Mahailluppallama – History and Research Culture

The presentation was made for new recruits to FCRDI Mahailluppallama at their induction training on 15th October 2024

1. Mahailluppallama – History and
Research Culture
P.B. Dharmasena – 2024/10/15

2. Mahailluppallama – History and Research Culture
Content
•Renowned Scientists emerged from Mahailluppallama
•Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture
•Mahailluppallama History in Brief
•1950 – Re-establishment of Mahailluppallama
•1970s – Mahaweli System Development, Walagambahu Concept, Yodha-ela
Dry Farming Project,
•1970s – 1980s – Conservation Farming
•1990s – Tank Cascade System Study, Issues in village tanks cascade systems
•Partial Desilting Concept (a short video)
•Traditional Agriculture Pros. and Cons
•Commercial agriculture
•Challenges and Sustainability in Commercial Agriculture
•New Concepts Emerged in Agriculture
•Climate Change and Agriculture
•Feasible Strategies to mitigate Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector

5. Evolution of small agricultural societies in Sri Lanka
Wild-life
Customs
Natural disasters
External invasions
Discipline
Traditions Sharing
Rearing
Farming
Water
Protection
Beliefs Food
Foraging Society
Practices Gathering
Hunting
Trading
Industries
Agriculture Culture
Technology
Politics
Leadership
Transport
CHALLENGE SOCIETY STRATEGY OUTCOME

Pre-agrarian society
(Subsistence Agriculture)
Agrarian society
(Traditional Agriculture

6. Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture occurs when
farmers grow crops to meet the
needs of themselves and their
families on smallholdings.
•Mixed cropping,
•Unimproved varieties of crops
and animals,
•Little or no surplus yield for sale,
but stored for future use (food
security)
•Use of crude/traditional tools,
•Mainly the production of crops,
•Small scattered plots of land,
•Reliance on unskilled labour
(often family members), and
•Low yields. (generally)

7. Traditional Agriculture
Traditional Agriculture can be defined as a
primitive style of farming that involves:
•The intensive use of indigenous
knowledge;
•Traditional tools;
•Natural resources;
•Resources conservation (water, soil,
environs)
•Biological fertilizer;
•Food security
•Biological pest control; and
•Cultural beliefs of the farmers.
It is still used by about 50% of the world
population. It is transformed from
subsistence agriculture with the knowledge
and experience gained

8. •Joined the Department of Agriculture in 1944
•Started work at Mahailluppallama in 1946
•Basically a Weed Scientist but later expanded
his research career towards farming systems
•Mahailluppallama Research Station was
reopened in 1950
•He guided C.R. Panabokke, a young
researcher for conducting soil research
•Then he formed a qualified research staff in
various disciplines such as Agricultural
Engineering, Soil Conservation, Agronomy
and Plant Breeding.
•He served as the Director of Agriculture
during 1973-1977
Renowned Scientists emerged from Mahailluppallama
Dr. E.F.L. Abeyratne – Weed Scientist

9. •1950-1959 Research Assistant/Research Officer,
Dry Zone Agriculture Station, Mahailluppallama
•1960-1974 Head, Land Use Division, Agric.
And Irrigation Depts.
•1974-1979 Deputy Director (Research), DOA,
Peradeniya
•1979-1982 Director of Agriculture, DOA,
Peradeniya
•1982-1984 Senior Research Fellow at ISNAR
• 1983-1989 Member of Board of Governors
(IBSRAM)
• 1985-1988 Senior Research Associate (IWMI)
• 1988-1998 Research Fellow (IWMI)
Renowned Scientists emerged from Mahailluppallama
Dr. C.R. Panabokke – Soil Scientist

10. Contribution of Panabokke to
Agricultural knowledge
Rainfed farming research (1950-1959)
Soil classification and mapping (1959-1967)
Agro-ecological studies (1974-1980)
Rice growing soils (1964-1985)
Land and water management (1977-1992)
Tank Cascade studies (1985-2000)
Groundwater hydrology (1998)

14. •1505 – 1640 Portuguese
•1640 – 1796 Dutch
•1796 – 1948 British
•1815 (2
nd
March) – Kandyan Convention
•1818 – Civil riots against British
•1822 – Royal botanic garden,
Peradeniya

Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

15. •1740 – coffee plantation effort
made by Dutch
•Then 1815 British established
coffee plantations
•1860 – Tea plantation
•1861 – Hakgala Botanical
Garden
•1876 – Rubber plantation
established in Gampaha
•1881 – The Journal of tropical
Agriculturist

Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

16. •1884 – School of
Agriculture, Colombo to
train improved methods
of ploughing and
transplanting
•1884 – Botanical
Garden Branch,
Anuradhapura
•1886 – Rehabilitation of
Kalawewa reservoir
•1893 – Flora of Ceylon
(First Volume)

Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

17. •A hand-book to the flora of Ceylon : containing descriptions of all the
species of flowering plants indigenous to the island, and notes on their
history, distribution, and uses: with an atlas of plates illustrating some
of the more interesting species
Henry Trimen (1843 –1896)

18. •1894 – Planted rubber in the Botanic
Garden branch, Anuradhapura
•1898 – Rubber trees died due to a
recorded drought
•1900 – Irrigation Department established
•1901 – Anuradhapura botanic garden -
closed down
•1902 – First experimental station at
Gannoruwa
•1903 – Dry Zone Experimental station
at Mahailluppallama for cotton
•1904 – Rubber at Mahailluppallama
•1904 – Ceylon Agricultural Society, took
over the publication of the Tropical
Agriculturist. Attempted to replace chena
with rotational farming in the dry zone.
Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture

19. Recent History of Sri Lankan Agriculture
•1907 – Coconut at
Mahailluppallama
•1912 – Formation of
Department of Agriculture
•1914 – Paddy experiments at
Mahailluppallama
•1914 – Experiment Station,
Anuradhapura
•1914 – 1918 Sisal hemp at
both sites
•1916 – School of Tropical
Agriculture, Peradeniya

20. Mahailluppallama History in Brief
•The dry zone experiment station was established to conduct experiment on
cotton in 1903
•The Anuradhapura botanical garden (16 acres) established in 1884 was
also closed down.
•Mr. C.J.C. Mee was the first Manager of the Mahailluppallama Experiment
Station.
•He started to grow cotton in 1903 and found successful
•Mr. Mee then proceeded with rubber in 1904. He had experience with
rubber in Kaluthara,
•Dr. Willis who was in-charge of Botanical gardens planted rubber in 1894,
but died due to drought in 1898
•He guided Mr. Mee to try out rubber at Mahailluppallama in 1904
•Rubber trees were planted at Mahailluppallama from October, 1904 to
April 1905.
•In 1906 they observed that trees were from 8 to 15 ft high and reached the
girth of 3 – 6 inches. However, these had not reached the tapping stage.

21. •During Mee’s period at
Mahailluppallama (1903 – 1909)
the next experiment was to try
rubber at the vicinity of minor
tanks.
•He planted coconut starting from
1907 up to his departure from
Mahailluppallama in an irrigable
extent of 17 acres under the
Mahailluppallama tank and 6.5
acres of unirrigable land near the
tank.
Mahailluppallama History in Brief

22. •G. Harbord the second Manager at
Mahailluppallama worked after Mee
and continued the trials. He started
paddy experiments in 1914.
•The experiment was established in the
third week of June 1914. Five acre
plots were prepared to grow a crop of
Suduvee, a four months paddy,
yielding a white rice to compare
different rates of broadcast sowing and
different distances apart of
transplanting

Mahailluppallama History in Brief

23. •1919 – Mahailluppallama closed down
and leased (2200 acres) to Ceylon Hemp
and Produce Company for sisal
cultivation
•1926 – Small scale field experiments at
Vavuniya, Anuradhapura and Thissa on
economic crops to replace chena
Mahailluppallama History in Brief

24. •1938 – Dry farming Scheme,
Kurundankulama
–Rotational mixed farming
–Use of simple farm implements
–‘Working with farmers’
–Seasonal Crops: cereals, cotton,
chilli, cucurbits, legumes,
vegetables
–Perannial Crops: Coconut,
banana, fruit trees (mango,
orange, lime, papaw, sapodilla,
bread fruit, jak)
–40 ha at 4 ha/ farmer
–1 acre plot perimeter
conservation bunds
Mahailluppallama History in Brief

25. •1945 – 1946 Broad based graded
bunds with a shallow drain
•1949 – Increased from 40 ha to 400
ha. And three more schemes at
Relapanawa, Olukaranda and
makalanagama
•Lessons learnt from Kurundankulama
–Conservation bunds (broad based)
disturb the surface soil layer
–Crops should be selected according
to the drainage conditions.
–Inversion tillage buries the fertile
soil layer
•1950 – Re-establishment of
Mahailluppallama
Mahailluppallama History in Brief

27. 1950 – Re-establishment of
Mahailluppallama

28. Soil Investigations
•Geology – A complex of
rocks, which include
charnockites, granite
gneisses, biotite gneises and
migmatites.
•Geomorphology –The
general aspect is a gently
undulating land surface made
up of relatively shallow but
well defined minor valleys.
Slope range from 1 to 5 %.
•Soil depth – The average
depth of sub-soil and
decomposing rock is around
5.5 m. There are six
catchment basins varying in
size from 12 to 50 ha.
Yodha-ela area
FCRDI
Catchment C
Paddy tract

29. Bedrock
Ground water
Land surface
RBE excessively
drained
Groundwater Investigations
There is no water table on the ridge and the
upper slopes. This land class is well drained.
In the middle and lower slopes the groundwater
rises to the surface for a short period, but it
disappears during the dry season. The
bottomlands are poorly drained during the
greater part of the year
RBE imperfectly
drained
LHG poorly drained
Land catena – A catenary sequence of soils
ranging from Reddish Brown Earths to
their hydromorphic variants Low Humic
Gley is recognizable in a traverse from the
crest of the ridge to the floor of the
adjacent valley.
RBE well
drained

30. Colombo Plan Grant from New Zealand in 1950
•The mandate of the research
station was gradually
converted to other field crops
–Condiments - Chilli, big
onion, red onion.
–Coarse Grains - Maize,
finger millet, fox tails
–Grain Legumes - Cowpea,
green gram, soybean,
black gram, horse grams.
–Oil Crops - Sesame,
groundnut, sunflower,
mustard.
•Research conducted in 1950’s
conclude that
–Agro-ecological and soil
factors influence the
productivity of OFCs.

31. •With the development of
Mahaweli scheme in 1970s
the research agenda of the
institute has more confined
to irrigated agriculture
because the development of
new technologies to
introduce OFCs into
irrigated lands became a
priority.
•Research has succeeded in
developing more than 50
varieties with desirable
traits which are widely
grown in the dry zone.
Mahaweli System Development in 1970s
We conducted water management
research in Catchment C and
Kalankuttiya Block

32. Weed Investigation
•Three critical problems in rainfed farming:
–Deterioration of the surface soil structure
seriously affecting soil tilth and moisture
reserve;
–Proliferation of obnoxious weeds, which
make land preparation extremely
difficult; and
–Depletion of nutrient reserve in the soil
•Three problems diagnosed above, could be
easily interpreted as problems arising from
soil erosion
•It has become very clear that under rainfed
conditions, these problems cannot be solved
exclusively by introduction of tractors for
conventional tillage, weedicides and
fertilizer.
•Attempted to adopt Conservation Farming
Principles

33. Walagambahu Concept
•Traditionally, the rice yields are quite low in
this region and there is no record of other field
crops grown under such conditions.
•The rice cultivation is often a failure and the
success of rice crop in yala season was once
in five or six years.
•Walagambahuwa Project in the mid-1970s
was implemented under the International
Development Research Center (IDRC)
•Under this project an attempt was made to
increase the productivity of rice lands under
minor tanks in the dry zone through the
effective use of rainfall, using early maturing
rice varieties and cultivation of less-water
demanding OFCs, thus increasing the
cropping intensity from 100 to 250 percent.
•Later we found that the Walagambahu concept
is successful when the command area:
Catchment area ratio is 1:5.

34. •Objective: To study the feasibility of developing a stabilized
farming system to replace the rainfed upland farming, where
land gradually becomes unproductive.
•The project was not successful as expected.
•Soil was turned and weeds buried using mammoty. Weeding
was done manually.
•Minimum tillage was adopted. It took longer time than tractor
tillage
•Rainfed farmers found difficult to complete the land
preparation before soil becomes too wet with maha rains.
•Farmers were reluctant to settle down to a permanent farming
system on uplands, because of the continuing problems of
weed control and diminishing soil fertility.
Yodha-ela Dry Farming Project - 1976

35. •Effect of tree component on upland soil
fertility in the dry zone began with the
establishment of Gliricidia sepium rows
in 1977 at the Regional Agricultural
Research Centre, Mahailluppallama.
•After 10 years of cropping an
improvement was observed in bulk
density, organic matter content,
exchangeable K, Ca and Mg, Nitrate – N,
and earthworm activities in soil.
•Suppression of grass weeds and
dominance of broad-leaved species were
observed between the gliricidia rows.
•Maize yield was found high.
•Gliricidia loppings supplied about 150
kg N/ha/year of which about 16 percent
was utilized by maize and sesame.
•However, available P in soil had been
depleted with continuous cropping on the
land.

Conservation Farming

36. Conservation Farming
•Combination of agriculture with
forestry through mixed cropping
•Integration of perennials
•Green manuring
•Biological N fixation
•Use of live or crop residue
mulching
•Integration of botanical
pesticides
•Integrated pest management
•Integration of crops with
livestock
•Supplementary mineral fertilizer
•Use of improved, low-cost
energy conserving tools
Another research Program was Initiated at Mahailluppallama in 1980

37. Tank Cascade System Study (1996-1997)
•Funding source: FAO
•Findings:
–Variation of seasonal rainfall even
within a cascade is considerable;
–About 60 percent of the watershed is
occupied by well drained soils, which
contribute much to runoff generation;
–Runoff/rainfall varies from 0.01 to
0.08 within one watershed on seasonal
basis;
–Direct rainfall contribution to the tanks
is 25 - 30 percent of annual total
inflow;
–About 22 - 33 percent of the annual
storage of tank is lost through
evaporation;
–Percolation (including bund seepage)
varies from tank to tank showing an
average of 27 percent of total outflow;

39. Present Knowledge on Tank Cascade Systems
The book begins with the
historical perspective and
moves on to explain various
aspects, step by step, such as
geography, geology and
geomorphology, soil and
climate, surface and
groundwater, traditional
agriculture and water
management, flora and fauna,
recent studies and the
restoration of cascade
ecology.
Cambridge Scholars
Publishing - 2024

40. Issues in village tanks cascade systems
•Tank sedimentation – Reduced about
one third of the capacity, increased
water losses from the shallow water and
changed the bed geometry
•High tank water losses – The loss varies
from 35 to 90% of the storage
•Low Resource productivity –
Rehabilitation activities do not address
tank bed and catchment area
•Disappearance of tank ecosystem –
gasgommana, perahana, godawala,
kattakaduwa, iswetiya, kiul-ela
•Very low cropping intensity – less than 1
Partial desilting
concept was first
introduced in 1994
based on water balance
studies carried out in 8
tanks by Field Crops
Research and
Development Institute,
Mahailluppallama

41. 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Rainfall (m)
Cropping intensity and rainfall - Anuradhapura
Cropping intensity

42. Traditional Agriculture Pros. and Cons
•Advantages:
–Due to addition of natural
manures such as green manure
and cow dung manure the water
holding capacity is enhanced.
–The cost of chemical fertilizer
and pesticides is reduced
–Water, air and soil will not be
polluted in the absence of
chemical fertilizer and
pesticides
–Crops and varieties are
adaptable to local conditions
–Quality of produce is better
–Due to mixed cropping failure
of one crop will be compensated
with others

43. Traditional Agriculture Pros. and Cons
•Disadvantages:
–Depletion of nutrients
–Labour consumption is high
in the absence of machinery
–The soil is vulnerable to
erosion causing fertility
depletion
–Shifting nature needs more
lands causing deforestation
–Burning heavy load of
biomass causes emission of
CO
2 to the atmosphere
–Weed becomes a problem

44. The first Green
Revolution
•In 1940’s plant
geneticists, began
using traditional
methods of cross-
breeding to create
plants with desirable
traits, including
–Larger, more nutritious
seeds, fruit
–Resistance to pests and
disease
–Focused chiefly on
wheat, corn, and rice
Norman Borlaug
M.S. Swaminathan

45. •Newer varieties
tolerated stresses
associated with
increased planting
density
•Greater planting
density yields more
grain per field.
Successes of the first Green Revolution

46. Successes of Green Revolution
•In the 1960's, 70's and 80's, crop yields boosted in India,
China and Latin America. One billion deaths from
starvation averted
•Lower food prices occurred globally
•If food remained scarce in these countries, it was the
result of politics and food distribution

47. Green revolution – The cold war in
agriculture
•Improved varieties
•Inorganic fertilizer
•Insecticides
•Weedicides
•Machinery use

48. Other side of the coin
•Improved varieties – high input
cost, pest and diseases, susceptible
to drought, salinity etc.
•Mechanization – damage to soil
environment, soil erosion, nutrient
loss, water loss, insurgence of
weeds
•Inorganic fertilizer and agro-
chemicals – soil acidity, heavy
metals, micro-nutrient deficiency,
poor microbial activity, health
problems etc.

49. Commercial agriculture
•Commercial agriculture -
farming that focuses on
producing agricultural products
for sale in the market rather than
solely for subsistence purposes.
•It represents a significant shift
from traditional farming
practices, where small-scale
farmers primarily grew crops or
raised livestock to meet their
needs.
•In commercial agriculture, the
main objective is to generate
profit by maximizing yields and
efficiently utilizing resources.

50. Key Features of Commercial Agriculture
1.The commercial agriculture thrives on large-
scale production and economies of scale -
cultivating extensive tracts of land, raising
substantial livestock populations.
2.Advanced technology and mechanization -
Modern machinery and equipment to
precision farming techniques, technology
enhances productivity, reduces labor
requirements and optimizes resource
utilization.
3.Specialization and crop selection based on
market demand.
4.Commercial agriculture is characterized by
its integration with global supply chains and
export-oriented production.
5.The involvement of agribusiness
corporations - They provide inputs, services
and financing, influencing production
practices and shaping the industry’s structure.

51. Environmental and Social Impacts of Commercial Agriculture
•Environmental impacts - deforestation and
land degradation, loss of valuable ecosystems
and biodiversity, deplete soil fertility, leading
to erosion and reduced long-term
productivity.
•Social impacts - Rural depopulation and
migration.
•As larger farms adopt mechanization and
technology, fewer laborers are required,
reducing rural employment opportunities.
•As a result rural residents seek livelihoods
in urban areas.
•Labor practices - In some cases, low wages
and poor working conditions.
Large tracts of land cleared for
maize cultivation in the dry zone

52. Environmental and Social Impacts of Commercial Agriculture
•How to mitigate these
environmental and social
impacts:
•Implementing agro-
ecological approaches
prioritizing soil health,
•Biodiversity
conservation,
•Reduced chemical inputs.
•Efficient irrigation
techniques,
•Promoting fair labor
practices and ensuring
decent working
conditions are crucial for
the well-being of
agricultural workers.

53. Challenges and Sustainability in Commercial
Agriculture
•climate change - unpredictable weather patterns,
increased frequency of extreme events and shifting
growing seasons.
•These changes can disrupt crop production and livestock
management, decreasing yields and economic losses.
•Adapting to climate change requires developing and adopting
resilient agricultural practices, such as crop diversification,
improved water management and precision farming
techniques.
•Economic uncertainties and market fluctuations
•Fluctuating commodity prices, trade policies and market
demands can affect farmers’ profitability and stability.
•Access to capital, technology and knowledge, particularly for
small-scale farmers .

54. Challenges and Sustainability in Commercial
Agriculture
•Strategies to promote sustainability in commercial
agriculture,
•Emphasize organic farming, conservation agriculture
and agroforestry, to reduce environmental impacts
and enhance ecosystem health. These practices
prioritize soil conservation, water efficiency,
biodiversity preservation and reduced chemical
inputs.
•Agro-ecology and regenerative agriculture
approaches are gaining recognition for their potential
to promote sustainability in commercial agriculture.
These approaches enhance soil health, biodiversity
and ecosystem services while maintaining
productivity.
•By adopting regenerative practices such as cover
cropping, crop rotation and integrated pest
management, farmers can improve soil fertility,
sequester carbon and promote natural pest control.

55. Challenges and Sustainability in Commercial
Agriculture
•Government support and
policy interventions are
crucial for fostering
sustainable commercial
agriculture.
•It includes financial
incentives, technical
assistance and research and
development initiatives .
•Collaboration between
governments, farmers,
researchers and
agribusinesses is essential
for overcoming challenges
and promoting a sustainable
future for commercial
agriculture

56. New Concepts Emerged in Agriculture
•Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) – is an integrated approach to managing
landscapes (cropland, livestock, forests and fisheries) that address the
interlinked challenges of food security and climate change.
•Regenerative Agriculture (RA) – is an evolution of conventional agriculture,
reducing the use of water and other inputs, and preventing land degradation
and deforestation. It protects and improves soil, biodiversity, climate resilience
and water resources while making farming more productive and profitable.
•Precision agriculture (PA) – is a farming management concept based on
observing, measuring and responding to inter- and intra-field variability in
crops. PA is also sometimes referred to as precision farming, satellite
agriculture, as-needed farming and site-specific crop management (SSCM).
•Bio mimicry in Agriculture:
–The imitation of natural models, systems, and elements to solve issues in
agriculture.
–Transform present agricultural production models to agro-ecosystem
models
–Learn from natural ecosystem models and develop agro-ecosystem models

57. Climate Smart Agriculture
•Climate-smart farming systems are
characterized by their potential for increasing
agricultural productivity and climate resilience,
and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
•The use of marginal paddy lands for the
cultivation of other field crops (OFC), adoption
of improved water management practices, and
appropriate farm mechanization are some of the
key measures identified for establishing
climate-smart minor irrigated farming systems.
•Minimizing encroachments and other various
unfavorable practices linked with land usage in
the eco-systems under minor irrigation, and
adopting innovative approaches for increasing
community participation for the sustainability
of agricultural eco-systems under these farming
structures are also of similar importance.

58. Regenerative Agriculture

59. Precision Agriculture Technologies
1.Yield monitoring
and mapping
2.Soil sampling and
analysis
3.Weather
monitoring
4.Equipment
management
5.Remote sensing

60. Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI)
Ultraviolet
Red
Near Infra Red
(NIR)

62. Yala season Maha season
Variation of NDVI in Muruthawa, Ibbagamuwa ASC,
Kurunegala District

63. Importance of NDVI
•Determination of the
seasonal extent of a
crop cultivated
•Estimation of crop
production
•Crop diseases can be
observed
•Decision making on
import and export
•Understanding of the
soil fertility in the area.
•Decision making on
crop insurance and
damage compensation

64. Bio mimicry in Agriculture - Imitation of
natural models
Characteristics of the Natural
Ecosystems
•Mixture of species (rich
biodiversity)
•Canopy stratification
•Root depth variation
•Micro-climate creation
•Natural soil fertility
enhancement
•Improved soil microbial
activities
•Resilience to natural disasters
•Enhanced C sequestration

65. Land Degradation & Sustainable
Land Management
•Land degradation is the depletion of its physical, chemical and biological
productivity
•To maintain the long-term productivity of land sustainable land
management is required
•Sustainable land management means ‘use of the land to meet human
needs, while ensuring long-term production potential and maintaining
ecological functions’
•Here the land includes soil, water, flora and fauna
•Therefore, the land means the whole ecosystem in more practical way
•That means ‘land degradation is long-term depletion of the production
potential and function of the ecosystem’
•So, sustainable land management is maintenance of production potential
and functions of the ecosystem

66. •Forest and related
ecosystems - tropical forest
types, riverine dry forest,
grasslands etc.
•Inland wetland
ecosystems - flood plains,
swamps, reservoirs, wet
villus
•Coastal and marine
ecosystems - mangroves,
salt marshes, sand dunes
and beaches, lagoons and
estuaries, coral reefs
•Agricultural ecosystems -
paddy land, fruit
cultivations, small crop
holdings or other field
crops, vegetables, export
crop plantations, home
gardens, chena lands
Ecosystems in Sri Lanka

67. Agricultural Ecosystems in Sri Lanka
•Total extent of agricultural lands –
2,812,000 ha
•The agricultural landscape of the
country consists of mainly:
• Rice paddies - 983,550 ha
•Plantation crops
•Tea – 228,118 ha
•Rubber – 186,334 ha
•Coconut – 208,368 ha
•Sugarcane – 28,808 ha etc.
•Field crops – 307,311 ha
•Home gardens – 839,124 ha

68. Field Crops Agro-ecosystems
1.Soil erosion
2.Moisture
stress
3.Pollution
from agro-
chemicals
4.Soil fertility
depletion
(physical,
chemical and
biological)
5.Pest damage
Recommendations
1.Soil and moisture
conservation
practices
2.Multiple
cropping,
3.Establishment of
Boundary Green
Avenues
4.Evergreen Agro-
ecosystem
approach
5.Bio-pesticides
6.Use of green
manuring and
composting
Issues in field
crop cultivation

69. Climate Change and Agriculture
OUTGOING
GHGs
INCOMING C
Reduce GHG emission and enhance carbon sequestration

70. Enteric
fermentation
(26.6%)
Manure
Management
(3.9 %)
Cultivation of
Organic soils
(16.1 %)
Rice
Cultivation
(52.4 %)
Burning of Crop
Residues(1.0 %)
GHG emission from Agriculture in Sri Lanka (2015)
25 %

71. Main GHGs from Agriculture (Highest to lowest)
•CH
4 from paddy fields
•CH
4 from enteric fermentation,
•N
20 from soils,
•N
20 + CH
4 from manure,
•N
20 from indirect emissions.
•The figure also shows absorption of CO
2 from the atmosphere by
soils in approximately the scale of emissions by manure and
indirect emission.

72. GHG emission reduction
1.Reduce methane emission from paddy fields by removing
rice straws and through good management practices
2.Use alternatives to Chemical fertilizer for reducing N
2O
emission
3.Reduce methane emission from livestock by improving
feed quality and animal comfort
4.Reduce N
2O emission in soils due to microbial activities
Enhancement of Carbon sequestration
5.Adopt ‘evergreen agro-ecosystem concept’ to improve
carbon sequestration from paddy fields and rainfed uplands
Following strategies are also possible to include in future
planning when information is available to do so
6.Improve land management practices in agricultural lands to
enhance the carbon stock in the soil
7.Improve crop management practices in tea plantations
Feasible Strategies to mitigate Climate Change

73. •Cultivation of crops with different duration to keep green cover even
during the harvesting stage of one crop;
•Cultivation of crops leaving zero fallow period of the land;
•Farming models, which combine seasonal, semi-perennial and perennial
crops ensuring the green cover around the year;
•Green manure plants such as gliricidia, adathoda, erithrina, thespesia etc.
are grown as hedges with strict frequency of pruning;
•Shade management is adopted to minimize light competition and to
maintain the crop land with evergreen situation;
•Live fence is maintained with plants to create a stratification enabling to
act as wind barrier as well as favourable micro-climate in the crop field;
and
•The farmer should have a field management / self-evaluation schedule
for his convenience to ensure the sustainability of the agro-ecosystem

‘Evergreen agro-ecosystem concept’ to improve carbon sequestration
from paddy fields and rain-fed uplands

74. Example for an ‘Evergreen Agro-ecosystem’ for paddy
lands and rainfed farming lands

75. Species % N % P % K
Gliricidia 4.6 0.2 1.45 – 2.95
Adathoda 5.04 0.13 3.00 – 4.50
Citronella 4.5 0.5 – 0.9 2.0 – 4.5
Wild Sunflower 4.70 0.40 2.15 – 4.20
Erythrina 5.21 0.32 0.92 – 2.88
Azolla 4 - 5 0.9 2.0 – 4.5
Water Hyacinth 2.56 1.70 1.57 – 2.58
Thespesia 3.4 0.3 2.3
Nutrient Composition of
Green Manure Plants

76. Boundary Green Avenue for Rice Fields and
Field Crop Agro-ecosystems
Large
canopy
Medium
canopy
Low
canopy
Ground layer
Creepers
Ground cover
Roots and
tubers
Aegle marmelos, Wood
apple, Neem, Mango,
Coconut
Papaya, Drumstick,
Kathuru (Sesbania
grandiflora),
Anguna,
Wingedbean,
Passion fruits,
Guava,
Pomegranate,
Soursop
Gotukola (Centella asiatica),
Mukunuwenna (Alternanthera
sessilis),
Ginger, turmeric,
vegetables
Potato, Sweet potato, carrot

77. •Characteristics
•Diversity of crops
•Forest effect
•Multi layer
architecture
•Shade
management
•Nutrient recycling
•Moisture sharing
•Micro-climate
•Habitats
•Pest control
•Livestock
integration
•Aesthetic beauty
Boundary Green Avenue Concept

78. Grow pest repellant plants within the farm
Sera Citronella Turmeric
(Cymbopogon citratus) (Cymbopogon nardus) (Curcuma longa)
Ginger Araththa
(Zingiber officinale) (Alpina calcarata)

79. Main
slope
Sub slope
10 m
20 m
Master bund with green hedge
Seasonal Crop Rows
Master bund with green hedge
Master bund with green hedge
Master bund with green hedge



Fruit plant
Perennial – Seasonal Crop Model
Seasonal Crop Rows
Seasonal Crop Rows
Soil ridge

Seasonal Crop Rows
Seasonal Crop Rows
Seasonal crops -
Legumes, coarse grains,
spice, millets, vegetables
Perennial crops –
Mango (TJC), Papaya,
Guava, Orange,
Pomegranate, Sour sop
Crops on the soil ridge
– Turmeric, Ginger, Sera
(Cymbopogon citratus)

80. •You must find strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate
change on field crops
•Poverty among field crops farmers – Can you support them?
•Commercial farming is not sustainable – What are the
strategies to ensure its sustainability
•Low price to produce but the demand is high?
•Can you estimate the national production of field crops and
predict before harvesting?
•Value chain development for the benefit of farmers
•Pollution and human health – Can you ignore them as field
crops researchers?

81. For further communication……..
•Mobiles: 071-7613234, 077-7613234
•Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Links:
•https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
•https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/c
ontributions
•http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
•https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC_PFqwl0OqsrxH1wTm_jZeg
•https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=pjuU1GkAAAAJ&hl=en
• https://www.cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-0364-1032-2