Navigating Post-Quantum Blockchain: Resilient Cryptography in Quantum Threats

In the rapidly evolving landscape of blockchain technology, the advent of quantum computing poses unprecedented challenges to traditional cryptographic methods. As quantum computing capabilities advance, the vulnerabilities of current cryptographic standards become increasingly apparent.

This presentation, "Navigating Post-Quantum Blockchain: Resilient Cryptography in Quantum Threats," explores the intersection of blockchain technology and quantum computing. It delves into the urgent need for resilient cryptographic solutions that can withstand the computational power of quantum adversaries.

Key topics covered include:

An overview of quantum computing and its implications for blockchain security.
Current cryptographic standards and their vulnerabilities in the face of quantum threats.
Emerging post-quantum cryptographic algorithms and their applicability to blockchain systems.
Case studies and real-world implications of quantum-resistant blockchain implementations.
Strategies for integrating post-quantum cryptography into existing blockchain frameworks.
Join us as we navigate the complexities of securing blockchain networks in a quantum-enabled future. Gain insights into the latest advancements and best practices for safeguarding data integrity and privacy in the era of quantum threats.

1. International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security (ReDCySec2023)
30-31 May, 2024
Organized by Center for Cyber Security and Cryptology, Sharda University
Presenter:
Paper ID:
Navigating Post-Quantum Blockchain: Resilient
Cryptography in Quantum Threats
by
Dr AnupamTiwari, Ph.D
#7
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

2. —Problem Statement
—Introduction
—Cryptographic Primitives in Blockchain Technology
—Vulnerabilities of current cryptography to QC attacks in Blockchain Technology
—Foundations of PQC
—Literature Review
—Current State
—Challenges
—Conclusion
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024
PRESENTATION LAYOUT

3. International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024
NavigatingPost-Quantum Blockchain:Resilient
CryptographyinQuantumThreats
PROBLEM STATEMENT

4. INTRODUCTION
—BlockchainbanksheavilyonCRYPTOGRAPHY
—Blockchainimpartsallit’swellknowncharacteristicsattributedtoCRYPTOGRAPHY
•Transparency
•Redundancy
•Accountability
•Immutability
•Decentralization
•Consensus-Proof-of-work
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

5. TraditionalCRYPTOGRAPHIC algorithms,whichhaveeffectively
demonstrateddataintegrityandprivacy,nowareconfrontedwith
QUANTUMCOMPUTERS
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024
INTRODUCTION

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WELL KNOWN ENCRYPTION & HASHING ALGORITHMS

7. RSA:Basedonprimefactorization
difficulty.
AES:Utilizessubstitution-permutation
network.
DES:EmploysFeistelnetwork
structure.
ECC:Reliesonellipticcurve
properties.
Diffie-Hellman:Solvesdiscrete
logarithmproblem.
SHA:UsesMerkle-Damgårdconstruction
Blowfish:VariablekeylengthFeistel
network.
Twofish:Variablekeysizesubstitution-
permutationnetwork.
DSA:Modular exponentiationfor
signatures.
RC4:Streamcipherfordataencryption.
Well known Encryption and Hashing Algorithms
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8. Where is Cryptography used in Blockchain Technology?
—HashFunctions
•DataIntegrity
•DigitalSignaturesandAuthenticity
—Public-KeyInfrastructure(PKI)andKeyExchange
•CryptographicRandomNumberGenerators
•Merkletrees
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9. VULNERABILITIES OF CURRENT CRYPTOGRAPHY TO QC ATTACKS
IN
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

10. Vulnerabilities of Current Cryptography to QC Attacks in BCT
—Shor'sAlgorithm
•Quantumalgorithmforfactoringlargeintegers.
•ThreatenssecurityofRSAandothercryptographicschemes.
•Exponentialspeedupoverclassicalfactoringalgorithms.
•Basisforpotentialquantumattacksonmodernencryption.
•DiscoveredbyPeterShorin1994.
—Grover'sAlgorithm
•Quantumsearchalgorithmforunsorteddatabases.
•Quadraticspeedupcomparedtoclassicalsearch.
•Implicationsforbreakingsymmetrickeycryptography.
•DiscoveredbyLovGroverin1996.
Shor'salgorithmthreatens
AsymmetricEncryptionby
efficientlyfactoringlarge
numbers, compromising
security.
Grover'salgorithmposesa
threattoSymmetricEncryption
byspeedingupbrute-force
attacks, reducing its
effectiveness.
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Asymmetric Encryption Algorithms
Symmetric Encryption Algorithms
CONTEXT PQC

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AsymmetricEncryptionAlgorithms
•Generallymorevulnerabletoquantumthreatscomparedto
symmetricencryptionalgorithms.
•Arisesfromthefactthatmanyasymmetricencryptionalgorithmsrely
onmathematicalproblemsthatcanbeefficientlysolvedbyquantum
computers

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SymmetricEncryptionAlgorithms
•Consideredtobelessvulnerabletoquantumthreatsbecausetheydo
notrelyonthesamemathematicalproblemsasasymmetricencryption.
•TypicallybasedonoperationssuchasPermutations,Substitutions,
andBitwiseoperationsratherthanthemathematicalproblemsthat
asymmetricencryptionalgorithmsrelyon.

14. Thus
•EmergenceofQuantumComputingraisesconcernsaboutthefuture
securityofblockchainnetworksrelyingontraditionalcryptographicmethods.
•Transitioningtopost-quantumcryptographicmethodsisimperativeto
ensurethecontinuedsecurityofdigitalcommunicationandassetprotection
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

15. Foundations of Post
Quantum Cryptography
(PQC)
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16. Foundations of Post
Quantum Cryptography
(PQC) •Quantumcryptographyreliesonthe
principlesofquantummechanicsto
securecommunicationchannels.
•Unlikeclassicalcryptography,quantum
cryptographyutilizesthebehaviorof
particleslikephotonstocreatesecure
communicationprotocols.
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

17. •Qubits
•Superposition
•Entanglement
•Quantum Gates
•Quantum Algorithms
•De-coherence & Error Correction
•Quantum Measurement
Foundations of Post
Quantum Cryptography
(PQC)
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18. •Qubits:Quantumcomputing'score,likeclassicalbits
•Superposition:Qubitscanrepresent0and1simultaneously,boostingcomputationalpower.
•Entanglement:Qubitscanbecorrelatedregardlessofdistance,enhancingcomputationalcapabilities.
•QuantumGates:Manipulatequbitstoperformoperationslikeclassicallogicgates.
•QuantumAlgorithms:Leveragequbitstosolveproblemsexponentiallyfasterthanclassicalmethods.
•De-coherence&ErrorCorrection:Techniquescounteracterrorscausedbyenvironmentalfactors.
•QuantumMeasurement:Processcollapsesqubitstates,providingclassicaloutputfromquantum
computations.
Foundations of PQC
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19. •Intheworldofcomputers,informationisbuiltonbits,tinyswitchesthatareeitheron(1)oroff(0).
•Quantumcomputerstakethingsastepfurtherwithqubits.Thesearelikebits,butweirder.
•Aqubitcanbe1,0,orbothatthesametime(superposition),thankstothestrangenessofquantum
mechanics.Imagineacoinspinning–it'sbothheadsandtailsuntilyoustopitandlook.
•Thisletsqubitsexploremanypossibilitiessimultaneously,makingthemsuperchargedfortackling
problemsthatwouldtakeregularcomputersforever.
•Here'sthecatch:qubitsaredelicate.Measuringthemforcesthemtobea1or0,collapsingtheir
superposition.Butifwecanharnessthem,theyholdimmensepotentialforrevolutionizingfieldslike
medicine,materialsscience,andcryptography.Thinkofitasunlockingawholenewwayofprocessing
information,withqubitsasthekey.
QUBITS

20. •QubitsvsBits:Qubits,thebuildingblocksofquantumcomputers,differfromclassicalbits.Whilebits
arerestrictedto0or1,qubitscanbeinasuperpositionofbothstatesatonce.
•SuperpositionExplained:This"both-at-once"statearisesfromquantummechanics.Mathematically,a
qubit'sstateisacombinationof|0>and|1>withprobabilitiesencodedbycomplexnumbers(amplitudes).
•BasisStates:The|0>and|1>statesarethefoundationforqubits.Theyactasreferencepointsfor
describingmorecomplexquantumstates.
•BlochSphereVisualization:Thismathematicaltooldepictsaqubit'sstateasapointonasphere.The
positiondependsontheamplitudesassociatedwiththebasisstates.
•ParallelProcessingPower:Superpositionallowsmultiplequbitstoexplorenumerouspossibilities
simultaneously.Thisunlockstheabilitytotackleproblemsthatwouldoverwhelmclassicalcomputers.
•FragileNature:Measuringaqubitforcesittocollapseintoadefinitestate(0or1),destroyingthe
superposition.Carefulcontrolisneededtoharnessitspotential.
SUPERPOSITION

21. •TwinQubits:Imaginetwoqubitslinkedliketwins.Thisisentanglement,wheretheirfatesare
connected.
•InstantaneousConnection:Achangeinoneentangledqubitinstantlyaffectstheother,nomatterthe
distance.(Think:Separatedcoinsflippingthesamewayeverytime!)
•NotTeleportation:Entanglementdoesn'ttransmitinformationfasterthanlight,butallowsforpowerful
correlationsinquantumalgorithms.
•BeyondBits:Unlikeclassicalbits,entangledqubitsshareasinglequantumstate,defyingclassical
physics.
•UnlockingPotential:Entanglementholdspromiseforsecurecommunicationandsolvingcomplex
problemsinvariousfields.
ENTANGLEMENT: SPOOKY ACTION AT A DISTANCE

22. •TheToolsoftheTrade:Quantumgatesarelikelogicgatesinclassicalcomputers,butforqubits.They
manipulatethesuperpositionandentanglementofqubits.
•FlippingandCombining:CommongateslikeHadamardandCNOTcanflipaqubit'sstate(0to1or
viceversa)orcombinethestatesoftwoentangledqubits.
•BuildingQuantumCircuits:Bycombiningdifferentgatesinspecificsequences,wecreatequantum
circuitstoperformcomplexcalculations.
•UnlockingPotential:Quantumgatesallowustocontrolandorchestratetheuniquepropertiesof
qubits,pavingthewayforsolvingproblemsintractableforclassicalcomputers.
•PrecisionisKey:Quantumgatesaredelicate,requiringprecisecontroltomaintainthefragilequantum
statesofqubits.
QUANTUM GATES: THE ARCHITECTS OF QUBIT MAGIC

23. •BeyondClassicalLimits:Unlikeclassicalalgorithmsdesignedforbits,quantumalgorithmsleverage
thepowerofsuperpositionandentanglement.
•TacklingtheIntractable:Thesealgorithmscansolvecertainproblemsexponentiallyfasterthan
classicalcomputers,especiallythoseinvolvingcomplexoptimizationorlargesimulations.
•FamousExamples:Shor'sAlgorithmcouldbreakmanyencryptionstandards,whileGrover'sAlgorithm
canspeedupsearchtasks.
•StillUnderDevelopment:Quantumalgorithmsareayoungfield,constantlyevolvingandbeing
optimizedforspecifictasks.
•TheFutureisQuantum:Masteringthesealgorithmswillunlockbreakthroughsinfieldslikedrug
discovery,materialsscience,andfinancialmodeling.
QUANTUM ALGORITHMS

24. •Decoherenceistheenemyofqubits.It'sthelossoftheirdelicatequantumstatesduetointeractions
withtheenvironment,makingthembehaveclassically(0or1).
•KeepingitQuantum:Quantumerrorcorrectionfightsback.Thesetechniquesusemultiplequbitsto
encodeinformationredundantly,detectingandcorrectingerrorscausedbydecoherence.
•LikeFortKnoxforQubits:Errorcorrectioncodesactlikeshields,protectingthefragilesuperposition
ofqubitsduringcomputations.
•TheChallengeRemains:Implementingeffectiveerrorcorrectionrequiresmanyextraqubits,makingit
ahurdleforlarge-scalequantumcomputers.
•TheRaceisOn:Researchersareconstantlydevelopingnewerrorcorrectionmethodstopavetheway
forrobustandreliablequantumcomputations.
DE-COHERENCE & ERROR CORRECTION

25. •ExtractingtheUnknown:Unlikeclassicalbits,qubitsholdprobabilisticinformation.Measurement
aimstoextractthisinformationfromaqubit(orentangledqubits)existinginsuperposition(both0and1).
•SuperpositionCollapse:Measurementforcesthe"both-at-once"statetocollapse.Thequbitisforced
intoadefinitestate(0or1)–aone-waytrip.
•ProbabilisticOutcomes:Forgetcertainties!Weonlygettheprobabilityoffindingthequbitinaspecific
state(0or1)aftermeasurement,basedonitswavefunctionbefore.
•TheObserverEffect:Measurementrequiresinteractionwithadevice,disruptingthequbitandforcing
collapse.Thisinteractionhighlightshowtheactofmeasurementitselfinfluencesthesystem.
•BridgingTwoWorlds:Quantummeasurementconnectstheprobabilisticworldofqubitswiththe
classicalworldofdefinitestates.Itprovidesinformation,butfundamentallyaltersthemeasuredsystem.
QUANTUM MEASUREMENT

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LITERATURE REVIEW

27. Hash Function(s) Used Blockchain Platforms
SHA-256
Bitcoin, Ripple (XRP), Bitcoin Cash, TRON, VeChain,
Stellar, Algorand, NEM, Hedera Hashgraph
Keccak-256 (SHA-3)
Ethereum, Binance Smart Chain, Cardano, Polkadot,
Solana, EOS
Blake2b Binance Smart Chain, Cardano
Scrypt Litecoin, Multichain
CryptoNight Monero
Kerl (Custom Hash Function) IOTA
X11 (Combination of Hash Functions) Dash
Equihash (Memory-Bound Proof-of-Work) Zcash
RIPEMD-160 Bitcoin, Tezos, NEO
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[8]:Systemdesignhasbeenproposedthatschemesavotingsystemonthe
blockchain,incorporatingPQCofferingasystematicandcriticalviewtowardslaying
downaquantum-resistantblockchainfornearfutureonlinevotingsystemsinthe
PQCeraahead.
[9]addressesthechallengeofcollaboratingnetworkserviceswithheterogeneous
devicesfromvariousvendorsbyleveragingblockchaintechnology.
ResearchalsoexplorestheintegrationofPQCalgorithmstosafeguardagainst
futurethreatsanddemonstratessuperiorwriteperformanceofQuorumBlockchain
byexploitingPQCalgorithmshortestvectorproblem(SVP)inalattice.

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[12]:EmploysGrobnerbasisalgorithmsoverfinitefields,biddingbettersecurity
againstpossiblequantumattacks
Grobnerbasisalgorithms
Specialkindofsetofpolynomialsthatcapturesthe
essenceofalargerset.Likehavingabunchofcomplex
polynomialequations&aGrobnerbasisrendersa
simplifiedsetthatholdsalltheessential
informationabouttheoriginalequations,makingit
easiertoanalyze.

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[12]:EmploysGrobnerbasisalgorithmsoverfinitefields,biddingbettersecurity
againstpossiblequantumattacks
[13]:ConcentratingspecificallyonBitcoin&Ethereum,theauthorsdemonstratehow
theseplatformsenableprimitivestoensuredataintegrity,authenticity,andnon-
repudiationandthentheyacknowledgethepotentialthreatposedbyemergentQC
advancements.TheauthorsforeseeafuturewhereBCTnetworksemployNIST-
recommendedPQCprimitives,ascertainingtheircontinuedpracticalityintheQCera.

33. Primitive Name Vulnerability Quantum Attack Impact on Blockchain Security
Elliptic Curve
Cryptography
Shor'sAlgorithm
Breaks ECC algorithms used for digital
signatures and key exchange
Loss of transaction integrity, unauthorized access to
funds, and potential manipulation of the ledger
RSA Shor's Algorithm
Breaks RSA algorithms used for digital
signatures and key exchange
Similar impact as ECC
SHA-256 Grover's Algorithm
Enables finding collisions with
considerably less effort
Potential for forging transactions and compromising
data integrity
ECDSA Signatures Shor's Algorithm Breaks ECDSA signature scheme Loss of transaction authenticity and non-repudiation
MerkleTrees Grover's Algorithm
Speeds up finding preimages and
second preimages
Potential for forging transactions and compromising
data integrity
Proof-of-Work Grover's Algorithm
Enables finding solutions to PoW
puzzles with reduced computational
effort
Potential for mining dominance and centralization of
the network

34. Most PQC algorithms base
their security on one or
more of the mathematical
problems
PQC methods with
differentmathematical
foundations
Lattice Based
Code Based
Multivariate
Polynomial
Hash Based
IsogenyBased
Post-Quantum
Key Exchange
Hybrid
Cryptographic
Schemes
Super-Singular
Elliptic Curve

35. Most PQC algorithms base
their security on one or
more of the mathematical
problems
Lattice Based
Code Based
Multivariate
Polynomial
Hash Based
IsogenyBased
Post-Quantum
Key Exchange
Hybrid
Cryptographic
Schemes
Super-Singular
Elliptic Curve
PQCmethodsthataretobe
takenseriouslybelongto5
familiesthatdifferin
mathematicalfoundations

36. •BuildingwithLattices:Thisapproachleveragesmathematicalstructurescalledlattices–gridsof
pointsformedbyintegercombinationsofvectors.
•HardProblems,SecureKeys:Thesecurityoflattice-basedPQCreliesonthedifficultyofsolving
specificlatticeproblemsinpolynomialtime,evenforquantumcomputers.Thinkcomplexmazeswithno
easyescape!
•Encryption&Signatures:Lattice-basedschemesofferbothencryptionanddigitalsignature
functionalities,crucialforsecurecommunicationanddataintegrityinthequantumage.
•StandardizationontheHorizon:Promisinglattice-basedPQCalgorithmslikeCRYSTALS-KYBERand
CRYSTALS-Dilithiumareundergoingstandardization,pavingthewayforreal-worldadoption.
LATTICE IS SPECIAL TODAY

37. Approaches of Post Quantum Cryptography
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Based on Description TRL
Lattice Based Mathematical structures based on grids of points andDefined by basis
vectors
4
Code Based Relies on error-correcting codes for its security 3
Multivariate Polynomial Employs systems of polynomial equations for cryptographic security.2
Hash Based Leverages the collision resistance 4
IsogenyBased Involves the complexity of computing isogenies between elliptic curves. 5

38. Primitive Name Potential Post-Quantum Replacement Algorithm
Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Lattice-based cryptography, multivariate cryptography, Supersingular
Isogeny Diffie-Hellman (SIDH)
RSA
Lattice-based cryptography, multivariate cryptography, post-quantum RSA
(PQ-RSA)
SHA-256 Quantum-resistant Merkletrees
ECDSA Signatures Lattice-based signatures, multivariate signatures, XMSS
Merkle Trees
Quantum-resistant Merkletrees with alternative collision-resistant hash
functions
Proof-of-Work
Quantum-resistant PoWalgorithms, post-quantum consensus
mechanisms
Potential Post-Quantum Replacement Algorithm
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024

39. Mechanism Name Latency Throughput
Energy
Consumption
Scalability
Suitability for Different Blockchain Use
Cases
Lattice-based Moderate Moderate High Good
Suitable for public and permissioned
blockchains
Multivariate BFT Low Moderate Low Good
Suitable for resource-constrained private
blockchains
Isogeny Moderate High Moderate Good
Suitable for high-throughput applications
and public blockchains
Hash-based Low Moderate Low Good
Suitable for private blockchainsrequiring
fast consensus
Quantum-resistant
Proof of Work (PoW)
High Low High Moderate
Suitable for public blockchainsrequiring
high security and decentralization
Quantum-resistant
Proof of Stake (PoS)
Moderate Moderate Low Good
Suitable for public and permissioned
blockchains
PQC MECHANISMS: PERFORMANCE & SUITABILITY FOR BLOCKCHAIN

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CURRENT STATE

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45. NISTchosefourfinalistalgorithmsinJuly2022forpost-quantumcryptography.
Thefourthstandard(FALCON)willreleaseitsdraftforcommentsin2024.
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024
CRYSTALS-Kyber : Latticemethod for asymmetric encryption.
CRYSTALS-Dilithium: Latticemethod, it is used for digital signature.
FALCON : Signature method is also based on lattices.
SPHINCS+ : Hash-basedSPHINCS+ is another signature method
NIST also identified many additional candidates to be evaluated which also include non-lattice-based
choices.

46. NISTchosefourfinalistalgorithmsinJuly2022forpost-quantumcryptography.
Thefourthstandard(FALCON)willreleaseitsdraftforcommentsin2024.
International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024
CRYSTALS-Kyber : Latticemethod for asymmetric encryption.
CRYSTALS-Dilithium: Latticemethod, it is used for digitalsignature.
FALCON : Signaturemethod is also based on lattices.
SPHINCS+ : Hash-basedSPHINCS+ is another signaturemethod
NIST also identified many additional candidates to be evaluated which also include non-lattice-based
choices.

47. InadditiontoNIST,GermanfederalofficeBSIrecommendstwoPQCmodels
• ClassicMcEliece
• FrodoKEM
IETFhasproposedtwohashbasedmodels
• XMSS(RFC8391)
• Leighton-Micali(RFC8554)
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Literature Review Summary
-15 Papers explored with Lattice based PQC in maximum
-Voting enabled on blockchain applications
-Max demonstrations limited to Ethereumblockchain and few on Quoram
-QKD for Quantum-Safe Smart Contracts
-Mostly Theoretical frameworks
-Lack of Quantum research resources
-Promising and Definite association of Blockchain and PQC
-Threats and repercussions to Smart Contracts
-Existing Governance Mechanisms in place

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CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING PQC IN BLOCKCHAIN

50. Challenges of Implementing PQC in Blockchain
—PerformanceandEfficiency
•PQCalgorithmsdemandmorecomputation,potentiallyslowingdownblockchainplatforms.
—InteroperabilityandCompatibility
•IntegratingPQCrequiresmajorupdatestoblockchainprotocolsforcompatibilitywithexistingsystems.
•LackofstandardizedPQCalgorithmscanleadtocompatibilityissuesacrossblockchainplatforms.
—SecurityConsiderationsinTransitioningtoPQC
•PQCimplementationsarevulnerabletoside-channelattacks.
—Migration
•LikewiseforanymigrationinPQCbyNIST,thereexistsanumberofchallenges
—CurrentChipArchitectures
•CurrentcardchiparchitecturesaredesignedforRSAorDiffie-Hellmankeysandhaveacorrespondingcoprocessor.
•Incontrast,theyarenotdesignedtoperformlatticeor,codeoperations,certainlynotwiththenecessarykeylengths.
•Revisionofcurrentchiparchitecturesisthereforeanimportantchallengeforthecomingyears
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Conclusion
•Solution without a problem
•Cryptoagility
•Ability of a cryptographic system to rapidly adapt and evolve in response to new
threats, vulnerabilities, or technological advancements
•Realisationof threat by state
•Harvest now Decrypt Later
•Blockchain future readiness imminent
•AI arrival spoils the scenario further

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References

54. International Conference on Recent Developments in Cyber Security-ReDCySec-2024