LECTURE 4 FINAL -Perception-Personality.ppt

Slides on perceptions

1. LECTURE FOURLECTURE FOUR
Perception and Personality Perception and Personality

2. LECTURE OutlineLECTURE Outline
•PERCEPTION
•General Perception Defined
•Social Perception defined
•Factors Influencing Perception
•Theory of Attribution
•Perceptual Errors
•Managerial Uses of Perception
•Techniques to enhance our perception
•PERSONALITY
•Definitions of Personality
•Determinants of Personality
•Personality Traits
•MBTI
•Major Personality attributes influencing OB

3. What is PerceptionWhat is Perception ?
Generally, it is the process through which the information from
outside environment is selected, received, organised and
interpreted to make it meaningful.
It can also be referred to as a psychological process where
people obtain (or take) information from the environment and
make sense of their worlds.
Very often two people who have seen the same thing end up
interpreting it differently.
The reason for such occurrence is because of the involvement of
an extremely complex cognitive process with each person
having a unique perception resulting in individual differences in
processing information which is received.

4. PerceptionPerception
•In summary, it has to be noted that:
Perception is a complex cognition process, giving a unique
interpretation (or picture) of the world, which may be very much
different from reality at times.
There is a lot of difference between the perceptual world and
the real world.
Many of the problems occurring in organisations (related to
organizational behaviour) are often found to be the problems of
perception

5. Social PerceptionSocial Perception
Person or social perception is the process by which
individuals attribute characteristics or traits to other people.
Factors that influence how a person perceives another can be
categorized in terms of:
 Characteristics or attributes of the person being perceived
(The Target)
Characteristics of the perceiver
Situation or context within which the perception takes place.

6. Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the Perceiver
•The profile of the Perceiver can be as follows:
a) If a person knows himself, it will be easier for him to
see others accurately.
b) Perceiver’s own characteristics affect the traits he or
she is likely to see in others.
c) Perceivers who accept themselves are more likely to
see the positive aspects of other people.

7. Factors that Influence PerceptionFactors that Influence Perception
Perception
TheTarget
• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
The Perceiver
•
Attitudes
•
Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
The Situation
• Time
•
Work
setting
• Social setting

8. Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the Perceiver
•The profile of the Perceiver can be as follows:
a) If a person knows himself, it will be easier for him to
see others accurately.
b) Perceiver’s own characteristics affect the traits he or
she is likely to see in others.
c) Perceivers who accept themselves are more likely to
see the positive aspects of other people.

9. Theory of AttributionTheory of Attribution
•Attribution theory describes that when individuals observe
behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is Internally or
Externally caused.
•Internally caused behaviour is those that are believed to be
under the personal control of the individual.
•Externally caused behaviour is seen as resulting from outside
causes over which the individual has no control.

10. Theory of AttributionTheory of Attribution
•Kelly’s Theory of Causal Attribution explains that in determining
whether others’ behaviour stems mainly from internal or
external causes, we focus on three types of information:
• a) Distinctiveness;
•b) Consensus;
• c) Consistency.

11. Distinctiveness
•Distinctiveness is extent to which a person behaves in the
same manner in other contexts.
•If one behaves the same way in other situations,
distinctiveness is low; if one behaves differently, distinctiveness
is high.
• If a particular behaviour is unusual, an observer is likely to
give the behaviour an external attribution.
•If the action is not unusual, it will be perhaps judged as internal

12. ConsensusConsensus
•Consensus is the extent to which other people behave in the
same manner as the person we are judging.
• If others do behave similarly, consensus is considered, high; if
they do not, consensus is considered low.
•If consensus were high, you would be expected to give external
attribution, and if consensus is low, you tend to give internal
attribution.

13. Consistency
Consistency is tendency to respond the same way over time.
Consistency also may be high or low and the more consistent
the behaviour, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it
to internal causes and vice-versa.
When we make judgements about the behaviour of other
people, we have tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal
factors, in case of less than optimum performance by the
others. This is called the Fundamental Attribution Error.
There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors such as ability or effort while
putting the blame for failure on external factors such as luck.
This is called the Self-Serving Bias

14. Perceptual ErrorsPerceptual Errors
•Attribution Theory
•Selective Perception
•Halo Effect
•Contrast Effects
•Projection
•Stereotyping

15. Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory
•When individuals observe behaviour, they
attempt to determine whether it is internally or
externally caused.
–Distinctiveness
–Consensus
–Consistency

16. Chapter 2, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 2-16
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory
•Fundamental Attribution Error
–The tendency to underestimate external factors.
•Self-Serving Bias
–The tendency to attribute one’s successes to
internal factors.

17. Perceptual ErrorsPerceptual Errors
•Selective Perception
It explains that people selectively interpret what they see
on the basis of their interests, background, experience and
attitudes.
•Halo Effect
–Evaluation of another person solely on the basis of one
attribute, either favourable or unfavourable and creating a
general impression
•Contrast Effects

18. Perceptual ErrorsPerceptual Errors
•Similar-to-me Effect or Projection
–It is another common type of perceptual bias, which
involves the tendency for people to perceive more
favourably others who are like themselves than those who
are dissimilar.
•Stereotyping
–Stereotyping refers to the tendency to assign attributes to a
person solely on the basis of a category of people of which
he or she is a member. Here, The perceiver fails to
recognise the characteristics that will distinguish the
person as an individual and his unique traits and qualities

19. Contrast Effects
•It is evaluations of a person’s characteristics that are affected
by comparisons with other people recently encountered who
rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
•Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
–A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent
with how he or she is perceived by others.
–This is also known as Expectancy which is a tendency to
perceive people, objects or events on the basis of what we
expected them to be in the first place. It is sometimes referred to
as “pygmallion effect”
•

20. Managerial Uses of PerceptionManagerial Uses of Perception
•Perception is an important concept for managers or for any
decision maker and there are some important managerial
activities where concept of perception can be applied. These
include:
Advertising
Maintaining Safety
Managing Impression
Building Corporate Image
Managing Performance
Evaluating Performance
Judging Employees’ Loyalty
Self-Assessment and Development
Building Relationship

21. Techniques to enhance our Perceptual SkillsTechniques to enhance our Perceptual Skills
•Giving Feedback and Receiving Feedback:
This is important because every person has four areas that needs
attention
•Public Area: The aspects of me which I know as well as others also know
•Blind Area: The aspects of me which I do not know but others know
•Private Area: The aspects of me which I know but others do not know
•Dark Area: The aspects of me that I do not know as well as others also do
not know
NOTE: Amongst all these Public area does not create problem in perceptual process,
but other three areas do, hence these should be reduced. Receiving feedback from
others can reduce blind Area, and giving feedback and information about self to
others can reduce Private area. Reducing dark area is concerned more with self-
purification

22. Techniques to enhance our Perceptual Skills contdTechniques to enhance our Perceptual Skills contd
Having Empathy
Having Positive Attitudes
Enhancing Self-Concept and Self esteem
Avoiding Common Biases
Communication
Correct Use of Attribution

23. PERSONALITYPERSONALITY
IntroductionIntroduction
The word “personality” has been derived from the Latin word
“persona” which means a mask worn by an actor while
performing a character on the stage.
Thus personality is taken to mean the characteristic pattern
or style of behaviour of the person revealed from his external
appearance.
The external properties of a person include his dress,
speech, bodily actions, postures, habits and expressions.
This means a person endowed with good external properties
is considered to possess a good personality and vice versa.
But this is not the reality. Mere external properties can not
make a personality.

24. Personality as a Derived Concept
The concept of personality is a derived concept. The derivation
is possible in three ways:
 The first is subjective, popular derivation based on subjective
impressions formed by the individual’s behaviour and is
expressed through evaluative expressions like charming,
dominating, weak or bold personality.
The second derivation of personality is based on an objective
description of the overt responses of the individual.
The third is organismic according to which personality is the
inner pattern of a person’s characterisics.

25. Different definitions of Personality
A population definition of the word personality can be seen as
all inclusive which is the sum total of an individual’s properties
(both internal and external) as a distinct and unique human
being.
The external properties like dressese are directly observed,
while the internal are only inferred from the behaviour of a
person which is the psychological pattern.
Thus Personality is the consistent psychological patterns
within an individual that affect the way they interact with others
and the situations they encounter.

26. Political Definition of Personality
According to political definition a person has personality only when
he is charismatic, attractive and represents the masses.
He should be able to present himself in an impressive manner at a
public debate and his personal life should not be marred with
scandals.
Even this definition is not acceptable for if we accept this definition
then majority of political leaders should not have any personality.
Thus, Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics
behaviour and thought

27. Biophysical Definition of Personality
•This category of definitions regards personality as organic
internal element of a person.
•It regards personality as consisting of traits which lend
themselves to objective measurement.
•For example, Sheldon (1942) classified people on the basis of
physique.
•He described three types of personality namely: endomorphic,
mesomorphic and ectomorphic, with endo morphic being fat and
fleshy, mesomorphic being athletic in build with a lot of muscles
and ecto morphic being thin and bony in build.

28. Personality Determinants
There are several factors that determine the formation or shaping of
our personality. Among the three major factors are:
Heredity
Environment
Situation

29. Heredity
•The genetic components inherited from our parents at the time of
conception determine strongly the personality characteristics of an
individual. E.g., physical statutory, facial attractiveness, gender, etc
Environment:
•The culture in which people are brought up in their lives and the type
of socialization process such as family’s child rearing practices, socio
economic status of the family, number of children in a family,
education of the parents, religious practices, etc play a critical role in
shaping our personalities.
Situation:
•The type of specific situation which a person encounters also equally
shapes the type of personality characteristics. E.g., an individual’s
exposure to a job interview and the type of experiences encountered
during that time will shape certain personality characteristic

30. Personality Traits
Those characteristics like shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy,
ambitious, loyal, timid etc, when they are exhibited in large
number of situations, are called Personality Traits or enduring
characteristics that describe on individual’s behavior.
Cattel (1973) identified 16 source of Primary Traits such as
Reserved – Outgoing; Less intelligent - More intelligent; Affected
by feelings - Emotionally stable; Submissive – Dominant; Timid –
Venturesome; Tough minded - Sensitive etc.
These traits were found to be generally steady and constant
sources of behaviour. But there was found to be no scientific
relevance.

31. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
((MBTI)
MBTI describes four dimensions of Personality Types:
(a) Extroversion versus Introversion: (The ways in which people relate to the world)
(b) Sensing versus Intuition: (Becoming aware of and perceiving information)
(c) Thinking versus Feeling: (Ways of deciding and prefer to make judgments)
(d) Judging and Perception: (The amount of control exercising and organizing
people)

32. The Big Five ModelThe Big Five Model
Classifications
•Extraversion
–friendly, outgoing
–spend a lot of time maintaining and enjoying
–Agreeableness
–Highly agreeable = value harmony more
–Low agreeable = focus more on their own needs
•Conscientiousness
–Highly conscientious = pursues fewer goals,
–Low conscientious = tend to be more easily distracted

33. The Big Five ModelThe Big Five Model
•Emotional Stability
–Positive emotional stability = calm, enthusiastic
–Negative emotional stability = nervous,
depressed,
•Openness to Experience
–Extremely open = fascinated by novelty
–Not open = appear more conventional

34. Big Five Personality FactorsBig Five Personality Factors

35. Major Personality Attributes Major Personality Attributes
Influencing OBInfluencing OB
•Locus of Control
•Machiavellianism
•Self-Esteem
•Self-Monitoring
•Risk-Taking
•Type A Personality
•Type B Personality
•Proactive Personality

36. Locus of ControlLocus of Control
•The degree to which people believe they are in
control of their own fate.
–Internals
•Individuals who believe that they control what
happens to them.
–Externals
•Individuals who believe that what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

37. MachiavellianismMachiavellianism
•Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify
means.
Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking of themselves

38. Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring
•A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust
behaviour to external situational factors.
•Risk-TakingRisk-Taking
•Refers to a person’s willingness to take chances or risks.

39. Type A PersonalityType A Personality
–Moves,
–Impatient
–Multitasks
–Dislikes leisure
–Obsessed with numbers

40. Type B PersonalityType B Personality
–Never suffers
–Doesn’t need to display
–Plays for fun
–Can relax

41. Proactive PersonalityProactive Personality
•A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative,
takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change
occurs.

42. CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
•Thank you for your attention and see
you next time