Meaning and Definition of Research

Research study materials for undergraduate

1. cg';Gwfgsf] cy{ / kl/efiff
(Meaning and Definition of Research)

2. cg';Gwfgsf] cy{ / kl/efiff
(Meaning and Definition of Research)
By:
Khemraj Subedi
Associate Professor
Tikapur Multiple Campus

3. cg';Gwfgsf] cy{(Meaning of Research)
•cg';Gwfgsf] cy{ zflAbs cy{df gofF tYo kQf nufpg ul/g] vf]hL
sfo{ xf] . cg';Gwfg zAb cª\u|]hL efiffsf] ‘Research’ zAbsf]
g]kfnL ¿kfGt/0f xf] . o; Research zAbnfO{ lju|x -6'S|ofP/_ ubf{
‘re’ cyf{t\ k'gM÷km]l/ / ‘search’ cyf{t vf]hL eGg] a'lemG5 . t;y{,
oL b'j}sf] ;+o'Qm ¿k ‘Research’ sf] cy{ e}/x]sf] 1fgdf k'gM vf]h
u/L gofF 1fg k|fKt ug]{ jf ;fjwfgLk"j{s Jojl:yt 9·n] j}1flgs
cWoogåf/f k|ltkflbt l;4fGt JofVof ug]{ jf gofF l;4fGt k|ltkfbg ug]{
sfo{ g} cg';Gwfg (research) xf] .
•cg';Gwfgn] k|rlnt 1fg (existing knowledge) nfO{ hfFr ug]{
(Test), k'gM hfFr ug]{ jf k'gM k'li6 ug]{ (Retest) tyf gofF l;4fGt
(New theory) sf] k|ltkfbg ug]{ dxŒjk"0f{ sfo{ ub{5 .

4. cg';Gwfgsf] kl/efiff
(Definition of Research)
•Ethridge (1995) sf cg';f/, æcg';Gwfg Pp6f Jojl:yt cjwf/0ff xf],
h;af6 gofF / ljZj;gLo 1fg k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5Æ .
"Research is the systematic approach to obtain new
and reliable knowledge" (Ethridge, 1995).
•Kerlinger (1986) sf cg';f/, æk|fs[lts kl/36gfx¿ aLr k"j{ cg'dflgt
kl/sNkgfx¿sf] ;DaGwx¿sf af/]df of]hgfa4, lgolGqt, k|ToIf cg'ejdf
cfwfl/t / ;dfnf]rgfTds vf]hLnfO{ g} j}1flgs cg';Gwfg (Scienctific
research) elgG5 .Æ
"Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical
and critical investigation of hypothetical propositon
about pre-assumed relation among natural
phenomenon" (Kerlinger, 1986).

5. c;n cg';Gwfgsf ljz]iftfx¿
(Characteristics of Good Research)
•cg';Gwfg ;d:of jf k|Zgx¿af6 z'¿ x'G5 . (Research originates with a
questions or problem).
•cg';Gwfgdf p2]ZonfO{ :ki6;Fu pNn]v ug'{ cfjZos 5 . (Research requires a
clear articulation of a goal).
•cg';Gwfgn] s'g} lglZrt of]hgfa4 k|lj|mofnfO{ cg';/0f ug'{kb{5 . (Research follows a
specific plan of procedures).
•cg';Gwfgdf k|foM k|d'v ;d:ofnfO{ Jojl:yt Pjd\ :ki6 ;xfos – ;d:ox¿df ljefhg
ul/G5 . (Research usually divides the principal problem into more
manageable sub-problems).
•cg';Gwfg s'g} lglZrt ;d:of, k|Zg jf kl/sNkgfaf6 dfu{ lgb]{lzt x'G5 . (Research is
guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis).
•cg';Gwfgn] lglZrt ;dfnf]rgfTds dfGotfx¿nfO{ :jLsf/ ub{5 . (Research accepts
certain critical assumptions).
•cg';Gwfg h'g ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu z'¿jft ul/of] To;sf nflu cg';Gwfgdf pko'Qm
tYofÍsf] ;Íng, JofVof / ljZn]if0f ljlw h¿/L x'G5 . (Research requires the
collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the
problem that initiated the research).
•cg';Gwfg o;sf] k|s[lt c'g;f/ g} rlj|mo x'G5, Toltdfq xf]Og cem a9L >[ª\vnfj4
dflgG5 . (Research is, by its nature, cyclical or more exactly helical).

6. ;fdflhs cg';Gwfgsf] dxŒj
(Importance of Social Research)
•;}4flGts dxŒj (Theoretical Importance)
•Jojxfl/s dxŒj (Applied Importance)

7. ;}4flGts dxŒj (Theoretical Importance)
-s_ :yflkt l;4fGtsf] kl/If0f / k'gM kl/If0f (Test and Retest the existing
theories)
-v_ gofF tYox¿sf] vf]hL Pjd\ gofF l;4fGtsf] k|ltkfbg (Searching of New Facts
and Develop New theories)
-u_ ;fdflhs ;d:ofx¿sf] jf:tljs :j¿k a'‰g (To understand real forms of
social problems)
-3_ ;dfh;Fu ;DalGwt cjwf/0ffTds dfGotf :ki6 ug'{ (Clarification of conceptual
assumptions related to society)
-ª_ ;dfh;Fu ;DalGwt kl/sNkgfsf] kl/If0f ug{ (Test of hypothesis in relation to
society)
-5_ :yflkt l;4fGtsf] Plss/0f (Integrating of the existing theories)
-h_ :yflkt cg';Gwfg ljlwsf] z'l4s/0f ug{ (Refining the existing research
method)
-em_ 1fgsf nflu 1fg lgdf{0f (Knowledge for knowledge sake)
-`_ ;fdflhs tYo / l;4fGt aLrsf] ;DaGw :yflkt ug{ (Establishing relationship
between social fact and theory)

8. Jojxfl/s dxŒj (Applied Importance)
-s_ b}lgs hLjg;Fu ;DalGwt ;d:ofsf] ;dfwfg ug{ (To solve the
problem of everyday life)
-v_ ;fdflhs k|lqmof ;DaGwL r/x¿sf] sfo{sf/0f ;DaGw kQf nufpg (To find
out casual relationship of society related variables)
-u_ ;fdflhs ;d:ofx¿ kQf nufO{ tTsfn ;'wf/ ug{ (To identify social
problems for immediate improvement)
-3_ pko'Qm :yfgLo tyf /fli6«o gLlt lgdf{0f ug{ (To formulate proper local
and national policy)
-ª_ k|zf;lgs ;'wf/df ;xof]u ug'{ (To help the administrative reform)
-r_ ;fdflhs cl:y/tfsf] cGTo ug{ (To end social instability)
-5_ k|efjsf/L of]hgf th'{df, sfo{Gjog tyf d"Nofª\sgsf nflu lg0f{odf ;xof]u ug'{
(To help the decision making for effective planning,
implementation and evaluation)
-h_ vt/f sd ug{', ;do / k};f jrt ug{' / ;Dk"0f{ ¿kdf dfgj sNof0f ug'{ (To
avoid risks, saves times and money and human welfare as a
whole)

9. cg';Gwfgsf k|sf/x¿
(Types of Research)
k|of]udf cfwfl/t
cg';Gwfg
(Application
based
research)
p2]Zodf cfwfl/t cg';Gwfg
(Objective based research)
vf]h ljlwdf
cfwfl/t
cg';Gwfg
(Inquiry/info
rmation
based
research)
cfwf/e"t
cg';Gwfg
(Basic
research)
k|fof]lus
cg';Gwfg
(Applied
research)
j0f{gfTds
cg';Gwfg
(Descriptive
research)
JofVofTds
cg';Gwfg
(Explanatory
research)
;x;DaGwfTds
cg';Gwfg
(Correlational
research)
cGj]if0ffTds
cg';Gwfg
(Exploratory
research)
kl/df0ffTds
cg';Gwfg
(Quantitative
research)
u'0ffTds
cg';Gwfg
(Qualitative
research)

10. -s_ cfwf/e"t cg';Gwfg (Basic Research)
•;dfhdf gofF gofF 1fg lgdf{0f ug{ tyf ;}4flGts cfwf/lznf v8f ug{
Pjd\ k|rlnt ;}4flGts cjwf/0ffnfO{ k'li6 ug{sf nflu ljleGg cg';Gwfg
ul/G5, To:tf cg';GwfgnfO{ cfwf/e"t cg';Gwfg (Basic research)
elgG5 . o; cg';GwfgnfO{ csf]{ zAbdf ljz'4 cg';Gwfg (Pure
Research) klg elgG5 .
•Travers (1948) sf cg';f/ æcfwf/e"t cg';Gwfgn] 1fgsf] e08f/df
gofF 1fg yk u5{ t/ To;sf] tTsfnLg pkof]lutf eg] sd x'G5 .Æ
•Basic research is designed to add an organized body of
scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce
results of immediate practical value (Travers, 1948).

11. contd...
•of] cg';Gwfg s]jn 1fg lng Pjd\ l;4fGt lgdf{0fsf nflu ul/g]
cg';Gwfg xf] .
•cg';Gwfg ljlw cfudgfTds tyf lgudfgfTds jf b'j} cfwf/lznfaf6
k"/f ug{ ;lsG5 .
•gofF 1fgsf] lgdf{0f tyf k'/fgf dfGotfsf] z'l4s/0f ug'{ o;sf] d"n p2]Zo
xf], h;n] l;4fGtsf] ljsf;, kl/dfh{g tyf k|lt:yfkg u/fpFb5 .
•o; k|sf/sf] cg';Gwfg Pp6f lg/Gt/ k|lj|mof xf] .
•o;n] Jojxfl/s ;d:ofdf ;dnf]rgfTds ljZn]if0f (critical
analysis) ub{5 .
•l;4fGtsf] lgdf{0fsf dfWodaf6 Jojxfl/s ;d:of xn ug{ pko'Qm
ljsNkx¿sf] ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 .

12. -v_ k|fof]lus cg';Gwfg (Applied Research)

•;dfhdf pTkGg ;d:ofx¿nfO{ ;dfwfg ug]{ p2]Zon] ;~rfng
ul/g] cg';GwfgnfO{ k|fof]lus cg';Gwfg elgG5 . ;d'bfodf pTkGg
cfly{s, ;fdflhs, hftLo tyf n}l·s cflb ;d:ofx¿sf]
k|ToIf¿kn] tTsfn} ;dfwfg vf]Hg jf pkof]lutf k|fKt ug]{ p2]Zon]
k|fof]lus cg';Gwfg (applied research) ul/Psf] x'G5 .
•k|fof]lus cg';Gwfgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo ;fdflhs If]qdf b]vfkg]{
ljleGg ;d:ofx¿sf] tTsflns ;dfwfgsf nlfu pkof]u ul/g' o;
cg';Gwfgsf] k|fylds p2]Zo xf] eg] 1fgsf] k|ltkfbg jf l;4fGtsf]
k|ltkfbg ug'{ o;sf] ;xfos p2]Zo xf] .

13. contd...
•P.V. Young (2009) sf cg';f/ æJofxfl/s cg';Gwfgsf] cy{ To;df
lglxt 5, h;af6 >[hLt 1fgsf] ;~ro / To;}nfO dfgj enfO{df
nufpg ;lsG5 .Æ Creating knowledge that could aid in
the betterment of human destiny is termed as
applied and practical research.
•Travers (1948) sf cg';f/ ætTsfnLg ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{] k|d'v
p2]Zon] ul/g] cg';Gwfg g} k|fof]lus cg';Gwfg xf], h;n] j}1flgs
1fgsf] lgdf{0fnfO{ uf}0f dfGb5 . Applied research is
undertaken to solve on immediate practical problem
and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is
secondary.

14. contd...
•;fdflhs ;d:ofsf] ;dfwfgsf nflu ljBdfg ;}4flGts cfwf/lznf leq /x]/
cg';Gwfg ul/G5 . (It is based on existing theories to solve the
problem of the society).
•of] cg';Gwfg ;dfhdf /x]sf hNbfaNbf ;d:ofsf] lg/fs/0fdf s]lGb|t /xG5 .
(It is directly focused to solve burning problem of society.)
•o; cg';Gwfgn] l;4fGt kl/If0fdf of]ubfg k'¥ofpFb5 . (It contributes to
test the existing theory).
•vf; ul/ dfgjsf] Jojxfl/s hLjg;Fu ;DalGwt ljifox¿sf] cWoog ul/ k|ToIf
nfe lng' o; cg';Gwfgsf] d'Vo clek|fo xf] . (The main objective of
the research is to investigate the problems/subjects related to
practical human life to get direct advantages).
•o;n] k|rlnt l;4fGtx¿nfO{ Plss/0f ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . (It helps to
integrate the existing theory).

15. u=sfo{ut cg';Gwfg (Action Research)

•vf;u/L sfo{ut cg';GwfgnfO{ k|fof]lus cg';Gwfgsf] Pp6f ljlzi6 ¿kdf
lnOG5 . o; cg';Gwfgdf s'g} ;d:ofsf af/]df ;dfwfg vf]hL ug]{
cg';Gwfgstf{ g} ;d:of ;dfwfgsf] sfof{Gjogdf klg cfkm} ;+nUg x'g]
ub{5 .
•To;sf/0f sfo{ut cg';Gwfgdf cg';Gwfgstf{n] ;d:ofnfO{ hf]8 lbG5,
h'g ;d:of tTsflns / :yfgLo pkof]lutfsf nflu x'G5 gsL ;j{JofkL
pkof]lutf jf l;4fGt lgdf{0fsf nflu .
•;j{k|yd !($) df sfo{ut cg';Gwfg zAbsf] pTklQ ;fdflhs
dgf]j}1flgs Kurt Lewin af6 ePsf] xf] . Lewin (2000) sf cg';f/
æsfo{ut cg';Gwfg sfo{sf] j0f{g ug{sf nflu xf], h'g s'g} ;d:ofnfO{
;dfwfg ug{ cfjZos sfo{af6 vf]hLnfO{ 5'§fpg' x'Fb}g .Æ 'Action
research' is to describe work that did not separate the
investigation from the action needed to solve the
problem."

16. •;dfhzfl:qLo b[li6sf]0fdf David and Julia (1995) sf
cg';f/ æsfo{ut cg';Gwfg lzIfs, lgl/Ifs Pjd\ k|zf;sx¿åf/f
cfˆgf] lg0f{o Pjd\ sfo{x¿sf] u'0ffTds pGgtLsf nflu k|of]u ul/g]
cg';Gwfg xf] .Æ Action research is a form of research
carried out with the aim of inducing changes in
social activities.
•o; cg';Gwfgsf d'Vo rf/j6f ljz]iftfx¿ 5g\M (a) Jofjxfl/s
(practical), (b) kl/jt{g (change) (c) rlqmo k|lqmof
(cyclical process) / (d) ;xeflutf (participation) .

17. contd...
•Ferance (2000: 9) sf cg';f/ sfo{ut cg';Gwfg
cfwf/e"t rf/ ljifo (Four basic themes) df cfwfl/t
/x]sf] kfOG5 .
•;xefuLx¿sf] ;zlQms/0f (Empowerment of
participants)
•;xeflux¿åf/f ;xsfo{ (Collaboration through
participation)
•1fgsf] k|flKt (Acquisition of knowledge)
•;fdflhs kl/jt{g (Social change)

18. cg';Gwfgsf r/0fx¿ (Steps of Research)

•Ranjit Kumar (2008:19) sf cg';f/ cg';Gwfgsf r/0fx¿nfO{ cf7
r/0fx¿df k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . h'g o;k|sf/ 5g\ .
•klxnf] r/0f (Step-I) : cg';Gwfgdf ;d:ofsf] lgwf{/0f (Formulation of a
research problem)
•bf]>f] r/0f (Step II) : cg';Gwfg 9fFrfsf] cjwf/0ffTds kIf
(Conceptualising a research design)
•t]>f] r/0f (Step - III) : tYofÍ ;Íng ;fdu|Lsf] lgdf{0f
(Constructing an instrument or data collection)
•rf}yf] r/0f (Step-IV) : gd'gf 5gf]6 (Selecting a sample)
•kfFrf}} r/0f (Step-V) : cg';Gwfg k|:tfjgf n]vg (Writing a
research proposal)
•5}7f}+ r/0f (Step-VI) : tYofÍsf] ;Íng (Collecting data)
•;ftf}+ r/0f (Step-VII) : tYofÍsf] k|zf]wg (Processing data)
•cf7f}+ r/0f (Step - VIII) : cg';Gwfg k|ltj]bgsf] n]vg (Writing a
research report)

19. Basic Concepts
cfwf/e"t cjwf/0ffx?
•Concept - cjwf/0ff _ s'g} klg 36gf, cj:yf, k|lqmof cflbsf]
;+lIfKt cleJolQmnfO{ cjwf/0ff elgG5 h'g tYodf cfwfl/t x'G5 .
•F.N. Kerlinger sf cg';f/ ljz]if s'/fsf] jf ;"Id s'/fx?sf]
;fdfGoLs/0faf6 lgdf{0f ePsf] efjnfO{ wf/0ffn] JoQm ub{5 . h:t}
tf}n, zlQm, nDafO{, prfO{ cjwf/0ff x'g\ . "A concept
expresses an abstract formed by generalization from
particulars."
•Goode and Hatt sf cg';f/ cjwf/0ff To:tf tfls{s /rgfx? x'g\ h'g
JolQm jf ;dfhsf] h6Ln cg'ej, wf/0ff, ljj]s, k|efj cflbaf6 l;h{gf x'G5g\
. "Concepts are logical constructs created from sense,
impression, or even fairly complex experiences."

20. contd...
•cjwf/0ff Pp6f ljrf/, dfGotf tyf k|lqmof / lgod xf] h'g tYok/s x'G5
. cyf{t ;dfhdf k|rlnt 7f]; / c;+ul7t ljrf/ jf k|lqmofnfO{ ;+ul7t /
;a}n] a'em\g]u/L JoQm ul/Psf] tfls{s dfGotf jf egfOnfO{ cjwf/0ff eGg
;lsG5 .
•cjwf/0ffdf :yfoLTj x'g jf gx'g klg ;S5 .
•cjwf/0ffsf k|sf/ M
odfGotfo'Qm (postulated) kl/jt{gzLn M ;+:s[lts/0f,
o;xh (Intuitive) ckl/jt{gzLnM prfO{,
oljof]hs (Disjunctive) cg]s ;d"xsf] Pp6} cjwf/0ffM t/sf/L,
o;DaGwfTds (Causal) ;dfgtf / leGgtfsf] cfwf/df M tNnf] ju{.

21. Characteristics of Concepts
•Pp6} cjwf/0ffnfO{ w]/} JolQmn] km/s km/s tl/sfn] a'em\g ;Sb5g\ .
•cjwf/0ff ;f+s]lts / 5f]6f] x'G5 .
•lglZrt k|lqmof, u'0f, k|sf/, :j?k j:t'sf] k|ltlglwTjsf] ?kdf /xG5 .
•tfls{s / lgod ;+ut x'G5 .
•a[xtaf6 ;fdfGodf NofOPsf] 36gf jf k|j[ltsf] efj jf ;f+s]lts
;+If]kLs/0f xf] .
•j:t'ut -h:t}M kmnkm"n_ / efjgfTds - h:t}M ;+:s[lts/0f_ ljz]iftf
ePsf] .

22. kl/jTo{ (Variables)
•;fwf/0ftof rn jf kl/jTo{ (Variable) eGgfn] s'g} u'0f, ljz]iftf jf
tYox¿sf] af/]df hfgsf/L lbg] jf k|ltlglwTj ug]{ ;ª\Vof jf
cj:yfnfO{ hgfpFb5 .
•kl/jTo{ s'g} JolQm, j:t' jf ;d"xsf] ljz]iftf xf] h;nfO{ dfkg ug{ jf
jlu{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . (Variable is defined as the
characteristics of persons, things or groups of
objects etc. that can be measured or classified).
pbf/x0fsf nflu ln·, wd{, cfo, pd]/, lzIff cflbnfO{ r/ jf kl/jTo{sf
¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .
•A concept that can be measured is called variable
•Rich (concept)..... income per year ( Variable)

23. Definitions of variable
•P.V. Young (2000) sf cg';f/, ækl/jTo{ o:tf] ljz]iftf xf], h;n]
ljleGg ;ª\VofTds dfg jf juL{s/0fnfO{ a'emfpF5Æ . (Variable is
any quantity of characteristic which may process
different numerical values or categories).
•Kerlinger (2000) sf cg';f/ ækl/jTo{ Pp6f u'0f xf], h;nfO{
ljleGg dfg jf ;ª\Vofdf lnOG5Æ . "A variable is a property
that takes on different values."
•Trochim (2008:16) sf cg';f/ ær/ jf kl/jTo{ Pp6f tŒj xf],
h;nfO{ ljleGg dfgx¿df lng ;lsG5Æ . (Variable is any
entity that can take on different values).

24. kl/jTo{sf k|sf/x¿ (Types of variables)
Mode causal sfo{sf/0f ;DaGw cg';f/ kl/jTo{sf] jlu{s/0f
•Independent variable :jtGq kl/jTo{÷r/
•Dependent variable cfl>t r/
•Extraneous variable jfÅo r/
•Intervening variable dWojtL{ r/
Study design cWoog 9fFrf cg';f/ r/sf] juL{s/0f
•Active variable ;lj|mo r/ A researcher can manipulate
•Attribute variable ljz]iftfd'vL r/ A researcher cannot
manipulate
Unit measurement dfkgsf] PsfO cg';f/ r/sf] jlu{s/0f
•Quantitative variable and Qualitative variable
•Continuous variable and Discrete variable

25. -s_ :jtGq kl/jTo{÷r/ (Independent variable)
•:jtGq r/nfO{ Input variable jf kl/jt{gufdL (Change
variable) klg elgG5 .
•olb s'g} r/x¿ cGo r/x¿df cfPsf] kl/jt{gaf6 k|efljt x'Fb}gg\ t/
ltgLx¿df cfPsf] kl/jt{gn] cGo r/x¿df kl/jt{g cfpF5 eg] To:tf]
r/nfO{ :jtGq r/ (Independent variable) elgG5 .
•pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Examples),

:jtGq r/ (Independent variable) cfl>t r/ (Dependent variable)
;fdflhs cfly{s cj:yf dlxnf lx+;f

26. -v_ cfl>t r/ (Dependent variable)
•:jtGq r/df cfPsf] kl/jt{gaf6 k|efljt jf kl/jlt{t x'g] r/nfO{
cfl>t r/ (Dependent variable) elgG5 . o;nfO{
Outcome variable or response variable klg elgG5 .
•pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Examples),

:jtGq r/ (Independent variable) cfl>t r/ (Dependent variable)
l;rfO ;'ljwf cGgjfnLsf] pTkfbg

27. jfÅo r/ (Extraneous variable)
•jfÅo r/x¿n] r/x¿ aLrsf] sf/0f (cause) / k|efj (effect) sf]
;DaGwnfO{ k|efj kfb{5 . cyjf o:tf] r/n] :jtGq / cfl>t r/x¿sf]
;DaGwdf cfsl:ds k|efj kfb{5 . jfÅo r/sf] pkl:yltn] :jtGq / cfl>t
r/x¿sf] ;DaGwdf ul/Psf] cfzfltt ;DaGwdf kl/jt{g NofpFb5 .

w'd|kfg (Smoking)
cg'dflgt sf/0f(Assumed Cause)
Independent variable
SofG;/ (Cancer)
cg'dflgt k|efj (Assumed effect)
Dependent variable
Affect relationship
(Number of cigarettes)
· (duration of smoking)
· (amount of tobacco)
· (age of person)
Extraneous variablesthe

28. dWojtL{ r/ (Intervening variable)
•s'g} klg :jtGq / cfl>t r/sf] cfk;L ;DaGwnfO{ k|ToIf jf
ck|ToIf ¿kdf k|efj kfg]{ r/x¿nfO{ dWojtL{ r/
(Intervening variable) elgG5 .
•Ranjit Kumar (2008: 60) sf cg';f/ ædWojtL{ r/x¿
To:tf hf]8\g] r/x¿ (linking or connecting
variables) x'g h;n] s'g} lglZrt cj:yfdf sf/0f / c;/
aLrsf] r/sf] ;DaGwnfO{ k"0f{ agfpF5g\Æ . (Intervening
variables are which in certain situations are
necessary to complete the relationship
between cause and effect variables).

29. pbfx/0fsf nflu (For example)
Irrigation facility
l;rfO ;'ljwf

Independent variable
Amount of rain fall



Intervening variables
Yielding of crops
cGgjfnLsf] pTkfbg

Dependent variable
Extraneous
variables

labour
mannuring

30. cWoog 9fFrf cg';f/ r/sf] juL{s/0f
(Classification of variable according to study design)
•-s_ ;lj|mo r/ (Active variable): h'g r/nfO{ cg';Gwfgstf{åf/f cfjZostf
cg';f/ pkof]u, kl/jt{g jf lgoGq0f ul/G5, To;nfO{ ;lj|mo r/ (Active
variable) elgG5 . According to Ranjit Kumar (2008: 64), Active
variables are those variables that can be manipulated,
changed or controlled by experimenter".
•-v_ ljz]iftfd'vL r/ (Attribute variable): h'g r/nfO{ cg';Gwfgstf{ åf/f
cfjZostf cg';f/ pkof]u, kl/jt{g jf lgoGq0f ul/b}g, To;nfO{ ljz]iftfd'vL r/
(Atribiute variable) elgG5 . h;n] cWoog hg;ª\Vofsf] ljz]iftfx¿nfO{
b;f{pFb5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu pd]/, lzIff, ln· / cfo>f]t cflb .
(Ranjit Kumar (2006: 64), Attribute variables are those
variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or reflect the
characteristics of the study population. For example: age,
gender, education & income etc).

31. dfkgsf] PsfO cg';f/ r/sf] jlu{s/0f
(Classification of variable according to Unit of measurement)
•vl08t r/ (Discrete variable)
•olb s'g} r/nfO{ p;sf ljz]iftfdf 6'S|ofpg ;ls+b}g jf h;nfO{ ;Dk"0f{
PsfO (whole unit) df dfq JoQm ug{ ;lsG5 eg] To:tf] r/nfO{
vl08t r/ (Discrete variable) elgG5 .
•Discrete variable is usually expressed as being a
whole unit one that cannot be fractioned or divided
into small parts. A discrete variable is one which is
not capable of being measured in arbitary degree of
exactness.
•pbfx/0fsf nflu (For example): Intelligence score, WBC
or RBC count, Number of micro organism, parity etc.

32. cljl5Gg r/ (Continuous variable)

•olb s'g} r/nfO{ p;sf ljleGg ljz]iftf cg';f/ 6'S|ofpg jf
jlu{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 eg] To:tf r/nfO{ cljl5Gg r/
(Continuous variable) elgG5 .
•A variable can be expressed into fractional
amounts in large or small degrees is called
continuous variable.'OR'
•A continuous variable is one which is capable of
being measured in any arbitary degree of
exactness.
•pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Examples): height, weight, age,
distance, blood pressure, income etc.

33. tYofÍsf] k|s[lt cg';f/ r/sf] jlu{s/0f
(Classification of variable according to nature of data)
•-s_ kl/df0ffTds r/ (Quantitative variable)
•kl/df0ffTds r/x¿ To:tf r/x¿ x'g\ h;sf] u'0f jf ljz]iftfnfO{ k|ToIf ¿kdf c+s jf
;ª\Vofdf JoQm ul/G5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu pd]/ (age), cfo (income), k|fKtfÍ
(marks obtained) etc. oL r/x¿ k|ToIf ¿kn] dfkgof]Uo x'G5g\ .
•Quantitative variables are those which can be expressed directly in
numbers. For example, Age, income, mark obtained etc.
quantitative variable is measurable and can be expressed
numerically.
•-v_ u'0ffTds r/ (Qualitative variable)
•u'0ffTds r/x¿ To:tf r/x¿ x'g\ h;sf] u'0f jf ljz]iftfnfO{ c+s jf gDa/df l;w} JoQm
ug{ ;ls+b}g . pbfx/0fsf nflu ln· -k'?if, dlxnf_, j;fO -ufpF, zx/_, Jojxf/ -/fd|f],
g/fd|f]_ cflb .
•Qualitative variables are those which cannot be expressed in
numbers directly. Example of qualitative variables are gender
(male, female) living (Rural, urban), behaviour (good, bad) etc.

34. dfkg (Measurement)
•;+;f/df /x]sf ;a} lsl;dsf j:t' tyf 36gfx¿df lglZrt u'0f jf
kl/0ffd x'G5 .
•ef}lts u'0fx¿ M tf}n, tfkj|md, nDafO{, pd]/ cflb . kl/0ffTds u'0f
lglxt x'G5, ;lhn} gfKg / t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 .
•dgf]j}1flgs tyf ;fdflhs u'0fx¿ M ;dj]bgf, ;Gt'li6, cfr/0f, a'l4dtf
cflb . o:tf u'0f tyf cj:yfx¿ cd"t{ ¿kdf /xG5g\ .
•s'g} j:t', JolQm, 36gf Pj+ lj|mofsnfkdf lglxt u'0fnfO{ lglZrt
lgodsf] cfwf/df c+s k|bfg ug'{ g} dfkg xf] .
•d'Vou/L cg';Gwfgsf] nflu 5gf]6 ul/Psf r/x¿sf af/]df k|i6
hfgsf/L lng / r/x¿ aLrsf] t'ngf ug{ oL r/x¿nfO{ k|dfl0ft
lgodsf cfwf/df ljleGg :s]nx¿df c+sg ug{ cfjZos x'G5 .

35. Definitions
•Kerlinger (1998 : 427) sf cg';f/ ædfkg eg]sf] lgod cg';f/ s'g} klg a:t'
jf 36gfx¿nfO{ ;ª\Vof k|bfg ug'{ xf] . of] ;fwf/0f ¿kn] Ps k|sf/sf] ;+s]t xf] .
o;sf] ;ª\VofTds cy{ x'Fb}g . (Measurement is the assignment of
numerals to object or events according to rules. It is simply a
symbol of special kind. It has no quantitative meaning unless
we give it such a meaning.)
•Nunally (1970 : 7) sf cg';f/ æs'g} j:t'df lglxt u'0fsf] dfqfnfO{ k|ltlglwTj
ug{ ;Sg] ul/ lgoda4 ¿kdf c+s k|bfg ug'{ g} dfkg xf] .Æ (Measurement
consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects in such a
way as to represent quantities of attributes).
•Ebel and Frisbie (1991 : 25) sf cg';f/ æs'g} JolQm jf p;sf u'0fnfO{
lglZrt lgodsf] cfwf/df c+s k|bfg ug'{nfO{ dfkg elgG5 .Æ (Measurement
is defined as to assignment of numbers to individuals or their
characteristics according specified rules).

36. dfkgsf] dfkj|mdsf k|sf/x¿ (Types of
Measurement Scale)
•Stevens (1951) sf cg';f/ dfkgsf] :s]nnfO{ rf/ efudf
ljefhg ul/Psf] 5 . h;nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
gfd¿kL :s]n (Nominal Scale)
j|mdfut :s]n (Ordinal Scale)
cGt/fn :s]n (Interval Scale)
cg'kflts :s]n (Ratio Scale)

37. dfkgsf] dfkj|md ;DjGwL ;fdfGo gfdfs/0f (Common
taxonomy of Measurement Scales)
Identity, rank-ordered, equal
interval and absolute zero.
Distance is meaningful (Identity, rank-
ordered, equal interval, relative zero)
Attributes can be ordered (Identity and rank-
ordered).
Identity (weakest): attributes are only named. gfd¿kL :s]n
(Nominal Scale)
gfd¿kL :s]n
(ordinol Scale)
cGt/fn :s]n
(Interval Scale)
cg'kflts :s]n
(Ratio Scale)

38. gfd¿kL :s]n (Nominal Scale)
•s'g} klg j:t', JolQm, :yfg cflb;Fu ;DalGwt rnx¿sf] ljz]iftfx¿nfO{
juL{s/0f, gfdfs/0f jf ljefhg ul/ c+sg ug]{ lgodnfO{ jf :s]nnfO{
gfd¿kL :s]n (Nominal Scale) elgG5 .
•of] dfkgdf juL{s/0f jf gfdfs/0f ul/Psf u'0f jf ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ lbOg]
c+s -;+s]t_ sf] vf;} cy{ x'Fb}g lsgsL o; :s]ndf b'O{ ljz]iftfx¿ jf
u'0fx¿ lar t'ngf jf ;DaGwsf] ljZn]if0f ul/b}g .
•gfd¿kL :s]ndf k|of]u ul/g] ;ª\Vofsf] ul0ftLo cy{ gx'g] ePsf]n] oL
;ª\Vofx¿nfO{ hf]8\g, 36fpg, u'0fg jf efu ug{ ;lsb}g .
•o; :s]ndf /x]sf r/x¿nfO{ ljZn]if0f ug{ af/Daf/tf (frequency),
k|ltzt (Percentage), cg'kft (Proportion), /Lt (Mode) /
chi-square test h:tf tYofÍzfl:qLo ljlw pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 .

39. pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Example),
Political Parties
-/fhgLlts kf6L{x¿_
Nepali Congress
-g]kfnL sf+u|];_
UML
-Pdfn]_
Maoist
-dfcf]jfbL_
r/x¿
(Variables)
1 2 3
(Attributes)
-u'0f jf ljz]iftf_
Values
-dfg_
Relationship
-;DaGw_ No relationship, just naming/classification
-Ps csf{sf aLr ;DaGw gePsf], s]jn gfdfs/0f_

40. j|mdfut :s]n (Ordinal Scale)
•j|mdfut dfkgnfO{ gfd¿kL dfkg eGbf kl/:s[t dfkg dflgG5 . lsgsL
o;n] klxrfg (identity) / j|mdj4tf (order) sf] cj:yfnfO{ dfkg
ub{5 .
•of] dfkj|mddf rnx¿ (variables) sf] j|mda4tf (Rank Order) ldnfO{
leGg–leGg ljz]iftf jf u'0fx¿aLr t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 . h;df eGbf a9L
(>) / eGbf sd (<) ul/ t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5, hxfF, a > b, b > c, then
a > c ul/ dfkgsf] l:ylt b]vfpg ;lsG5 .
•u'0ffTds tYofÍnfO{ o; :s]ndf lgdf{0f ul/G5 . o; :s]ndf /flvPsf
tYofÍnfO{ af/Daf/tf (Frequency), k|ltzt (Percentage), cg'kft
(Proportion), l/t (Mode), Chi-square test, Rank
Correlation, Median Test, Mann-Whitney test,
Wilconxon test cflbaf6 ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 t/ dWos (mean) /
ljrng (variance) lgsflnb}g .

41. pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Example),
Professor of University
-ljZjljBfnosf k|fWofks_
Proffesor
-k|fWofks_
Reader
-;xk|fWofks_
(Lecturer)
-pkk|fWofks_
(Contract Teacher)
-s/f/ lzIfs_
Variables
-r/_
Attributes
-ljz]iftfx¿_
Values
-dfg_
Relationship
-;DaGw_
1 2 3 4
Rank-ordered Relationship but no equal/exact interval
-qmda4tfsf] ;DaGw t/ :ki6 / ;dfg cGt/fn gePsf]_

42. cGt/fn :s]n (Interval Scale) :
•o; dfkg ljwLn] kl/ro (identity), km}nfj6 (magnitude) jf j|mda4tf
(order) / a/fa/ cGt/fn (equal interval) sf cj:yfx¿nfO{ dfkg ub{5 .
dfkgsf] o; :s]ndf gfd¿kL / j|mdfut :s]nsf ;Dk"0f{ ljz]iftfx¿ lglxt
/xG5g\ .
•o; :s]nsf] csf]{ dxŒjk"0f{ ljz]iftf jf:tljs z'Go (absolute zero) geO{
;fk]lIft z'Go (Relative zero) x'g' xf] . o;sf] cy{ z'Gon] klg u'0fsf] lglZrt
dfqfnfO{ k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] x'G5 . o; :s]ndf z'Gosf] cy{ dfkg ug{ nfluPsf]
u'0fsf] cl:tTj g} 5}g eGg] x'Fb}g . pbfx/0fsf nflu s'g} sIffsf]7fsf] )° tfkj|mdn]
To; sf]7fdf tfkj|md g} 5}g eGg] cy{ nfUb}g, To;}u/L pknAwL k/LIf0f, af}l4s
k/LIf0f, Sofn]G8/ ;do (Calendar time) cflbdf z'Gosf] cy{ ;fk]lIft x'G5 .
•. o; :s]ndf dfkg ul/Psf tYofÍx¿nfO{ af/Daf/tf (Frequency), k|ltzt
(Percentage), cg'kft (Proportion), l/t (Mode), chi-square test,
median test, mean, variance t-test, F-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA,
Factorial analysis, Correlation / Beta Analysis cflb tYofÍzf:qsf]
pkof]u u/L ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

43. pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Example),

(Intelligence score)
-a'4LnAwL kl/If0f_
40 – 30 50 – 60 60 – 70

70 – 80
Variables
-r/_
Attributes
-ljz]iftfx¿_
Values
-dfg_
Relationship
-;DaGw_
1 2 3 4
Rank-ordered Relationship equal interval but relative zero
-qmda4tfsf] ;DaGw Ps csf{df a/fa/ cGt/fn / ;fk]If ;'Go_

44. cg'kflts :s]n (Ratio Scale)
•cfg'kflts :s]ndf kl/ro (identity), kl/df0f (magnitude), a/fa/
cGt/fn (equal interval) h:tf cGt/fn :s]ndf x'g] u'0fx¿ ;lxt
lg/k]If z'Go -Absolute zero) sf] pkl:ylt x'G5 . vf;u/L o; :s]ndf
u'0ffTds eGbf klg kl/0ffTds tYofÍx¿ (Quantitative Data) nfO{
dfkg ul/G5 .
•ljz]ift cg'kflts :s]nnfO{ pRr txsf] :s]n dflgG5 .
•o; :s]nn] JolQm jf j:t'sf] u'0fsf] kl/df0ffTds j|md, cGt/sf ;fy}
cg'kflts dfqfaf/] klg hfgsf/L lbG5 . o;sf] dxŒjk"0f{ ljz]iftf eg]sf]
lg/k]If z'Go (absolute zero) g} xf] .
• o;df z"Gosf] cy{ u'0fx¿sf] cl:tTj gx'g' eGg] a'lemG5 . pbfx/0fsf
nflu s'g} j:t'sf] tf}n z"Go (zero) x'g' eg]sf] tf}n 5}g eGg] g} xf] .
To;}u/L cfo;|f]t z'Go x'g' eg]sf] s'g} sdfO{ g} 5}g eGg' xf] .

45. pbfx/0fsf] nflu (For Example),
cfo
-Income_
1000 2000 3000

4000
Variables
-r/_
Attributes
-ljz]iftfx¿_
Values
-dfg_
Relationship
-;DaGw_
1 2
3
4
Rank-ordered and Equal interval but absolute zero.
-qmda4tf, ;dfg cGt/fn t/ lg/k]If z"Go_

5000
4

46. ljZj;gLotf (Reliability)
•ljZj;gLotfsf] cjwf/0ff dfkgsf] ;fwgdf kfOg] u'0fdf cfwfl/t 5,
•h'g dfkgsf] ;fwfgn] k6s–k6s dfkg ubf{ ;dfg u'0fnfO{ ;dfg ¿kn]
dfkg ub{5 jf dfkgsf] ;fwgdf x'g] l:y/tf, Ps¿ktf, z'4tfsf]
u'0fx¿nfO{ hgfpFb5 .
•s'g} dfkgsf] ;fwg ljZj;gLo x'gsf nlfu ;f] ;fwgåf/f s'g} vf;
u'0fnfO{ k6s–k6s dfkg ubf{ ;dfg glthf k|fKt x''g'kb{5 .
•ljZj;gLotfsf nflu kof{ojfrL zAbx¿ lge{/of]Uo
(Dependability), l:y/tf (Stability), Ps¿ktf
(Consistency), eljiojf0fL ug{ ;Sg] Ifdtf (Predictability),
z'4tf (accuracy) x'g\ .

47. •ljZj;gLotf dfkgsf ;fwgsf] ckl/xfo{ u'0f xf] . s'g} dfkgsf] ;fwg
ljZj;gLo 5 eg] ;dfg u'0f dfkgsf nflu tL ;fwgnfO{ ;dfg JolQmx¿sf]
;d"xdf k6s–k6s dfkg ubf{ ;dfg glthf k|fKt x'G5 . ljZj;gLotfn]
dfkgsf ;fwgdf /x]sf] q'6Lsf] dfqfsf af/]df klg hfgsf/L lbG5 .
•pbfx/0fsf nlfu s'g} ;d'bfodf 3/]n' lx+;fsf] Jofkstf af/]df cWoog ug{sf
nflu k|ZgfjnLsf] lgdf{0f ul/of], h;nfO{ pkof]u u/L ;j]{If0fdf 3/]n' lx+;fsf]
Jofkstf hDdf 5 k|ltzt 3/kl/jf/df 3/]n' lx+;f ePsf] kfOof] . olb csf]{
;j]{If0f k'g pxL hg;ª\VofnfO{ ;dfg k|ZgfjnLsf] pkof]u u/L pxL
cj:yfdf (Same Conditions) tYofÍ ;+sng u/L ljZn]if0f ubf{ 3/]n'
lx+;fsf] Jofkstf !% k|ltzt ePsf] kfOof] eg] dfkgsf] ;fwg -k|ZgfjnL_
nfO{ jf:tljs (accurate) dflgb}g Pj+ glthfnfO{ cljZj;gLo
(unreliable) dflgG5 .

48. definitions of relability
•Kumar (2008) sf cg';f/ æljZj;gLotf cg';Gwfgsf ;fwg;Fu
;DalGwt 5, olb cg';Gwfgsf] ;fwgdf Ps¿ktf / l:y/tf 5, To;}u/L
eljiojf0fL / oyfy{tf 5 eg] o;nfO{ ljZj;gLo dflgG5 .Æ The
reliability is in the relation to a research instrument, if a
research tool is consistent and stable, and hence,
predictable and accurate, it said to be reliable.
•Trochinm (2008) sf cg';f/ æcg';Gwfgdf ljZj;gLotf zAbsf] cy{
k'g/fj[lQ cyjf Ps¿ktf xf] . dfkgnfO{ ljZj;gLo Tolta]nf dflgG5, olb
o;n] k6s–k6s dfkg ubf{ ;dfg glthf lbG5 .Æ In research the
term realiability means "repeatability" or "consistency".
A measure is considered reliable if it would give us the
same result over and over again.

49. ljZj;gLotf hfFr ug]{ ljlwx¿ (Methods of
Reliability Test)
•ljZj;gLotf lgwf{/0f ug]{ ljleGg ljlwx¿ 5g\ . h;cGtu{t
ljZj;gLotf hfFr ug]{ ljlwx¿nfO{ b'O{j6f d'Vo ljlwx¿df ljefhg
ug{ ;lsG5 .
•afÅo Ps¿ktf ljlwx¿ (External Consistency
Procedures)
•cfGtl/s Ps¿ktf ljlwx¿ (Internal Consistency
Procedures)

50. -s_ afÅo Ps¿ktf ljlwx¿
(External consistency Procedures)
•cGt/ d"Nofª\sgstf{ aLrsf] dfkg ljlw (Inter-Rater or Inter
Observer Method)
•k/LIf0f, k'gM k/LIf0f ljlw (Test, Re-test Method)
•;dfgfGt/ k|f¿k ljlw (Parallel or Equivalent Form
Method)

51. cGt/ d"Nofª\sgstf{ aLrsf] dfkg ljlw (Inter-
Rater or Inter Observer Method)
•;dfg 36gf jf j:t'nfO{ pxL cj:yfdf Ps}vfn] dfkg ljlwåf/f km/s
– km/s cjnf]sgstf{n] dfkg ubf{ ;dfg glthf k|fKt ePdf ;f]
cWoogdf cjnf]sgstf{ aLrdf ljZj;gLotf :yflkt ePsf] dflgG5 .
• o;/L ljZj;gLotfsf] dfkgnfO{ hfFr ubf{ b'O{ leGg JolQmx¿af6
;+slnt tYofÍnfO{ ;x;DaGw (Correlation) sf] dfWodaf6
k|dfl0ft ug{ ;lsG5 .
•cjnf]sgstf{ aLrsf] ljZj;gLotf dfkg ljlwnfO{ cg';Gwfgdf
ljZj;gLotf dfkgsf] Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ ljlwsf ¿kdf lnOG5 .

52. k/LIf0f, k'gM k/LIf0f ljlw (Test, Re-test Method)
•s'g} dfkgsf] ;fwgnfO{ ;dfg JolQmx¿sf] ;d"xdf lglZrt ;do
cGt/fndf b'O{k6s k/LIf0f ul/G5 . To;}n] o; ljlwnfO{ k'g/fj[QL
k/LIf0f (Repeatability test) klg elgG5 .
•b'O{ k6s ul/Psf] k/LIf0faf6 k|fKt glthflar ;x–;DaGw
(correlation) u0fgf ul/ k/LIf0fsf ;fwgsf] ljZj;gLotf
lgsflnG5 .

53. ;dfgfGt/ k|f¿k ljlw (Parallel or
Equivalent Form Method)
•;dfg k/LIf0f Ifdtf ePsf b'O{j6f dfkgsf ;fwg tof/ u/L Pp6}
;d"xdf dfkg ul/G5 . To;kl5 Pp6f k/LIf0faf6 k|fKt glthfnfO{
csf]{ k/LIf0faf6 k|fKt glthf;Fu t'ngf ug'{kb{5 . olb ltgLx¿aLr
;dfgtf ePdf dfkgsf ;fwgx¿ ljZj;gLo ePsf] dfGotf /flvG5 .
•o; ljlwnfO{ j}slNks k|f¿k ljlw (Alternative form method)
klg elgG5 .
•o; ljlwdf k|fKt glthfaLr ;x;DaGw (correlation) u0fgf u/L
dfkgsf ;fwgsf] ljZj;gLotfsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .

54. cfGtl/s Ps¿ktf ljlwx¿ (Internal
Consistency Procedures)
•cfGtl/s Ps¿ktf ljlwn] ;dfg j:t' jf 36gfnfO{ dfkg ug{ k|of]u
ul/Psf 6'j|mfx¿ (items) n] ;dfg glthf lgsfNg' kb{5 .
(Internal consistency procedures is that items
measuring the same phenomenon should produce
similar results.) ;fwf/0ftof M dfkgsf ;fwgsf] ljZj;gLotf
lgwf{/0f ug{ lgDgfg';f/ ljlwx¿ pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
•cw{ljefhg ljlw (Split - half method)
•cf}ift cGt/–6'j|mf ;x;DaGw (Average Inter-Item
Correlation)

55. cw{ljefhg ljlw (Split - half method)
•o; ljlwåf/f ljZj;gLotf k/LIf0f ug{ s'g} dfkgsf] ;fwgåf/f
JolQm tyf ltgLx¿sf] u'0fnfO{ u0fgf ug{ hf]8L k|Zg ;ª\Vof
/ ljhf]8L k|Zg ;ª\Vofsf cfwf/df cw{ljefhg ul/G5 . o;/L
k|fKt b'O{ glthf jf k|fKtfÍx¿ aLr ;x–;DaGw hfFr u/L
ljZj;gLotf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .

56. cf}ift cGt/–6'j|mf ;x;DaGw
(Average Inter-Item Correlation)
•o; ljlwaf6 cfGtl/s Ps¿ktf lgwf{/0f ubf{ dfkgsf
;fwgnfO{ p:t} agfj6 (Construct) df w]/} 6'j|mfx¿nfO{
lgdf{0f u/L pkof]u ul/G5 .
•o;/L dfkg ubf{ 6'j|mfx¿sf] k|To]s hf]8L (each pair of
items) aLr ;x–;DaGw u0fgf ul/G5, h'g ;x–
;DaGwx¿nfO{ dWos (Mean/average) lgsfnL cf};t
cGt/–6'j|mf ;x–;DaGw kQf nufOG5 . To; glthfsf
cfwf/df dfkgsf ;fwgsf] cfGtl/s ljZj;gLotf lgwf{/0f
ul/G5 .

57. j}wtf (Validity)
•dfkgsf ;fwgdf x'g'kg]{ Pp6f cTofjZos u'0f j}wtf (validity) xf] . h'g
p2]Zo k"/f ug{ dfkgsf ;fwg lgdf{0f ul/Psf] xf], pQm ;fwgn] pQm p2]Zo
k"/f u/]sf] ;'lglZrt ub{5 eg] dfkgsf] ;fwg j}w dflgG5 . ljleGg
ljåfgx¿n] j}wtf ;DjGwL lbPsf kl/efiff lgDg adf]lhd 5g\ .
•Kerlinger (1986 : 457) sf cg';f/ æj}wtf, s] xfdLn] dfkg ug{ ;S5f}F
< h'g xfdLn] dfkg ug{ ;f]lr/x]sf 5f}F eGg] k|Zg;Fu ;DalGwt 5 .Æ
(Validity is concerned with the question, are we
measuring, what we think we are measuring).
•Lindquist (1951 : 213) sf cg';f/ ædfkgsf ;fwgn] h'g s'/f dfkg
ug{ vf]lhPsf] xf], To;nfO{ ;xL ¿kdf dfkg ug'{nfO{ dfkgsf ;fwgsf] j}wtf
elgG5 .Æ Validity of an instrument is defined as the
accuracy with which it measures that which is intended
to measure.

58. Types
•ljifoj:t' j}wtf (Content Validity):
s'g} dfkgsf ljifo jf d'2fx¿sf nflu cfjZos k|Zgx¿ k"0f{ ¿kn]
dfkgsf ;fwgdf ;d]l6Psf 5g\÷5}gg\ egL d"NofÍg ug'{nfO{ ljifout
j}wtf elgG5 .
•dfkb08 ;DaGwL j}wtf (Criteria related validity)
o; ljwLn] dfkb08 cg';f/ sfo{Tds ;Dkfbg (Performance of
operalitionalization) s:tf] 5 hfFr ub{5 . Trochim
(2008:69) sf cg';f/ ædfkb08 ;DjGwL j}wtf lgld{t l;4fGtdf
cfwfl/t /lx stL sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] jf/]df k|foM cg'dfg
ug'{ xf]Æ .

59. •eljiojfl0f ;DaGwL j}wtf (Predictive Validity):
•;fdflhs cg';Gwfgsf] If]qdf k"j{3f]if0ff ug{ ;lsg] cj:yfx¿ sd} x'G5g\ . oBkL
tYox¿sf] dfkgsf cfwf/df k"j{ cg'dfg ug{ ;lsg] cj:yf ePdf To:tf]
cg';Gwfgsf] dfkg j}w (Valid) dfGg ;lsG5 . Kumar (2008 : 155) sf
cg';f/ æeljiojf0fL ;DaGwL j}wtfn] Tof] txnfO{ hfFr ub{5 h'g dfkgsf ;fwgsf]
k|ltkmnnfO{ eljiojf0fL ug{ ;S5 . (Predictive validity is judged by the
degree to which an instrument can forecast an outcome).
•;djtL{ j}wtf (Concurrent validity): ;djtL{ j}wtfåf/f dfkgsf] ;fwgn] slt
/fd|f];Fu dfkg u/]sf] 5 egL k/:k/ bf];|f] d"NofÍg;Fu t'ngf u/L hfFRg ;lsG5 .
(According to Kumar, (2006 : 155), concurrent validity is
judged by how well as instrument compares with a second
assessment concurrently done).

60. /rgfTds j}wtf (Construct Validity)

•j}wtf hfFr ug]{ Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ ljlw lgld{t j}wtf xf] . lgld{t
j}wtfn] l;4fGt / cjnf]sg aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ hf]8 lbG5 . (It
emphasizes the linkages between the theory and
observation.)
•olb l;4fGtsf cfwf/df b'O{ r/x¿ Ps cfk;df ;DalGwt 5g\ jf
5}gg\ eGg] s'/fnfO{ k"j{ cg'dfg u/L ;x–;DaGw kQf nufOG5 eg]
To;nfO{ lgld{t j}wtf (construct validity) elgG5 . To;}n]
Trochim (2008 : 31) sf cg';f/ ælgld{t j}wtfn] cWoogdf
sfo{sf/0f ;DaGw 5 eGg] dfGotf /fVb5 .Æ (Construct
validity assumes that there is a causal
relationship in the study.

61. Hypothesis
•kl/sNkgf cª\u|]hL efiff Hypothesis zAbsf] g]kfnL ¿kfGt/0f xf] .
o; zAbdf hypo sf] cy{ below -d'gL_ / thesis sf] cy{ k|dfl0ft
l;4fGt (reasoned theory) eGg' a'lemG5 . t;y{ kl/sNkgf
k|dfl0ft gePsf] jf k|dfl0ft ug'{kg{] l;4fGt xf] .
•kl/sNkgf eGgfn] cg';Gwfgsf ;Gbe{df p7fPsf ljleGg
;d:ofx¿sf] 3f]lift syg (declarative statement) nfO{
kl/sNkgf (Hypothesis) elgG5 .
•kl/sNkgfsf] kl/If0faf6 k|rlnt l;4fGtnfO{ hfFRg] Pjd\ gofF
l;4fGtsf] k|ltkfbg ug]{ ul/G5 . To;sf/0f, cg';Gwfgsf ;Gbe{df
;+nUg r/x¿ (variables) aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] k"j{ cg'dfg g}
kl/sNkgf xf] .

62. Definitions
•Kerlinger (1986 : 18) sf cg';f/ ækl/sNkgf b'O{ jf ;f] eGbf
a9L r/x¿sf] aLrdf /x]sf] ;DaGwnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug]{ 3f]lift syg
xf] .Æ (A hypothesis represents a declarative
statement of the relations between two or more
variables.)
•Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary sf cg';f/
ækl/sNkgf Pp6f ljrf/sf] j0f{g xf], h'g s]lx yfxf ePsf tYox¿df
cfwfl/t x'G5 t/ oBkL Tof] ;To jf l7s ePsf]÷gePsf] k|dfl0ft
ePsf] x'Fb}gÆ . (Hypothesis is an idea or explanation of
something that is based on few known facts but
that has not yet been proved to be true or correct).

63. c;n kl/sNkgfsf ljz]iftfx¿
(Characteristics of Good Hypothesis)
•of] :ki6 / 7f]; ¿kdf pNn]v x'g'kb{5 . (It should be conceptually clear
and precisely stated.)
•of] dfkgof]Uo x'g'kb{5 . (It should be testable.)
•b'O{ jf b'O{ eGbf a9L r/x¿ aLrsf] cfzfltt ;DaGw pNn]v x'g'kb{5 .
(It should be stated expected relationship between the
variables.)
•of] If]qut ¿kdf l;ldt x'g'kb{5 . (It should be limited in scope.)
•of] cg'ejsf] tYox¿df cfwfl/t eO{ lgdf{0f x'g' kb{5 .
(It should be constituent with most known facts.)
•of] oyf]lrt ;dodf k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] x'g'kb{5 .
(It should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time)
•of] ;s];Dd ;fwf/0f zAbdf pNn]v x'g'kb{5 .
(It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.)

64. kl/sNkgfsf k|sf/ (Types of Hypothesis)
i) cg';Gwfg kl/sNkgf (Research hypothesis)
-s_ lgb]{lzt cg';Gwfg kl/sNkgf (Directional
research hypothesis)
-v_ clgb]{lzt cg';Gwfg kl/sNkgf (Non-directional
Research Hypothesis)
ii) lgikmn÷z'Go kl/sNkgf (Null Hypothesis)
iii) j}slNks kl/sNkgf (Alternative Hypothesis)

65. cfudg ljwL (Induction Method)

•cfudg ljlw Pp6f tfls{s ljwL (method of reasoning) xf],
h;nfO{ tn b]lv dfly hfg] cjwf/0ff (Bottom-up approach) klg
elgG5 . of] cjwf/0ff l;4fGt lgdf{0f (theory buiding) sf nflu
pkof]u ul/G5 .
•ljlzi6 gd'gfx¿af6 ;du| gd'gfx¿lt/ jf jf:tljs tYox¿af6
;fdfGoLs/0flt/ jf JolQmut 36gfx¿af6 ;du|tflt/ pGd'v ts{sf]
k|lj|mof (Process of reasoning) nfO{ cfudg ljlw (Method of
Induction) elgG5 .
•According to P.V. Young (2009 : 10) , Induction
method is the process of reasoning from particular
cases to whole group of cases, from concrete facts to
generalization, from individuals events/instance to
universal.

66. Steps in the process of Induction
Theory
Tentative Hypothesis
Pattern
Observation
Bottom up approach
pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Example)
Example – I
Shyam is a poor and he has economically weak.
Ram is a poor and he has economically weak.
Hari is a poor and he has economically weak.
Therefore, we can conclude that "Nepali people are economically poor".

67. lgudg ljwL (Deductive Method):
•cfudg ljwLnfO{ dflyaf6 tn hfg] cjwf/0ff (Top - down
approach) klg elgG5 . of] ljwL ljz]iftM l;4fGtaf6 z'¿jft eO{
ljlzi6 36gfx¿lt/ pGd'v x'G5 . (Generally, it starts from a
theory and goes to specific cases).
•5f]6s/Ldf, ;fdfGo l;4fGt jf cjwf/0ffaf6 ljlzi6 36gflt/ pGd'v
k|lj|mofnfO{ (From general principles/theories to specific
instances) lgudg ljwL (deduction method) elgG5 . h;df
l;4fGt jf cjwf/0ffsf cfwf/df kl/sNkgfsf] lgdf{0f ul/G5 . To;
kl/sNkgfnfO{ tYofÍsf dfWodaf6 k|dfl0ft ul/G5 .
•o;n] gofF l;4fGtsf] lgdf{0fnfO{ eGbf ljut l;4fGtnfO{ hfFr ug{ /
kl/dfh{g ug{ ;3fp k'¥ofpFb5 .

68. Steps in the process of Deduction
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
"Top-down Approach"
pbfx/0fsf nflu (For Examples),
Example – I: All Nepali people are economically poor.
–Ram is economically poor. Therefore, Ram is a poor.

69. Generalization ;fdfGoLs/0f
•;fdfGo cy{df cg';Gwfgsf] qmddf ;+slnt tYof+sx?sf] k|:t'lts/0f /
ljZn]if0faf6 s'g} 7f]; lgisif{ lgsfNg] k|lqmof jf sfo{nfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f
elgG5 .
•s]xL ljlzi6 cjnf]sgx?sf] cfwf/df s'g} tYo jf sygsf] lgdf{0f ug]{
k|lqmof g} ;fdfGoLs/0f xf] .
•;fdfGoLs/0f s'g} gd"gfdf ul/Psf] cWoogsf] lgisif{nfO{ ;du|tfdf dfGo 5
eGg] syg xf] .
•cfudg tyf lgudg ljlwaf6 36gf cj:yfsf] ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
•The term generalization means that what is true for
the sample is also true for the whole population
gd"gf 5gf}6af6 cfPsf] lgisif{nfO{ ;du|tfdf nfu" ug{ ;lsg]
dfgotfnfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f elgG5 .

70. Empiricism cg'ejjfb÷cg'e"ltjfb
•;fdflhs cg';Gwfgdf tfls{s Pjd\ j}1flgs b[li6sf]0fb\jf/f ;fdflhs
;d:of jf 36gfx?sf] k|ToIf jf dfkg k|lqmofb\jf/f tYox?sf] ;+sng
Pjd\ ljZn]if0f u/]/ lgisif{ lgsfNg] tl/sfnfO{ cg'e"ltjfb elgG5 .
•cg'e"ltjfb j}1flgs ljlw jf ljZn]if0f;Fu ;DalGwt 5 .
•cg'e"ltjfbn] 1fgsf] Ps dfq ;|f]t cg'ej eGg] cfwf/df ljZn]if0f ub{5
•cg'e"ltjfb j}1flgs cWoog ePsf]n] k|To]s cg';Gwfg sfo{df qmda4
/ Jojl:yt ?kaf6 lgisif{ lgsflnG5 .
•cg'ejl;4 tYosf] ljZn]if0f g} o;sf] dxTj xf] . o;af6 u'0ffTds tyf
cd"t{ j:t'sf] ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
•The philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge is derived
from experience. -Dictionary of sociology

71. Theory

72. Ethical Consideration in social research
;fdflhs cg';Gwfg sfo{df g}lts ;jfn
•Ethics eGgfn] g}ltstf, cfrf/;+lxtf, ;fdflhs Gofo, dfgj clwsf/ /
;fdflhs bfloTj;Fu hf]l8Psf] ;jfn xf] .
dfgj ljifo -dfgljo d"NodfGotf_ ;+/If0f protecting human
subject
•dfgj ljifo pNn+3gsf nflu b08 lbg], ;+3;+:yfsf lgodx? kfngf ug]{
cg';Gwfg Pstf sfod ug'{ Protecting Research Integrity
•sfg"lg pkfo, ;+:yfut ;'g'jfO{
af}l4s rf]/L (Plagiarism)
uf]klgotf e+u x'g' Invasion of Privacy
Protecting rights of research participants