains important . A bridge between fully controlled practice and real communication . Example Statement : " Semi-controlled techniques provide structure while allowing students limited freedom to personalize their responses ."

33. Examples Technique Description Guided Dialogue Fill-in or partially scripted conversations Information Gap (with prompts) Students ask/respond based on missing information, but within set limits Q&A Exercises Student answers may vary, but questions are fixed Story Sequencing Students arrange and describe picture stories Short Written Prompts Students complete a sentence or paragraph starter

34. Communicative Techniques Title : Communicative Techniques Subtitle : Encouraging Real-Life Language Use in the Classroom Optional Visual : An image of students in discussion, a group activity, or a handshake to suggest interaction

35. What Are Communicative Techniques ? Definition of Communicative Techniques Content : Techniques that focus on real-life communication and fluency . Learners engage in authentic interaction , often using unpredictable language. Minimal teacher control ; students have freedom to express meaning . Example Statement : " These techniques simulate real-world communication and help learners build confidence using the target language in context ."

36. Examples of Communicative Techniques (Brown, 2001) Technique Description Role-Play Students act out real-life situations Problem-Solving Tasks Group work to solve a task using target language Interviews Students ask/answer questions in a conversational format Discussions/Debates Students express and defend opinions in a group setting Games (e.g., Information Gap) Interactive tasks requiring meaningful exchange of information

37. Materials in the Teaching Process Definition: Materials are resources that support teaching and learning, helping students acquire language skills effectively.

38. Types of Materials: Textbooks – Core structured resource with lessons, grammar, vocabulary, reading, and exercises. Workbooks & Worksheets – Extra practice for writing, grammar, and vocabulary; can be used for homework or in-class exercises. Audio Materials – Recordings, dialogues, podcasts, songs; help develop listening skills and pronunciation. Video Materials – Movies, clips, tutorials, animations; support listening, speaking, and cultural understanding. Visual Aids – Charts, posters, flashcards, diagrams, pictures; help visual learners and clarify abstract concepts. Digital / Web-based Resources – Apps, interactive exercises, e-books, online quizzes; allow self-study and multimedia practice/

39. Types of materials: Authentic Materials – Real-life resources like menus, signs, advertisements, brochures, newspapers; expose learners to natural language use. Games and Simulations – Language games, role-plays, board games; make learning interactive and enjoyable. Realia – Real objects used in lessons (clothes, food packages, maps); help learners connect language to real-world experience. Teacher-Created Materials – Custom worksheets, handouts, exercises tailored to students’ needs. Assessment Materials – Tests, quizzes, rubrics, self-assessment sheets; help evaluate progress. Interactive Whiteboards / Smartboards – Technology for displaying materials, interactive exercises, and collaborative activities. Learning Portfolios / Journals – Students track progress, reflect on learning, and practice writing. Peer-Generated Materials – Student-created dialogues, posters, or presentations; encourage creativity and collaboration.

40. Functions of Materials: Guide the lesson structure. Provide examples and exercises. Support various learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic). Motivate learners and make lessons engaging. Offer opportunities for independent learning and self-study.

41. Activity: Task 1. Match each material to the skill it helps develop. Task 2. Plan activities using different materials for a language topic. (Food, Clothes, Daily routine, Ordering in a restaurant)

42. TEXTBOOKS The most obvious and most common form of material support for language instruction comes through textbooks .

43. Understanding the importance of textbooks in education Textbooks are a central part of the learning process. They provide structure, guide teachers in delivering content, and help students acquire knowledge and skills. Choosing the right textbook can significantly affect student engagement, understanding, and motivation. In this lecture, we will explore the main criteria for selecting and evaluating textbooks to ensure they meet both educational standards and learners’ needs.

44. Criteria for Textbook Selection and Evaluation Program and Course 1. Does the textbook support the goals of the curriculum and program? 2. Is the textbook part of a series, and if so, is it at the appropriate level of your students? 3. Are a sufficient number of the course objectives addressed by the textbook? 4. Is the textbook gauged for learners at the appropriate age group, ability, purpose, and background? 5. Is the textbook attractive and motivating in its design and layout? 6. Is the textbook sensitive to the cultural background(s) of the students?

45. Curriculum Alignment The textbook must align with the curriculum and the goals of the course. It should cover topics specified in the syllabus and support the intended learning outcomes. The content should be appropriate for the students’ age and level of proficiency. Textbooks should promote the development of skills and competencies required by educational standards, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills.

46. Example/Case: A teacher is choosing a textbook for a B1-level English course. Textbook A focuses heavily on grammar but has limited speaking and listening practice. Textbook B balances grammar, vocabulary, listening, speaking, reading, and writing tasks in line with CEFR B1 standards. Interactive question: Which textbook better supports a communicative English course?

47. Content Quality The quality of the content is crucial: Information should be accurate, up-to-date, and evidence-based. Material should be logically organized to help students build knowledge progressively. There should be a balance between theory and practice. For example, concepts should be accompanied by examples, exercises, or case studies. Poor content quality can lead to misconceptions and confusion among students.

48. Pedagogical Value A good textbook supports teaching methods and learning strategies: It should provide a clear lesson structure, including objectives, explanations, and summaries. Exercises, tasks, and projects should reinforce learning and allow students to practice independently. Activities should cater to different learning styles – visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners. Some textbooks include teacher’s guides, assessment tools, and suggestions for differentiated instruction.

49. Language and Cultural Relevance Language should be clear, age-appropriate, and understandable for the target audience. The content should be free of stereotypes and cultural biases. Examples, stories, and illustrations should reflect students’ experiences and culture, or at least be globally inclusive. This helps learners relate to the material and prevents misunderstandings or disengagement.

50. Visual Design and Layout A well-designed textbook enhances learning: Illustrations, charts, tables, and diagrams help explain complex concepts visually. The layout should be organized and easy to navigate, with headings, bullet points, and summaries. Attractive and clear design increases engagement and makes the textbook more user-friendly. Example: Color-coded sections or diagrams can help students quickly locate information and remember key points.

51. Methods of Evaluation To choose the best textbook, evaluation is essential: Checklists: Evaluate criteria systematically, e.g., content accuracy, pedagogical support, language clarity. Rating scales: Assign scores to different aspects to compare textbooks objectively. Peer and expert reviews: Insights from other teachers or specialists can highlight strengths and weaknesses. Trial use: Testing the textbook in real classroom conditions shows whether it meets student needs effectively. Evaluation should be continuous to ensure textbooks remain relevant as curricula and student needs evolve.

52. Approach 7. Are the roles of teacher and learners in concert with current knowledge about second language acquisition? 8. Do the sequencing, difficulty levels, pacing, and variety represented in the textbook reflect current knowledge about second language acquisition? 9. Does the approach challenge learners to use and develop their own strategies and to wor toward autonomy?

53. 7. Are the roles of teacher and learners in concert with current knowledge about second language acquisition? Modern SLA research emphasizes communicative, learner-centered approaches, where the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than just a knowledge transmitter. Learners are active participants, constructing knowledge through interaction, collaboration, and authentic language use. If a textbook encourages group work, pair activities, discussions, and projects, it reflects current understanding of SLA. Conversely, a textbook that positions learners as passive recipients of knowledge does not align with contemporary SLA principles. Example: А textbook including tasks like “Interview a classmate about their weekend” reflects a learner-centered approach, whereas one that only has students memorize dialogues does not.

54. 8. Do the sequencing, difficulty levels, pacing, and variety represented in the textbook reflect current knowledge about second language acquisition? SLA research supports gradual progression: new language items should build on previously learned material, with increasing complexity. Variety in task types (listening, speaking, reading, writing, problem-solving) enhances engagement and language retention. Pacing should allow sufficient time for comprehension and practice, avoiding cognitive overload. A textbook that introduces vocabulary, grammar, and skills in a logical, scaffolded order, with mixed activities and gradually increasing difficulty, aligns with SLA principles. Example: A textbook that first teaches present tense through comprehension exercises, then guided practice, then communicative role-plays demonstrates proper sequencing and pacing.

55. 9. Does the approach challenge learners to use and develop their own strategies and to wor toward autonomy? Modern SLA emphasizes learner autonomy: students should develop strategies for learning independently (e.g., guessing meaning from context, self-correction, using resources). Textbooks that include tasks like problem-solving, self-assessment, reflection, or learning journals encourage learners to monitor their own progress. Exercises that promote strategy use (e.g., skimming, scanning, vocabulary guessing) help learners take responsibility for their learning, fostering autonomy. Example A textbook asking students to plan a short presentation on a familiar topic, research vocabulary themselves, and self-evaluate afterwards promotes autonomy. A textbook that only provides fixed exercises with answers does not encourage independent strategy use.

56. Skills 10. Does the textbook account for a variety of learners’ preferences and styles as they develop various skills? 11. Is the “mix” of skills presented in the textbook appropriate for the course? 12. Does the textbook provide learners with adequate guidance as they are acquiring these skills?

57. 10. Does the textbook account for a variety of learners’ preferences and styles as they develop various skills? Different students learn in different ways: some are visual learners, some auditory, some kinesthetic (learning by doing). A good textbook gives different types of activities so all learners can succeed. Example: Visual learners: Illustrated grammar charts, vocabulary mind maps. Auditory learners: Listening exercises, dialogues, songs. Kinesthetic learners: Role-plays, acting out dialogues, games. A textbook that only has reading exercises would not meet all learning styles.

58. 11. Is the “mix” of skills presented in the textbook appropriate for the course? English has four main skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking. A balanced textbook gives practice in all skills, not just one. The mix should match the course goals. Example: If the course is communicative English (B1), students should: Listen to dialogues, Speak in role-plays, Read short articles, Write emails or short texts. A textbook that only has grammar exercises or reading passages is not balanced for a communicative course.

59. 12. Does the textbook provide learners with adequate guidance as they are acquiring these skills? Learners need help and instructions while learning new skills. Good textbooks show how to do exercises, give examples, and sometimes provide tips or strategies. Example: For writing a paragraph: Textbook shows a sample paragraph, gives sentence starters, and explains structure. For listening: Textbook shows questions before listening to guide attention, and suggests how to check understanding. A textbook that just gives tasks without any guidance can confuse students and slow down learning.

60. Techniques and Supplementary Materials 13. Do the techniques in the textbook promote learners’ language development? 14. Is there a balance between controlled and open-ended techniques? 15. Do the techniques reinforce what students have already learned and represent a progression from simple to more complex? 16. Are the techniques varied in format so that they will continually motivate and challenge learners? 17. Does the textbook include supplementary photocopy-ready handouts, workbook, work sheets, assessments, audio or video disc, and/or web-based exercises? 18. Is there an accompanying teacher’s guide?

61. 13. Do the techniques in the textbook promote learners’ language development? Techniques should help students practice and improve all skills: speaking, listening, reading, writing. They should also help students learn vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation naturally. Example: Role-plays encourage speaking and listening. Gap-fill exercises help with grammar and vocabulary. Writing tasks help students organize their ideas and use new words.

62. Do the techniques reinforce what students have already learned and represent a progression Textbooks should build on previous lessons. Start with easy exercises, then gradually move to more difficult ones. Example: First, students practice simple past tense in fill-in-the-blank sentences. Next, they write a short story about what they did yesterday. This way, learning is step by step, and students feel confident.

63. 4. Is there a balance between controlled and open-ended techniques? Controlled techniques: Students practice correct forms (e.g., fill-in-the-blank, grammar drills). Open-ended techniques: Students create language themselves (e.g., write a story, discuss a topic). Good textbooks include both types for proper learning. Example: Controlled: Complete sentences with the correct verb form. Open-ended: Describe your last holiday using the verbs you learned.

64. 17. Does the textbook include supplementary photocopy-ready handouts, workbook, work Supplementary materials help teachers save time and students practice more. Audio, video, and online exercises provide extra exposure to language. Example: Audio CDs for listening practice. Workbook exercises for homework. Printable worksheets for in-class activities. Web-based games for vocabulary revision.

65. Practical Issues 19. Is the textbook available and cost-effective? 20. Can the book be obtained in a timely manner? Is it available as an e-book?

66. Is the textbook available and cost-effective? Answer (Simple Language): A good textbook should be easy to buy and affordable for both schools and students. Expensive or hard-to-find textbooks can make it difficult for everyone to use them. Example : Textbook A costs $50 and is sold in many stores. Textbook B costs $120 and is only available from a foreign publisher. Better choice: Textbook A, because it is affordable and accessible.

67. Can the book be obtained in a timely manner? Is it available as an e-book? Answer (Simple Language): The textbook should be easy to get before the course starts. Availability as an e-book is useful for students who prefer digital access or remote learning. Example: Textbook A is available online as a PDF and in local bookstores. Textbook B will only arrive in 2 months and is print-only. Better choice: Textbook A, because students can start learning on time and even use it on devices.

68. Reference Brown , H. Douglas Teaching by principles : an interactive approach to language pedagogy/ H. Douglas Brown, San Francisco State University; Heekyeong Lee, Monterey Institute of International Studies. — Fourth edition.