MODULE 1 21BE45 Biology for engineers.pdf

Biology for Engineering integrates biological principles with engineering practices to develop innovative solutions that address complex challenges in healthcare, agriculture, environmental sustainability, and other fields. This interdisciplinary approach leverages the strengths of both biology and engineering to create technologies that can improve human life and the natural world.

1. “BiologyforEngineers”/ 21BE45
Module –1
BIOMOLECULES ANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS

2. MODULE-1
BIOMOLECULES ANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS(QUALITATIVE)
Carbohydrates(cellulose-basedwater filters,PHAand PLAasbioplastics),Nucleicacids(DNAVaccinefor
Rabies and RNA vaccines for Covid19, Forensics –DNA fingerprinting), Proteins (Proteins as food –whey
protein and meat analogs, Plant based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents), Enzymes
(glucose-oxidasein biosensors,lignolyticenzymeinbio-bleaching).

3. CARBOHYDRATESAPPLICATIONS

4. WHATARECARBOHYDRATES
•Carbohydratesaremacronutrientsandare
oneofthethreemainwaysbywhichourbody
obtainsitsenergy.
•Theyarecalledcarbohydratesasthey
comprisecarbon,hydrogenandoxygenat
theirchemicallevel.
•Carbohydratesareessentialnutrientswhich
includesugars,fibersandstarches.
•Theyarefoundingrains,vegetables,fruits
andinmilkandotherdairyproducts.
•Theyarethebasicfoodgroupswhichplayan
importantroleinahealthylife.

5. CLASSIFICATION
Simple Complex

6. APPLICATIONS
⮚Cellulose-BasedWaterFilters:
•Celluloseisapolymermade up ofglucosesubunits.
•Cellulosefilterpapersareversatileanddiversetoolsformicrofiltration,
thatworkbytrappingparticulateswithinarandommatrixofcellulose
fibers.
•Celluloseisamongthemostcommonlyusedfibersin filtrationmedia.
•Thisversatile,proven,andcost-effectivematerialismadefrom
renewableresourcesandcompatiblewithamultitudeoffilter
productionprocesses,suchasembossing,corrugating, andpleating.
•Cellulosefiltermediaiswidelyusedinarangeofapplications.Each
productplatformhasbeenhighlyengineeredtooptimizefibercontent,
structure,resinchemistry,andothercharacteristics.Common
applicationsforcellulosemediaare:
•Gasturbinefiltration
•Fuelandoilfiltration
•Engineairintakefilters
•Coalescingfilters
•Hydraulicfilters
•Processliquidoperations

7. :
▪Similartotraditionalpapermaking,cellulosemediaismanufacturedusingawetlaidprocess.Theresultisa
filtrationmediaplatformsuitableforabroadrangeoffiltrationapplications,withtheabilitytocaptureanarray
ofparticlesdowntonanoparticles.Cellulosefiltermediacanbemadefrompurecellulosefibersorcellulose
fibersmixedwithsyntheticfibersorglassfibersforenhancedproperties.Itservesasadiverseandversatile
filtrationsolutionthatfunctionsbytrappingcontaminantsandotherparticleswithinamatrixoffibers.
▪Therearedifferentgradesofcellulosefiltermediadesignedtomeetapplication-specificrequirements.Grades
areformulatedfromdifferentcombinationsoffibersandresinsystems,eachprovidingdifferentphysical
properties,chemicalresistance,filtrationefficiency,pressuredrop,andflowcharacteristics.Whileeachgrade
maydifferinitscapabilityandcomposition,allcellulosefiltermediacontainresinandcellulosefibers.
▪Cellulosefiltrationmediaoffersahostofbenefits,including
•Renewablefibersources
•Highstrengthanddurability
•Largesurfacearea
•Chemicalstability
•Temperaturestability
•Strongadhesiontoglass
•Goodvalue
▪Cellulosecanlosemechanicalstrengthincertainchemicalorhigh-temperatureenvironmentsandabsorbwater
inhigh-humidityconditions,potentiallyalteringitsfiltrationproperties.

8. ⮚PHAandPLAasbioplastics:
Bioplasticsareonetypeofplasticwhichcanbegeneratedfromnatural
resourcessuchasstarchesandvegetableoils.
1.PHA-(Polyhydroxyalkanoates)
•PHAscanbedefinedasafamilyofintracellularbiopolymersthatare
synthesizedviavariousbacteriaasintracellularcarbonandenergy
storagegranules.
•Theserenewablepolyesterscanbeproducedbyvariousmicroorganisms
inresponsetovariousstressconditions(forexample,excesscarbonor
limitedphosphate,nitrogen,sulfur,oroxygen)andprovideprotection
fromnutrientstarvationandextremeconditions.
•PHAscharacteristicsinclude,waterinsolubility,relativeresistantto
hydrolyticdegradation,biocompatibilityandsuitabilityformedical
applications,aswellasnontoxicity.
•Although,PHAsarenotwatersoluble,theyarestilldegradableand
biocompatible.Inaddition,PHAsareconsideredlessstickythanother
polymersonceheated,andtheysinkinwaterwhichfacilitatestheir
anaerobicbiodegradationinsediments.
•Duetotheirbiodegradablenature,PHAsareintendedtoreplace
syntheticnon-degradablepolymersforvariousapplications,suchas:
packaging,fastfood,medicine,biomedical,andagriculturalapplications

9. 2.PLA-(Polylacticacid)
•Polylacticacidorpolylactide(PLA)isapolyesterderivedfrom
renewablebiomass,typicallyfromfermentedplantstarch,suchas
corn,cassava,sugarcaneorsugarbeetpulp.
•PLAisapolyester(polymercontainingtheestergroup)madewith
twopossiblemonomersorbuildingblocks:lacticacid,andlactide.
•PLAisbiodegradableunderappropriateconditionsandisgenerally
regardedasfoodsafesinceitdecomposesbackintoitslacticacid
buildingblocks,whicharenon-toxic.
•However,itmustbenotedthatPLAdoesnotdegradenaturallyinthe
environmentandmustbecompostedunderaspecialsetof
conditionssuchasatemperatureofatleast60°C,andhumidityof90
%whichmustbemaintainedoveraperiodof60to90days.
•PLAdecomposesintocarbondioxide,lacticacid,andwater.
•PLAisusedinfoodpackaginganddisposablecutleryandcanbe
formedintofibersforclothing.Itisalsooneofthemostwidelyused
3Dprintingfilamentsforfuseddepositionmodeling(FDM)duetoits
lowmelttemperatureanditseaseofuse.
•ComparedtoPLA,PHAsarebothcompostableandbiodegradablein
marineenvironments.Ontheotherhand,PLAiscompostablebut
maystayforuptoathousandyearsinthemarineenvironment

10. NUCLEICACIDS
▪Nucleic acidsarenaturallyoccurringchemical
compounds thatserveastheprimary
information-carryingmoleculesincells.They
playan especiallyimportant roleindirecting
protein synthesis.Thetwomainclassesof
nucleic acidsaredeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)
andribonucleic acid(RNA).
▪Nucleicacidsarelongchainlikemolecules
composedofaseries ofnearlyidenticalbuilding
blockscalled nucleotides.
Eachnucleotideconsistsofanitrogen-containing
aromaticbaseattachedtoapentose(five-
carbon)sugar,whichisinturnattachedto
aphosphategroup.
▪Each nucleicacidcontains fouroffivepossible
nitrogen-
containingbases:adenine(A),guanine(G),cytosi
ne (C),thymine(T),anduracil(U).A andGare
categorizedaspurines,andC, T,and U are
calledpyrimidines.All nucleicacids containthe
bases A, C, and G; T,however, is found only in
DNA,whileUisfoundinRNA.

11. DNAVACCINES
▪ADNAvaccineisa type
of vaccine thattransfectsaspecific antigen-
codingDNAsequence intothe cellsof an
organismas a mechanismtoinducean
immuneresponse.
▪DNAvaccines,whichareoften referredtoas
thethird-generationvaccines,useengineered
DNAto induce an immunologicresponse inthe
hostagainstbacteria, parasites,viruses,and
potentiallycancer.
▪Likeanyothertypeofvaccine,DNAvaccines
induce anadaptiveimmuneresponse.The
basicworkingprinciplebehindanyDNA
vaccineinvolvestheuseofaDNAplasmidthat
encodesforaproteinthatoriginatedfromthe
pathogeninwhichthevaccinewillbetargeted.
▪PlasmidDNA(pDNA)isinexpensive,stable,
andrelativelysafe,therebyallowingthisnon-
viralplatformtobeconsideredan excellent
optionforgenedelivery.Some ofthedifferent
virusvectors thathavebeenusedtosource
pDNAincludeonco-retroviruses,lentiviruses,
adenoviruses,adeno-associatedviruses,and
Herpessimplex-1.

12. DNA VACCINESFORRABIES
▪Rabiesisasimple,negative-strandedRNAvirus
thatencodesfivestructuralproteins,thatis,the
nucleoprotein(NP),theglycoprotein(G),the
phosphoprotein(P), thematrixprotein(M), and
thepolymerase(L).Correlatesofprotectionare
welldefined,andvirus-neutralizingantibodies
(VNAs)present inserumattiters of orabove0.5
internationalunits(IU)/mLprovideprotection.
▪Protectionfromrabiesiscommensuratewiththe
presenceof adequateamountsofvirus
neutralizinganti-bodies,principallytargeted
againsttherabiesvirusglycoprotein.Thetoolsof
recombinantDNAtechnologyallowfacilecloning
oftheglycoproteingeneintosuit-ableexpression
vectors whichmediate efficientinvivoexpression
ofglycoprotein.
▪DNAvaccinationhasbeenpíoposedasa
cheapeíandefficientstíategyfoííabies
píophylaxis,anditsfeasibilityhasbeen
demonstíatedinanumbeíof animalmodels
includingcompanionanimals,since1994.

13. RNAVACCINES
▪Vaccineshelppreventinfectionby
preparingthebodyto fightforeigninvaders
(suchasbacteria,viruses,orother
pathogens).Allvaccinesintroduceintothe
bodyaharmlesspieceofa particular
bacteria orvirus,triggering animmune
response. Most vaccines contain a
weakenedordead bacteria orvirus.
▪However,scientistshavedeveloped anew
type ofvaccinethatusesamoleculecalled
messengerRNA(mRNA)ratherthanpartof
an actualbacteriaorvirus.Messenger
RNAis atypeofRNAthatis necessaryfor
proteinproduction.Oncecellsfinish
makingaprotein,theyquicklybreakdown
themRNA.mRNAfromvaccines does not
enterthenucleusanddoes notalterDNA.
▪mRNAvaccinesworkbyintroducing apiece
ofmRNAthatcorrespondstoaviralprotein,
usuallyasmallpieceofaprotein foundon
thevirus’soutermembrane.

14. RNAVACCINESFORCOVID-19
▪Messenger ribonucleicacid(mRNA)isamolecule
thatprovidescellswithinstructionsformaking
proteins. mRNAvaccinescontain theinstructionsfor
makingtheSARS-CoV-2spikeprotein.Thisprotein
is foundon thesurfaceof thevirusthatcauses
COVID-19.
▪COVID-19mRNAvaccinesaregivenbyinjection,
usuallyintothemuscleoftheupperarm.Afterthe
protein pieceismade,the cell breaksdownthe
instructionsandgetsridof them.ThemRNAnever
entersthecentralpart(nucleus)ofthe cell,whichis
whereourDNA(geneticmaterial)isfound.YourDNA
can'tbe alteredbymRNAvaccines.
▪Thecellthendisplaystheproteinpiece onits surface.
Ourimmunesystemrecognizesthatthe protein
doesn'tbelongthereandbeginsbuildingan immune
responseandmakingantibodies.

16. FORENSICS-DNAFINGERPRINTING
▪DNAfingerprinting(alsocalledDNA
profilingorforensicgenetics)is atechnique
employedbyforensicscientiststoassistinthe
identificationofindividualsorsamplesby
theirrespectiveDNAprofiles.
▪Althoughmore than99.1% ofthegenomeis
thesamethroughoutthehumanpopulation,
theremaining0.9%ofhumanDNAshows
variationsbetweenindividuals.
▪These variableDNAsequences,termed
polymorphicmarkers,canbe usedtoboth
differentiateandcorrelateindividuals.
▪AlecJeffreys,ageneticistattheUniversityof
LeicesterinBritain,inventedthefirstusable
versionof DNAfingerprintingin1984.Few
yearslater,a chemicalcompany,Imperial
ChemicalIndustries(ICI),launchedthefirst
kitcommerciallyavailable.

17. IsolatingtheDNA.
↓
Digestingthe DNAwiththe helpof
restrictionendonucleaseenzymes.
↓
Separatingthedigestedfragmentsas
perthefragmentsizebythe process of
electrophoresis.
↓
Blottingtheseparatedfragmentsonto
syntheticmembraneslikenylon.
↓
Hybridisingthe fragmentsusing
labelledVNTRprobes.
↓
Analysingthehybridfragments using
autoradiography.
STEPSINVOLVEDINDNAFINGERPRINTING

18. PROTEINSAS
FOOD

19. Introduction
•Allbiologicallyproducedproteinscanbe
usedasfood.However,proteinsusedas
foodscanbedefinedasthosethatare
easilydigestible,nontoxic,nutritionally
adequate,functionallyuseableinfood
productsandavailableinabundance.
•Dietaryproteinsarefoundinanimal-
basedfoods,plant-basedfoods,and
alternativesourcessuchasalgae,
bacteria,andfungi(mycoproteins).
•Traditionally,milk,meats(fishand
poultry),eggs,cerealsandoilseedshave
beenusedasmajorsourceofproteinsas
food,butasthehumanpopulationis
increasingnewsourcesofproteinsneeds
tobedevelopedtomeetthefuture
demand.

20. Wheyproteins
•Wheyisthewaterypartofthemilkremainingafterthe
proteinaceousmassthatresultsfromthecoagulationofmilk
byacidsorproteolyticenzymes.
•Itisthelargestbyproductofthedairyindustrybothin
termsofvolumeandmilksolids.
•Throughnewtechnologies,wheyanditscomponents
becomeversatileingredientsandhavehigheconomic
values.
•Wheyandwheycomponentsareviewedasvalue-added
ingredientsininfantformulas,sportsnutritionfoodsand
beverages,andotherfoodproducts.
•Wheyproductsimprovethetexture,extendsshelflife,
providesstability,improvesflowproperties,enhancesboth
thetasteandthecolourthuscanbe usedasa food
ingredient.
•Thehealthbenefitsofwheyproteinandwheyproteinshave
beena subjectof growingcommercialinterestin thecontext
ofhealth-promotingfunctionalfoods.

21. Meatanalogues
•Analoguecanbedefinedascompoundthatis
structurallysimilartoanotherbutdiffersslightlyin
composition,herethemeatanalogueisthefoodwhich
structurallysimilartomeatbutdiffersincomposition.
•Meatanaloguesareplant-basedproductsdesignedto
replacemeat.
•Thesupplementofproteininvegetariandietthrough
meatalikefoodcanbefulfilledbyincorporating
proteinrichvegetativefoodgradematerialsinmeat
analogueandbyadoptingpropertechnologicalprocess
whichcanpromotetheproperfabricationofmeat
analoguewithacceptablemeatliketexture,
appearance,flavoretc.

22. Examples ofmeatalternativesinclude:
•Mycoprotein–proteinsourcedfromfungi:
➢Mycoproteinisameatsubstitutemadefromafunguscalled
Fusariumvenenatum.
➢Thisspeciesoffungusishighinprotein,isabletobegrownin
largequantitiesandtobe formedintoasolidend-product.
•Tofu(beancurd)–madefromcoagulatedsoymilk:
➢Itisproducedinasimilarwaytocheese,withthemost
importantstepbeingthecoagulationofproteinsfrom
soybeansthenthesecoagulatedproteinsarepressedinto
blocks.
•Tempeh–fermentedsoybeanspressedintoblocks:
➢Tomaketempeh,wholesoybeansarefermented(broken
down)byafunguscalledRhizopusoligosporus.
➢Tempehhasastrongerflavourandtypicallyafirmer
consistency.It canbeagedtodevelop this flavourfurther.
•Texturedvegetableprotein(TVP)–fromsoybeans:
➢Texturedvegetableprotein(TVP)ismadefromaby-product
ofsoybeanoilproduction.Theproteinisseparatedfromthe
fat and formed into various shapes.

23. Plantbasedproteins
•Atransition towardsamoresustainabledietentailsless
reliance on animal-based proteins, instigating agri-food
industriestosearchfornoveland alternativeprotein
sources.
•Plant basedproteinrefersto plant-basedproductsthatare
directreplacement toanimal-basedproteinproducts.
•Theseproductsusethebiomimicryapproachtoreplicatethe
animal-basedproteinproductsintermsoftextureand flavor.
•Plantsourceslikesoy,lentils,jackfruit,broccoli,ragietc.,can
beusedtomakeproductsthatcanreplaceanimal-based
meat,eggandseafood.
•Plantproteinsarederivedmostlyfrom‘cerealsandcereal
products’(24%),‘rice,pastaandbread’foodgroup(18%),
followedby‘vegetablesandpotatoes’(8%),‘fruit’(1%),and
‘nutsandseeds’(1%).
•Plant-protein-baseddairyandmeatalternativescanprovide
anequalquantityatsignificantlylowercostswhilereducing
forestdestructionandgreenhousegasemissions.

24. LIPIDS
▪Lipidsarefatty,waxy,oroilycompoundsthat
aresolubleinorganicsolventsandinsoluble
inpolarsolventssuchaswater.Lipidsinclude:
✓Fatsandoils (triglycerides)
✓Phospholipids
✓Waxes
✓Steroids
▪Lipidsarean essentialcomponentofthecell
membrane.Thestructureistypicallymadeof a
glycerolbackbone,2 fattyacidtails
(hydrophobic),andaphosphategroup
(hydrophilic).Assuch,phospholipidsare
amphipathic.
▪Inthecell membrane, phospholipidsare
arrangedinabilayermanner,providingcell
protectionandservingasa barriertocertain
molecules. The hydrophilicpartfacesoutward
andthe hydrophobicpartfacesinward.This
arrangement helpsmonitorwhichmolecules can
enterandexitthe cell.

25. BIODIESEL
▪Biodieselisanalternativefuelsimilartoconventional
or ‘fossil’diesel.Biodieselcanbe producedfrom
straightvegetableoil,animaloil/fats,tallowandwaste
cookingoil.Theprocessusedtoconverttheseoilsto
Biodieseliscalledtransesterification.
▪Thelargestpossiblesourceofsuitableoilcomes from
oilcropssuchasrapeseed,palmor soybean.IntheUK
rapeseedrepresents thegreatest potentialfor
biodieselproduction. Mostbiodieselproducedat
presentisproducedfromwastevegetableoilsourced
fromrestaurants,chipshops,industrialfoodproducers
suchasBirdseyeetc.
▪Biodieselhasmanyenvironmentallybeneficial
properties.Themainbenefitofbiodiesel isthatitcan
be describedas‘carbonneutral’.Thismeansthatthe
fuelproducesno net outputofcarboninthe formof
carbon dioxide(CO2).Thiseffectoccurs becausewhen
the oilcropgrowsitabsorbsthesameamountofCO2
as isreleasedwhenthefueliscombusted.
Rapeseed fieldsproducevividcolours

26. CLEANINGAGENTS/DETERGENTS
▪[email protected] mixtureof surfactantsthathas
cleaningpropertiesindilutesolutionwithwater.Adetergentissimilartosoap,but
4
with ageneralstructureR-SO
-
,Na
+
,whereRisalong-
[email protected]
▪Likesoaps,detergentsareamphiphilic,meaningthey havebothhydrophobicand
hydrophilicregions.Mostdetergentsareakylbenzenesulfonates.
▪Detergentstendtobemoresolubleinthan soapbecausethesulfonate ofdetergent
doesn't bindcalcium and other inhardwateraseasilyasthecarboxylateinsoap
does.
▪TypesofDetergents:
▪Anionicdetergents:[email protected] netnegative
electricalcharge.Commercialanionicdetergentsareusuallyalkylbenezesulfonates.
The alkylbenzene is lipophilic and hydrophobic, so it can interact with fats and oils.
Thesulfonateishydrophilic,soitcanwashawaysoilinginwater.
▪Cationicdetergents:Cationicdetergentshavea netpositiveelectricalcharge.The
chemicalstructuresofcationicdetergentsaresimilartothose ofanionicdetergents,
butthe sulfonategroupis replacedbyquaternaryammonium.

27. ▪Non-ionicdetergents:Non-ionicdetergentscontainanunchargedhydrophilicgroup.
Usually,thesecompoundsarebasedonaglycoside(sugaralcohol)orpolyoxyethylene.
Examplesofnon-ionicdetergentsincludeTriton,Tween,Brij,octylthioglucoside,and
maltoside.
▪Zwitterionicdetergents:Zwitterionicdetergentshaveequalnumbersof+1and-1
charges,sotheirnetchargeis0.An exampleisCHAPS,whichis3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)
dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate.

28. ENZYMESAPPLICATIONS

29. WHATAREENZYMES
•Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts(alsoknownas
biocatalysts)thatspeedupbiochemicalreactionsin
livingorganisms,andwhichcanbeextractedfrom
cellsandthenusedtocatalyzeawiderangeof
commerciallyimportantprocesses.
•Eachenzymehasan“activesite”whichhasaunique
shape.Thesubstanceanenzymeworksonisa
substratewhichalsohasauniqueshape.
•Theenzymeandthesubstratemustfittogetherto
work.
•Theenzymeisnotdestroyedduringthereactionand
isusedoverandover.
•Acellcontainsthousandsofdifferenttypesofenzyme
molecules,eachspecifictoaparticularchemical
reaction.
•Enzymesneedoptimumconditionstowork.If
conditionsaren’tright,enzymescanchangeshape
hence,thesubstratenolongerfitsandreactiondoesn’t
occur.

30. CLASSIFICATION
Accordingtothetypeofreactionsthattheenzymescatalyze,enzymesareclassifiedintosevencategories,
whichareoxidoreductases,transferases,hydrolases,lyases,isomerases,ligases,andtranslocases.
Oxidoreductases,transferasesandhydrolasesarethemostabundantformsofenzymes.Individualenzyme
classesarefurtherclassifiedsystematicallybasedonthechemicalnameofthesubstrateanditsreaction
mechanism.

31. APPLICATIONS
⮚Bio-Sensors:
•Abiosensorisadevicethatusesalivingorganismorbiologicalmolecules,
especiallyenzymesorantibodies,todetect thepresenceofchemicals.
•Glucosesensorsarebiosensorsdesignedtodetectglucoselevels,whichisvital
tomanagingdiabetesanduseGlucoseoxidaseenzymes fordetection.
•Glucose oxidase (GOx)is a subset ofoxidoreductase enzymes.
•Glucoseoxidase,alongwithcatalase,isusedinglucosetestingkits(especially
inbiosensors)todetectandmeasurethepresenceofglucoseinindustrialand
biologicalsolutions(e.g.,bloodandurinespecimens).
•Thebiosensorhasabienzymaticsensorphaseconsistingofglucoseoxidase
andhorseradishperoxidase(HRP),withferrocyanideasanelectron-transfer
mediator.
•Theenzymeglucoseoxidasereactswithglucose,water,andoxygentoform
gluconicacidand hydrogenperoxide.
•Thehydrogenperoxidecanthenbeusedtooxidizeachromogenorthe
consumptionofoxygenmeasuredtoestimate theamountofglucosepresent.
•UsuallyHRPcatalysestheoxidationofferrocyanidetoferricyanide,consuming
thehydrogenperoxidepreviouslygenerated.
•Theanalyticalsignalisthecurrentintensityduetotheelectrochemical
reductionoftheenzymaticallygeneratedferricyanideandGlucoselevelis
estimatedbymeasuringtheamountof ferricyanideproduced.

32. ⮚Bio-Bleaching:
•Theuseofbacteriaorenzymesorbiologicalagentsintheremovalofcolor
istermedasbiobleaching.
•Generalconcernabouttheenvironmentalimpactofchlorinebleaching
effluentshasledtoatrendtowardstotallychlorinefreebleaching
methods.
•Organochlorinecompoundshavebeenthematterofconcerninthepulp
andpaperindustry.Thesecompoundsareproducedmainlybythe
reactionsbetweenresidualligninpresentinwoodfibersandthechlorine
usedforbleaching.
•Someofthesecompoundsarefoundtobetoxic,mutagenic,persistent,
bioaccumulatingandtocauseharmtobiologicalsystemshence,
considerableinteresthasbeenfocusedontheuseofbiotechnologyinpulp
bleaching,aslargenumberofmicrobesandtheenzymesproducedbythem
areknowntobecapableofpreferentialdegradationofnativeligninand
completedegradationofwood.
•Ligninolyticenzymesaremosteffectivebecauseitdirectlyattacksonlignin.
•Lignin-oxidizingspeciesarecalledwhiterotfungi,becausetheytypically
turnwoodwhiteasitdecays.
•Ligninolyticenzymesplayakeyroleindegradationanddetoxificationof
lignocellulosicwasteinenvironment.Themajorligninolyticenzymesare
laccase,ligninperoxidase,manganeseperoxidase,andversatile
peroxidase.
•Ligninolyticenzymesidentifiedtillnowareidentifiedasextracellular,
nonspecificenzymesparticipatinginvariousoxidativereactions,wherever
bondsbetweenthebasicunitsandthearomaticstructureofligninarebroken.