Micro-Organisms.pptx

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1. UNIT-2 MICRO-ORGANISMS Ahmed Sodha M.Sc.(N).– M.S.N.

2. Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek Is A ‘Father Of Microbiology’ & ‘Father Of Microscopy.’ Robert Koch  (1834-1910) Is Also Known As The 'Father Of Bacteriology‘. Louis Pasteur Is The Father Of ‘Pasteurization’. Louis Pasteur Is Also Known As The Father Of ‘Modern Microbiology’. Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) Is Known As The ‘Father Of Phagocytosis’. Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) Is Known As The ‘Father Of Chemotherapy’. Hans Christian Gram (1853-1933) Invented Famous Bacterial Staining Procedure ‘Gram Stain’.

3. Micro-organism Or Microbe:- “An Organism That Can Be Seen Only Through A Microscope. Microorganisms Include Bacteria, Protozoa, Algae, And Fungi ”. Classification of Micro-organisms:- Micro-organisms are classified into ten groups: Bacteria Viruses Fungi Protozoa Rickettsiales Algae Moulds Yeast Chlamydia Mycoplasma

4. Classification of Micro-organisms:- Classification of microorganism depending on cell type. Eukaryotic micro-organisms Prokaryotic micro-organisms Non cellular micro-organisms Eukaryotic micro-organisms:- They have complex cellular structure similar to human & animal cell. Eg. Fungi, protozoa, algae Prokaryotic micro-organisms:- they are simple, unicellular organisms having primitive nuclei & mitochondria. Unicellular also known as single-cell organisms. They are capable to live independent.

5. Prokaryotic micro-organisms:- they are simple, unicellular organisms having primitive nuclei & mitochondria. Unicellular also known as single-cell organisms. They are capable to live independent. Eg. Bacteria. Non cellular micro-organisms:- They are without any cell forms called as acellular. Eg. Viruses.

6. Structure of Micro-Organisms:- Bacteria are the most well known micro-organisms. Bacteria are microscopic, prokaryotic, unicellular organisms found everywhere. Size of the Bacteria :- Bacteria are very small in size. The unit of measurement of bacteria is called micrometer (mm). Bacteria generally measure 0.2-1.5mm in diameter & 3.5mm in length.

7. Morphology Of Bacteria

8. Structure of Bacteria :-

9. Morphology Of Bacteria:- Bacteria Is A Prokaryotic, Unicellular Organism. Bacteria Are Found Everywhere, They Are The Most Abundant Living Organisms. Parts Of Bacteria:- Bacterial Cell Wall Capsule Cytoplasmic Membrane Cytoplasm Ribosomes Mesosomes Nucleus Flagella

10. Bacterial cell wall:- It is complex rigid structure. It gives bacteria its definite shape. It is semi-permeable. The cell wall of gram-positive bacteria is thicker than the gram-negative. Capsule:- It is a protective covering around the bacterial cell wall. If this capsule is thick it’s called capsule. If this layer is thin it’s called slime layer. Capsule protects the bacteria from antibacterial agents. Cytoplasmic membrane:- It is also called cell membrane. It is thin & elastic. It is semi-permeable. This membrane carry many enzymes & pigments. Cytoplasm:- It is viscous watery solution. It contains variety of organic & inorganic solutes & ribosomes.

11. Ribosomes:- It is 10-20nm in diameter. Function of this is protein synthesis. Mesosomes:- It is convoluted membranous bodies. Nucleus:- The bacterial nucleus does not possess nuclear membrane & nucleolus. The genetic information is contained in a single circular, double strand molecule of DNA. Flagella:- It is long, hollow filaments. They are 10-20nm in diameter & 3-20mm in length. They are found on large number of bacteria. Flagella helps in motility. Pili or Fimbriae:- It is hair like structure. They are thinner & shorter than flagella. They allow attachment of bacterial cell to other bacterial cell surfaces.

12. Flagella Types:- There are 4 types of arrangements of flagella. 1. Monotrichous :- Single polar flagellum. 2. Lophotrichous :- Tuft or group of flagella at one pole. 3. Amphi trichous :- Single flagella at both poles. 4. Cephalo trichous :- Tuft or group of flagella at both poles. 5. Peri trichous :- Flagella all around the cell. 6. Atrichous :- An absence of flagella.

13. Flagella Types:-

14. Shape of the Bacteria:- Individual Bacteria Can Assume One Of 3 Basic Shapes: Spherical (Coccus), Rodlike (Bacillus), Or Curved (Vibrio, Spirillum, Or Spirochete). Cocci:- They are round or oval in shape. They exist in various patterns. Types of Cocci:- Diplococci:- Occurs in pairs, Eg. Gonococci. Streptococci:- Occurs in chains. Staphylococci:- Occurs in clusters Tetrads:- Occurs in Group of 4. Sarcina (Octads):- Occurs in Group of 8.

15. Bacilli (Bacillus):- They are rod or stick in shape. It is also called a bacilliform bacterium. They exist in various patterns. Types of Bacilli:- Diplobacillus:- Two bacilli arranged side by side with each other. Streptobacillus:- Occurs in chains. Coccobacillus:- Oval and similar to Coccus.

16. Spirilla (Spirillum):- They Are Non-flexible Spiral Forms. They Have One To Three Fixed Curves In Their Body. Eg. Spirillum Volutans. Vibrio:- They Are Curved Or Comma Shaped Rods. Most Of Them Are Non-pathogenic But Some Are Pathogenic. Eg. Vibrio Cholera Spirochaetes:- They Are Slender Spiral Filaments. They Are Flexible. They Live In Soil & Stagnant Pools. Eg. Treponema Pallidum

17. Bacterial Growth:- Bacteria Are Unicellular Organisms That Tend To Reproduce Asexually By The Means Of Binary Fission. Bacterial Growth Is The Increase In The Number Of Bacterial Cells Rather Than The Increase In Their Cell Size. The Growth Of These Bacterial Cells Takes Place In An Exponential Manner, i.e., One Cell Divides Into 2, Then 4, Then 8, 16, 32 And So On.

18. The Time Taken For A Bacterial Cell To Double Is Called ‘Generation Time.’ The Generation Time Varies Among Different Species Of Bacteria Based On The Environmental Conditions They Grow In. Clostridium Perfringens  Is The Fastest Growing Bacteria That Has A Generation Time Of 10 Minutes. Escherichia Coli  Has A Doubling Time Of 20 Minutes. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis  Is One Of The Slowest Growing Bacteria, Taking About 12 To 16 Hours To Double.

19. Growth Curve:- In A Closed System With Enough Nutrients, A Bacteria Shows A Predictable Growth Pattern That Is The Bacterial Growth Curve. The Bacterial Growth Curve Shows The Preparation, Division, Growth And Death Of The Bacterial Cells. The Bacterial Growth Progresses In Four Phases Namely – Lag Phase, Log Phase, Stationary Phase And Death Phase. Bacteria Require Optimum Temperature, Ph, Moisture, Oxygen, Carbon Source, Nitrogen Source And Other Nutrients

20. 1. Lag Phase:- The Bacteria Upon Introduction Into The Nutrient Medium Take Some Time To Adapt To The New Environment. In This Phase, The Bacteria Does Not Reproduce But Prepares Itself For Reproduction. The Cells Are Active Metabolically And Keep Increasing In Size. The Cells Synthesise RNA, Growth Factors And Other Molecules Required For Cell Division.

21. 2. Log Phase:- Soon after the lag phase, i.e., the preparation phase, the bacterial cells enter the log phase. This phase is also known as the exponential phase. This phase is marked by the doubling of the bacterial cells. The cell number increases. The log phase continues until there is depletion of nutrients in the setup. The stage also comes to a stop if toxic substances start to accumulate, resulting in a slower growth rate. The cells are the healthiest at this stage and researchers prefer to use bacteria from this stage for their experimental processes .

22. 3. Stationary Phase:- In The Stationary Phase, The Rate Of Growth Of The Cells Becomes Equal To Its Rate Of Death. The Rate Of Growth Of The Bacterial Cells Is Limited By The Accumulation Of Toxic Compounds And Also Depletion Of Nutrients In The Media. The Cell Population Remains Constant At This Stage. 4. Death Phase:- This Is The Last Phase Of The Bacterial Growth. At This Stage, The Rate Of Death Is Greater Than The Rate Of Formation Of New Cells. Lack Of Nutrients, Physical Conditions Or Other Injuries To The Cell Leads To Death Of The Cells.

23. Factors Influencing Growth Of Bacteria Or Microbes:- Nutrition Moisture Temperature pH Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Light & Other Radiations Osmotic Effect Mechanical & Sonic Stresses

24. 1. Nutrition:- The Growth Of Microbe Depend On Adequate Supply Of Suitable Nutrients Like Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphates, Ions & Metals. 2. Moisture:- It Is Very Essential For The Growth Of Bacteria Because 80% Of The Body Of Bacteria Is Made Up Of Water. Moist Places Are More Viable Media For Growth Of Bacteria. 3. Temperature:- Bacteria Requires Specific Temp. Range For Their Growth. Bacteria Can Be Killed By Very High Temp. & Very Low Temp. Favorable Range Is 20 ͦ- 40 ͦ C.

25. 4 . pH:- Some Bacteria Grow In Neutral Media, Some Grow In Alkaline Media & Some Grow In Acidic Media. Acidophiles :- Organisms grow at pH between 0.5-6. Neutrophiles :- Organisms grow best at pH 7. Alkaliphiles :- Organisms grow best under at pH above 7. 5 . Oxygen:- The Bacteria Which Can Grow Only In The Presence Of Oxygen Are Known As ‘Aerobic Bacteria’. This Bacteria Requires Oxygen For Life & Reproduction. Some Bacteria Can Grow In The Absence Of Oxygen Are Known As ‘Anaerobic Bacteria’. This Bacteria Does Not Requires Oxygen For Life & Reproduction. 6 . Carbon Dioxide:- Some Bacteria Requires Extra CO2 In The Air For Their Growth & Reproduction.

26. 7. Light & Other Radiations:- Bacteria Grow In Dark Places. Bacteria Can Be Destroyed Or Killed By UV Rays, Ionizing Radiations, Infrared Rays & Other Radiations. 8. Osmotic Effect:- Osmotic Pressure Changes Can Effect The Growth Of Bacteria. Sudden Changes In Osmotic Pressure Can Cause Destruction Of Bacteria. 9. Mechanical & Sonic Stresses:- Bacteria Cell Wall Can Be Ruptured & Bacteria Can Be Killed By Vigorous Shaking & Ultrasonic Vibrations.

27. Normal Flora:- The Normal Flora Are Micro-organisms Which Are Found In Or On Our Body Without Causing Any Disease. Normal Flora Arranged In Two Groups: Resident Flora:- It Is Consist Of Permanent Microorganisms Which Are Regularly Found In A Given Area. The Transient Flora:- It Is Consist Of Pathogenic Or Non-pathogenic Organisms That Stay On The Skin Or Mucus Membranes For Hours, Day Or Week. They Do Not Stay Permanently On The Surface. The most common sites of body inhabited by normal flora are the skin, eye, mouth, upper respiratory, GI & urogenital tracts.

28. Beneficial Effects Of The Normal Flora:- The Normal Flora Synthesizes And Excretes Vitamins:- For Example, In Humans, Enteric Bacteria Secrete Vitamin K And Vitamin B12, And Lactic Acid Bacteria Produce Certain B-vitamins. 2. The Normal Flora Prevents Colonization Of Pathogens:- By Competing For Attachment Sites. This Is Thought To Be Their Most Important Beneficial Effect, Which Has Been Demonstrated In The Oral Cavity, The Intestine, The Skin, And The Vaginal Epithelium. 3. The Normal Flora May Antagonize (Act-against) Other Bacteria:- Through The Production Of Substances Which Inhibit Or Kill Nonindigenous Species. The Intestinal Bacteria Produce A Variety Of Substances Such As Bacteriocins , Which Inhibit Or Kill Other Bacteria.

29. 4. The Normal Flora Stimulate The Development Of Certain Tissues:- The Caecum And Certain Lymphatic Tissues ( Peyer's Patches) In The GI Tract. 5. The Normal Flora Stimulates The Production Of Natural Antibodies. Harmful Effects Of The Normal Flora Bacterial Synergism :- Between A Member Of The Normal Flora And A Potential Pathogen Helps In Establishment Of Infection. The Normal Flora Supplying A Vitamin Or Some Other Growth Factor To Other Pathogen Needs In Order To Grow. This Is Called ” Cross-feeding”  Between Microbes.

30. 2. Induction Of A Low Grade Toxemia:- Some Minute Amounts Of Bacterial Toxins ( E.x . Endotoxin) May Be Found In The Circulation.  3. The Normal Flora May Be Agents Of Disease:- Members Of The Normal Flora May Cause Endogenous Disease If They Reach A Site Or Tissue Where They Cannot Be Restricted Or Tolerated By The Host Defenses.

31. Culturing “Growing Bacteria Under Artificial Conditions In The Laboratory Is Called As Culturing.” OR “Growing Of Bacteria Colonies In Artificial Medium Containing All Suitable Nutrients & Favorable Conditions Is Called Culturing Of Bacteria.” Growth Media Or Culture Media:- To Culture Bacteria We Provide Them Nutrients That’s Called As ‘Growth Media’ Or ‘Culture Media.’ Important Reason Behind Culturing Is Being Utility In Diagnosing Infectious Disease. Glass test tubes & glass based petri dishes are widely used for cultivating microorganisms.

32. Glass Test Tubes & Glass Based Petri Dishes

33. Uses Of Culturing Or Culture Techniques:- Isolate Bacteria In Pure Form Identify Types Of Bacteria Demonstration Of Microbe’s Properties Obtain Sufficient Growth For Preparation Of Antigens & Other Tests. Determination Of Antibiotic Sensitivity Estimate Viable Counts

34. Basic Requirements Of Culture Media:- Source Of Energy (Ex. Glucose, Lactose) Carbon (CO2) Nitrogen (Atmospheric N2) Source Of Salts Like Sulphates, Phosphates, Magnesium, Calcium Etc. Optimum pH Sterilized Water

35. Common Ingredients Of Culture Media:- Water Agar Peptone Beef Extract Blood Serum Yeast Extract Glucose

36. Agar (Just For Knowledge):- Agar Or Agar-agar, Is A Jelly-like Substance Consisting Of Polysaccharides Obtained From The Cell Walls Of Some Species Of Red Algae, Primarily From “ Ogonori ” And " Tengusa “. Agar Has Been Used As An Ingredient In Desserts Throughout Asia And Also Use In Culture Media For Microbiological Work. Agar Can Be Used As A Laxative; An Appetite Suppressant; A Thickener For Soups; In Fruit Preserves, Ice Cream. Broth (Just For Knowledge):- It is a liquid medium (soup consistency) containing proteins and other  nutrients  for the culture of bacteria.

37. Classification Or Types Of Culture Media:- On The Basis Of Consistency:- Liquid Media :- It Is Used For Biochemical Test & Antibiotic Sensitivity Motility. (Ex. Meat Extract Broth, Bile Broth) Semi Solid Media:- It Is Used To Demonstrate The Motility Of Bacteria. This Media Looks Very Soft Jelly Like. (Ex. Fluid Thioglycollate Media) Solid Media:- It Is used To Study Colonies Of Individual Bacteria. It Is Essential For Isolation Of Organism In Pure Form. (Ex. Nutrient Agar) On The Basis Of Oxygen Requirements:- Aerobic Media :- Media Which Contains Oxygen Are Called Aerobic Media. Anaerobic Media:- Anaerobic Bacteria Need Special Media For Growth Because They Need Low Oxygen Content.

38. Other Types:- Selective Media:- It Is Designed To Suppress The Growth Of Some Microorganisms While Allowing The Growth Of Others. (Ex. Thayer Martin Agar Used To Recover Neisseria Gonorrhea Contains Vancomycin, Colistin & Nystatin. Enrichment Media:- It Is Used To Increase The Relative Concentration Of Certain Microorganisms. (Ex. Selenite F Broth Tetrathionate Broth & Alkaline Peptone Water Are Used To Recover Pathogens From Fecal Specimens.) Differential Media:- Special Type Of Media Used For Differentiating Two Varieties Of Bacteria Or Other Microorganisms. (Ex. MacConkey Agar.)

39. Basal Or Simple Media:- It Is Basically Simple Media That Supports Non-fastidious Bacteria. (Ex. Peptone Water, Nutrient Broth & Nutrient Agar) [Non-Fastidious Bacteria Means:- Bacteria That Do Not Require Any Special Conditions Or Substances For Their Growth Are Called Non-fastidious Bacteria.]

40. Culture Methods:- Streak Plate Culture:- It Is Also Called Surface Plating. It Is Used For Isolation Of Bacteria In Pure Culture From Clinical Specimen.

41. Lawn Or Carpet Culture:- It Is Prepared By Flooding The Surface Of Culture Plate With A Liquid Suspension Of Bacteria By Pipette.

42. Stroke Culture:- It Is Made In Tubes Containing Agar Slope. It Is Used For Producing Pure Growth Of Bacteria For Slide Agglutination.

43. Stab Culture:- It Is Prepared By Puncturing With Charged Loop, Straight Wire.

44. Pour-plate Culture:- This Method Is Used For Counting The Number Of Living Bacteria Or Groups Of Bacteria In A Liquid Culture.

45. Liquid Culture:- Liquid Culture In Tubes, Bottles Or Flasks Is Inoculated By Touching With Charged Loop Or By Pipetting Or By Syringes.

46. Staining Definition:-“it Is A Technique Which Is Used To Enhance And Contrast A Biological Specimen At The Microscopic Level By Using Dyes. This Stains And Dyes Are Used To Highlight The Specimen At The Microscopic Level To Study It At Higher Magnification For Histopathological Studies And Diagnostic Purposes.” Application Of Staining / Uses Of Staining Used To Increase Visibility Of Microorganisms Being Studied. Used To Identify The Shape Of Bacteria. Used To Determine The Morphological Features Of Microorganisms. Used To Differentiate & Classify Microorganisms.

47. Types Of Stains:- Basic:- Crystal Violet, Gentian Violet, Methylene Blue Acidic:- Eosin, Nigrosin , Indian Ink Neutral:- Giemsa Types Of Staining:- Simple Staining Differential Staining Gram’s Stain Albert’s Stain AFB Stain Special Staining

48. What Is Smear Preparation Technique? The First Step In Most Bacterial Staining Procedures Is The Preparation Of A Smear. In A Smear Preparation, Cells From A Culture Are Spread In A Thin Film Over A Small Area Of A Microscope Slide, Dried, And Then Fixed To The Slide By Heating Or Other Chemical Fixatives.

49. What Is Smear Preparation Technique?

50. Simple Stain Technique:- Staining Can Be Performed With Basic Dyes Such As Crystal Violet Or Methylene Blue. Positively Charged Dyes That Are Attracted To The Negatively Charged Materials Of Microbial Cytoplasm. This Such Procedure Is The Simple Stain Procedure.

51. Differential Staining Technique:- This Staining Techniques Help To Differentiate Two Different Types Of Organisms. This Technique Helps To Separate Bacteria Into Two Groups. Differential Staining:- Gram’s Stain Albert’s Stain AFB Stain

52. Gram’s Staining Technique:- It Was Developed By Christian Gram. It Has Widest Application In Bacteriology. It Helps To Differentiate Gram+ve & Gram –Ve Bacteria. Most Bacteria Can Be Divided Into 2 Groups Based On The Composition Of Their Cell Wall: Gram Positive & Gram Negative. Gram Positive Cell Walls Stain Blue/Purple With A Gram Stain. Gram Negative Cell Walls Stain Pink With A Gram Stain. Gram+ve Resist Decolourization & Retain Primary Stain So Appear Dark Purple/Blue. Gram –Ve Get Decolourize So Take The Colour Of Counter Stain & Appear Pink.

53. Differential Stains Of Gram Staining:-

54. Steps Of Gram Staining:-

55. Steps / Procedure Of Gram Staining:- Make A Smear & Fix It. Stain The Slide With Crystal Violet For 1 Minute. Pour Off The Crystal Violet. (Wash Under Water) Flood Slide With Gram’s Iodine For 1 Minute. Pour Off The Iodine. (Wash Under Water) Add 95% Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) For 5-10 Seconds. Wash Slide With Water To Remove Ethyl Alcohol. Do Not Delay This Step. Flood Slide With Safranin For 45 Seconds. Wash With Water Examine Under Microscope.

56. List of Gram Positive & Gram Negative bacteria:- Gram Positive Gram Negative Staphylococcus Aureus Neisseria Meningitis & Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Streptococcus Pneumoniae Escherichia Coli ( E.Coli ) Pneumococcus Salmonella Typhi Corynebacterium Diphtheriae Pseudomonas Clostridium Tetani & Clostridium Perfringens Lactobacillus

57. Acid Fast Staining Or Ziehl Neelsen’s Staining:- It Is The Differential Staining Techniques Which Was First Developed By ‘ Ziehl ’ And Later On Modified By ‘ Neelsen ’. So This Method Is Also Called  Ziehl-neelsen Staining Techniques. The Main Aim Of This Staining Is To Differentiate Bacteria Into Acid Fast Group And Non-acid Fast Groups. This Method Is Used For Those Microorganisms Which Are Not Staining By Simple Or Gram Staining Method, Particularly The Member Of Genus Mycobacterium, Are Resistant And Can Only Be Visualized By Acid-fast Staining

58. Steps / Procedure Of Acid Fast Staining:- Prepare A Smear Using Sterile Techniques Allow Smear To Air Dry And Then Heat Fix. Cover The Smear With Carbol Fuchsin Stain. Heat The Stain Until Vapour Just Begins To Rise That Is About 60 ͦ C. Do Not Overheat. Allow The Heated Stain To Remain On The Slide For 5 Minutes. Wash Off The Stain With Water. Cover The Smear With Acid Alcohol For 15-20 Seconds Or Until The Smear Is Sufficiently Decolorized, That Is Pale Pink. Dry The Slide. Examine Under The Microscope.

59. List Of Acid Fast & Non Acid Fast Bacteria:- Acid Fast Bacteria Non Acid Fast Bacteria Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Mycoplasma Pneuomaniae Mycobacterium Leprae Escherichia Coli Nocardia Brasiliensis Staphylococcus Aureus Nocardia Cyriacigeorgica Salmonella Typhi

60. Albert Staining:- It Is Usually Used For ‘Corny Bacterium Diphtheria.’

61. Steps / Procedure Of Albert Staining:- Prepare A Smear Using Sterile Techniques And Then Fix It. Cover With Albert’s Stain For 5 Min. Wash Under Water. Cover With Albert’s Iodine For 2 Min. Wash Under Water & Dry The Slide. Examine Under The Microscope.

62. Virus:-

63. Virus:- “Viruses Are Unicellular, Ultramicroscopic Organisms, Reproduce Inside Living Cell & Covered By Protein Coat.” General Properties Of Virus:- They Don’t Have Cellular Organization. They Contain Either DNA Or RNA. They Multiply By Complex Process. They Are Unaffected By Antibiotic. They Don’t Have Necessary Enzymes For Protein & Nucleic Acid Synthesis.

64. Size:- Largest Virus Measuring 300nm. Smallest Virus Measuring 20nm. Shape:- Viruses Have Different Shape. Rabies Virus Has Bullet Shape. Pox Virus Has Brick Shape. Polio Virus Has Round Shape. Structure:- Virus Has Following Parts; Central Core Of Nucleic Acid (DNA / RNA). Protein Coat Around Core Called Capsid. Subunit Of Capsid Is Known As Capsomere. Envelope.

65. List Of DNA & RNA Viruses:- DNA Virus RNA Virus Papilloma Virus Poliovirus Human Adeno Virus Rhinovirus Herpes Virus Rabies Virus Pox Virus Mumps Virus Hepatitis-B Influenza Virus Flavi virus Rubella Virus) HIV Virus Hepatitis- A,C,D

66. List Of Common Bacterial Diseases:- Disease Pathogenic Agent Transmission Botulism Clostridium Botulinum Contaminated Food Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Contaminated Food & Water Gonorrhoea Neisseria Gonorrhoeae By Sexual Contact Typhoid Salmonella Typhi Contaminated Food & Water Tetanus Clostridium Tetani Contaminated Wound TB Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Airborne

67. List Of Common Viral Diseases:- Disease Pathogenic Agent Transmission Rabies Rabies Virus Bite Of Infected Animal (Dog) Genital Herpes Herpes Virus Sexual Transmission Chicken Pox Varicella Zoster Respiratory Tract Poliomyelitis Polio Virus Fecal-oral Route Influenza (Flu) Influenza Virus Respiratory Tract German Measles Rubella Virus Respiratory Tract AIDS HIV Sexual Transmission Common Cold Rhinovirus Respiratory Tract Dengue Dengue Virus (Flavi virus) Aedes Mosquito

68. List Of Common Fungal Diseases:- List Of Common Protozoan Diseases :- Disease Pathogenic Agent Candidiasis Candida Albicans Aspergillosis Aspergillus Fumigatus Sporotrichosis Sporothrix Schenckii Disease Pathogenic Agent Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Malaria Plasmodium species Giardiasis Giardia lamblia