MCU CONTROL AND MCUS FOR SENSOR INTERFACE.pptx

Perfect ✅ — you’ve chosen report format with numbered sections.

Here’s the plan: I’ll provide a formal 3000-word essay on “The Supreme Court of India” organized under clear, numbered headings and subheadings. It will read like a professional academic report — factual, detailed, and well-structured.

This is quite long, so I’ll deliver it in multiple parts (to avoid truncation).
Let’s begin with Part 1 (Introduction & Historical Background) below.


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The Supreme Court of India – A Comprehensive Study

1. Introduction

The Supreme Court of India stands as the apex institution in the Indian judicial hierarchy. It is the final court of appeal, the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution, and the guardian of the fundamental rights of citizens. Established under Article 124 of the Constitution of India, the Court began functioning on January 28, 1950, two days after India became a Republic. Located in New Delhi, it serves as a symbol of justice, equality, and constitutional supremacy.

The Supreme Court not only ensures that justice is delivered without bias or delay but also acts as the protector of the basic structure of the Constitution. Through its verdicts, the Court has significantly influenced India’s political, social, and economic life. Its judgments have shaped the contours of democracy, upheld civil liberties, and strengthened the rule of law.

The Indian judiciary, with the Supreme Court at its helm, operates independently of the executive and the legislature. This independence is one of the key features of the Indian democratic system, ensuring that the judiciary remains impartial and free from political influence. The Supreme Court’s authority extends across the entire nation, and its decisions are binding on all courts within India.

The motto of the Supreme Court — “Yato Dharmastato Jayah” meaning “Where there is righteousness, there is victory” — reflects its mission to uphold justice based on moral and legal principles. Over the years, the Supreme Court has emerged as a powerful institution that not only interprets laws but also sets standards for governance, accountability, and human rights protection.


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2. Historical Background

2.1 Evolution of the Indian Judicial System

The Indian judicial system has a rich and complex history that evolved over centuries. During ancient times, justice was administered by kings and their appointed officers. The concept of Dharma governed the legal and moral order. Ancient texts like the Manusmriti and Arthashastra provided frameworks for justice, emphasizing fairness and the welfare of people.

During the Mughal period, justice was based on Islamic law (Sharia) for Muslims and customary laws for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors established courts at various administrative levels, which laid the foundation for organized judicial administration.

The advent of the British brought a formal and structured legal system to India. The British introduced common law principles, codified laws, an

1. M C U CONTROL & MCUS F O R S E N S O R I N T E R F A C E b y ajin

2. M C U C ONTROL MCU : (Microcontroller Unit) I t s enses d a t a,process e s i t a n d gives d e s i r e d o utput . A tiny computer on a chip. C o m p o n e n t s : MPU (Microprocessor Unit) – the brain that executes instructions. Memory – stores programs and data. Clock oscillator – keeps everything running in sync, like a heartbeat. I/O (Input/Output) ports – connect to sensors, displays, or other devices. Why use an MCU? 1. Flexibility & speed – Quick to adapt to different control tasks and fast to market. 2. Programmability & peripherals – You can program it and use built-in blocks (timers, e t c). 3. Cost-effective – Instead of using many separate chips, one MCU can handle everything. 4. High volume & reliability – Widely manufactured, so they are cheap, tested, and reliable.

3. BA S I C M C U B L O C K D I A G R A M

4. Power Supply ( Vdd , Vss ) – Provides energy to the MCU. CPU (Central Processing Unit) – Executes instructions. Program Memory – Stores the software (instructions written by you). Data Memory – Stores temporary data during execution. I/O and Peripherals – Interfaces with the outside world (sensors, motors, LEDs, etc.). Oscillator and Clocking – Generates clock signals to synchronize operations. Reset & Crystal – Reset brings MCU back to a known state; crystal gives precise timing. Digital Inputs/Outputs – Connects to external signals/devices. So, the MCU works like a small standalone computer.

5. MCUS FOR SENSOR INTERFACE Modern MCUs don’t just have CPU, memory, and I/O – they also include custom modules built on the same chip. This Integration: Saves PCB (printed circuit board) space. Reduces the need for extra chips. Makes the system cheaper and more efficient. Key extra features: Analog inputs – to directly read sensor signals. A/D conversion – convert analog signals to digital values. Processing bandwidth – how much data the MCU can handle per second. Programmable trim – fine-tuning circuit performance. Onboard memory – more storage for programs and data. Power conservation – critical for battery devices. EMC/RFI protection – prevents errors from electromagnetic interference.

6. P E R I P H E R A L S Peripherals : Peripherals enable the MCU to obtain information from sensors and control output devices. Common MCU Peripherals: 1. General-purpose I/O ports (GPIO) : For digital input (buttons, switches) or digital output (LEDs, relays). 2. Timers : Measure time or generate timing signals. C r e a t e P W M u s e d f o r m otor speed control or dimming leds . 3. S C I ( S e r i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n I n t e r f a c e ): U s e d for connecting computers,b l u e tooth mod u l e s, G S M m o d u l e s . 4. SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) : U sed to connect memory chips, displays, ADCs, EEPROM, etc.

7. M E M O R Y Volatile memory (erased when power is off): RAM : Temporary storage for variables during program execution.Can be read/ writt e n by the CPU. Two types: 1. DRAM (needs refresh, rarely used in MCUs). 2. SRAM (no refresh, faster, common in MCUs). Non-volatile memory (data kept when power is off): ROM : Stores permanent programs.Masked during manufacturing EPROM : Can be erased with UV light and reprogrammed.Limited erase cycles. OTP ROM : Like EPROM but cheaper; can only be programmed once. EEPROM : Can be erased and rewritten electrically, thousands of times. Ferroelectric RAM : A new type of non-volatile memory .Uses the ferroelectric effect(Tiny dipoles inside a cry s t a l c h a n g e d i r e c t i o n w hen a n e l e c t r i c f ield applied.

8. INPUT/OUTPUT I/O ports connect the MCU to the outside world (sensors, actuators, etc.). Types of I/O transfer: Parallel I/O: 8 bits (or more) transferred at once. Serial I/O : Data transferred 1 bit at a time. General-purpose I/O pins (GPIO): Each pin can act as input or output. A group of pins = a port. Controlled by software (program instructions). Special I/O functions: 1. Input-capture: Records the exact time an input signal event occurs.Used to measure period (time between two same edges) or pulse width 2. Output-compare: Generates an output action when a timer matches a preset value.Used for time delays or generating precise pulses.

9. O N B O A R D A /D C O N V E R S I O N 1. ADC : Converts real-world signals (like temperature, pressure, sound) into digital numbers for the microcontroller (MCU) to understand. 2. ADC Inside a Microcontroller : Many microcontrollers (like HC05 family) already have a built-in ADC.Example : MC68HC05B6 has an 8-bit ADC (gives values from 0 to 255). 3. Resolution (Accuracy of ADC) : 8-bit ADC → 256 levels → 0.39% resolution.If you use an external 12-bit ADC via SPI, resolution improves to 0.0244% . 4. Reference Voltage : ADC needs a reference voltage ( Vref ) to compare the input.To avoid errors, a separate pin is used for reference voltage.If the sensor uses +5V, that same +5V is also connected to the ADC’s Vref → called ratiometric conversion.

10. 5. How Conversion Happens : Signal goes through a multiplexer (selects which input to convert). ADC starts conversion using a method called SAR (Successive Approximation Register). When conversion is done: A status register shows “done” , Result is stored in an 8-bit register. 6. Speed of Conversion : Internal clock (about 1.5 MHz) makes conversion fast.One signal conversion takes about 16–32 microseconds (µs).By Nyquist rule, can handle signals up to 31 kHz (much higher than typical sensors need). 7. Improving Accuracy : Take multiple samples and average them → reduces noise.Example : 4 samples averaged = more stable reading, but bandwidth reduces. 8 . Sample-and-Hold : Before conversion, ADC takes a quick snapshot of the input (like pausing the signal).If the signal changes too fast during this snapshot, errors occur.That’s why bandwidth is limited.

11. P O W E R S A V I N G CAPABILITY Power consumption depends on: 1. Processing speed (clock frequency) – faster clocks use more power. 2. Supply voltage – higher voltage → more current → more power. 3. Active vs idle time – if the MCU doesn’t need to process continuously, it can “sleep” between tasks. Special Low-Power Modes in the 68HC05 MCU : This MCU family has two special modes besides normal operation: 1. WAIT Mode : Processor (CPU) stops executing instructions.But oscillator and timers keep running.MCU can wake up quickly with an interrupt or reset.Power consumption is cut about in half compared to normal running. 2. STOP Mode : CPU and oscillator stop completely.MCU wakes up only with an interrupt or reset.Uses very tiny current (< 180 µA at 5 V, below 85°C).Takes some extra cycles (≈ 4064 cycles) to restart.

12. M O D U L A R M C U D E S I G N Modular MCU Design : A method to create custom microcontrollers by assembling pretested building blocks (modules) like RAM, ROM, timers, ADC/DAC, communication ports, and display drivers. Works like Lego blocks → only the required modules are included for the application. Advantages: Shorter design cycle Lower cost Reliable Flexible & scalable Example : Car MCU → CPU + RAM + CAN + LCD driver + ADC. Appliance MCU → CPU + ROM + Timer + SPI.

13. M O D U L A R M C U D E S I G N

14. Core MCU Blocks CPU : The brain of the MCU – executes instructions . RAM : Temporary storage for variables and data during program execution. ROM : Stores the program code permanently. POR : Resets MCU to a known state when powered on. TMR : Generates time delays, counts events, and produces periodic signals. SCI : Enables serial data communication. SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): High-speed communication with peripherals . Peripheral & Utility Modules : COP (Computer Operating Properly / Watchdog Timer): Resets MCU if software hangs. Switched Capacitor Filters : Signal conditioning for analog inputs. Inter-Integrated Circuit (I²C ): Communication bus for connecting sensors/peripherals. Analog & Conversion Modules : A/D Converter : Converts analog signals to digital form. D/A Converter : Converts digital values to analog signals. Auto Ranging & Auto Zeroing : Improves accuracy of analog measurements

15. Communication Interfaces J1850 VPW / PWM : Vehicle communication protocols (used in automobiles) CAN (Controller Area Network): Widely used communication bus in cars/industrial systems. Display & Driver Modules LCD Driver : Drives liquid crystal displays. VFD Display : Drives vacuum fluorescent displays. LED Driver : Controls light-emitting diodes. Other Functional Blocks DTMF Encoder / Decoder : Generates or recognizes touch-tone signals. DTNF Decoder: Similar function for decoding tones. LDMOS Drivers : Power drivers for controlling loads (motors, relays, etc.). Power & Clock Modules : Series Regulator / Shunt Regulator : Voltage regulation for MCU operation. Low-Power Oscillator : Provides clock with low energy consumption

16. THANK YOU