non conventional energy resorses material unit-1

The objectives of this course are to:
• Understand the anatomy, classification, and technical specifications of industrial robots, including actuator and drive systems.
• Learn the integration and application of various contact and non-contact sensors for robot perception, and analyze kinematics using DH parameters and Jacobian methods.
• Gain knowledge of industrial robot installation, calibration procedures, and mastering techniques, including calibration of tools, workpieces, and robot systems.
• Develop the ability to analyze statics and dynamics of robot manipulators using Newton-Euler and Euler-Lagrange formulations, and perform load calibration and repeatability testing.
• Acquire skills in modeling and controlling robotic systems through transfer function and state-space approaches, and understand robot programming, safety systems, norms, and standards.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
After successful completion of the course, students will be able to:
CO1: Classify and explain industrial robots, interpret manufacturer datasheets, and
select appropriate actuators and drives based on application needs.
CO2: Perform kinematic analysis (forward, inverse, and differential motion) of robot
manipulators, and compute degrees of freedom using Grubler-Kutzbach criterion
CO3: Apply various calibration techniques to install and commission industrial robots
accurately, including tool center point and workpiece calibration
CO4: Analyze and compute forces, moments, and dynamic behavior of robot links;
carry out load data calibration and repeatability tests compliant with standards
like ISO 9283:1998
CO5: Design and tune feedback control systems (PID controllers) for robotic joints,
implement robot safety systems, and write basic industrial robot programs.
.

UNIT I: (10 Periods)
Introduction: Robot definition, applications, Industrial robot anatomy, robot classifications, Understanding its technical specifications, serial robots and parallel robots.
Electrical Actuators and Drives: DC Motors, Stepper motors, BLDC Motor, and Synchronous AC servo motors, Industrial Servo drives, hardware controllers and interfaces, Selection of motors. Understanding Manufacturer's Technical datasheet
UNIT II: (9 Periods)
Robot sensors and its interfaces: Contact and non-contact Online sensors; position, velocity, acceleration, proximity, and force sensors. Characteristics of Sensors. Understanding Manufacturer's Technical datasheet. Grubler-Kutzbach Criterion; DOF of a Robot Manipulator. Kinematic Transformations: Homogeneous Transformation, Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) Parameters; Forward Kinematics. Inverse Kinematics. Differential Motion: link velocity and Acceleration analysis, Jacobian matrix and Singularity.
UNIT III: (10 Periods)
Industrial Robot Installation and Commissioning: Mastering a Robot, Tool Center Point Calibration: 4-Point method, External reference method, Orientation calibration: World frame met

1. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

2. Energy is classified into two major sets, Conventional Energy Sources Non-conventional Energy Sources 1. Conventional Energy Sources: Conventional energy sources are fully established and are mainly non-renewable. Convention energy mainly comes from fossil fuels such as oil, natural gases and coal. They occur naturally under the earth's surface in the form of crude oil, which is extracted, purified and distilled to separate it into various petroleum products .

3. Advantages of Conventional Energy Sources: Required low cost Equipment These Sources readily available Gas stations are easily accessible in developed countries. Disadvantages of Conventional Energy Sources: Depletion of fossil fuels Environmental Hazards Health Hazards Life cycle costs versus running costs

4. 2. Non-Conventional Energy Sources: Non-conventional sources of energy on the other hand include mostly renewable sources Ex: solar energy, wind Energy, Biomass, ocean Energy, Intensive Agricultural & Hydro electric plants, Wave, Tidal & Hybrid etc. Advantages of Non-Conventional Energy Sources : Non-Conventional Energy sources are environmentally friendly. Pollution free. These sources of energy are also renewable, meaning that utilizing them does not lead to any depletion.

5. Disadvantages of Non-Conventional Energy Sources: Most sources or renewable energy are periodic and never constant, rendering them quite unreliable. Ex: wind energy that is undependable because the wind is not always blowing or sometimes not strong enough to drive the generators. Installation Cost is High. High maintaining the wind farms.

6. The energy sources available can be divided into three types: Primary Energy Sources: Defined as sources which provide net supply of energy. Ex: Coal, Oil, Uranium etc Their Yield ratio is very High. The yield ratio is defined as : The energy fed back by the material to the energy received from environment.

7. Secondary fuels: These fuels produces no net energy Ex: Intensive agriculture, solar, wind, water energy The yield energy is less than the input. But which are necessary for the economy. Supplementary sources: Defined as those whose net yield energy is zero and requires highest investment in terms of energy. Ex: Insulation (thermal or heat energy)

8. Difference between Conventional & Non – Conventional Energy Sources Conventional Sources: 1. The conventional sources are nothing but commercial sources, which are obtained in a limited quantity. Ex: Coal, Oil, Uranium etc. 2. These may be exhausted at one time and then won’t be available. Thus named as non-renewable sources. 3. The per unit cost of this energy is higher. Because of fuel cost . 4. The sources are lead to the cause at pollution. 5. It requires regular maintenance 6. Its energy yield ratio is very high. 7. It Produces energy in a short period of time. 8. Energy production can be done at any time.

9. Non-Conventional Sources: 1. The Non conventional sources are not commercial sources, which are available naturally in large amounts. Ex: Solar, wind, ocean etc. 2. If these sources are exhausted and again come into existence depends upon their seasons. Thus named as renewable sources. 3. The per unit cost of this energy is lower. Because of no fuel cost . 4. The sources are pollution less energy sources. 5. It does not requires regular maintenance. 6. Its energy yield ratio is very low. 7. It requires much time to produce an amount of energy. 8. Energy production can be done at some particular time.

10. Role and Potential of new and renewable sources: New Energy Technologies: Numerous studies are going on around the world Coal: The major portion of the coal available in India is of low quality, high ash content and low calorific value. The traditional grate fuel firing systems have got limitations and are techno economically unviable to meet the challenges of future. The first major technology for the coal gasification , carbonization and combustion is fluidized bed Technology. Fluidized bed Combustion Technology for clean power generation , Carbon free energy and pollution free power . Unit – I : Principles of Solar Radiation

11. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits – Compact boiler design. Fuel flexibility. Higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx . Vast improvement in performance and efficiency are achieved. This technology is already commercialized. Presently Pressurized fluidized bed technology is developed for further improve the performance.

12. Coal Gasification: Rather than burning coal, it turns coal into a gas that can be cleaned of almost all pollutants.  This technology is called  coal gasification . How do you break apart the atoms of coal? Actually all it takes is water and heat. Heat coal hot enough inside a big metal vessel, blast it with steam (the water), and it breaks apart. Into what? The carbon atoms join with oxygen that is in the air (or pure oxygen can be injected into the vessel). The hydrogen atoms join with each other. The result is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen — this is called " Synthesis Gas ”.

13. Now, what do you do with the  Synthesis Gas ? You can burn  Synthesis Gas  - very cleanly - and use the hot combustion gases to spin a gas turbine to generate electricity. The exhaust gases coming out of the gas turbine are hot enough to boil water to make steam that can spin another type of turbine to generate even more electricity. But why go to all the trouble to turn the coal into gas if all you are going to do is burn it? A major reason is that the impurities in coal — like sulfur, nitrogen and many other trace elements — can remove practically all of the pollutants when coal is changed into  Synthesis Gas  through  Coal Gasification .

14. Principle of Fluidization and Fluidized bed Combustion: Fluidization (or fluidization) is a process  whereby a granular material is converted from a static Solid-like state to a dynamic Fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (Liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material.

15. WORKING: When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of bed of solid particles, it will move upwards through the bed via empty spaces between particles. At low gas velocities, aero dynamic drag on each particle is low, and thus the bed remains in a fixed state. Increasing the velocity, aerodynamic drag forces (aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces acting opposite to the direction of the movement of the solid object relative to the Earth) will begin to counteract the gravitational force, causing the bed to expand in volume as the particles move away from each other. Further increasing the velocity, it will reach a critical value at which the upward drag forces will exactly equal to the downward gravitation forces, causing the particles to become suspended within the fluid. At this critical value, the bed is said to be fluidized and will exhibit fluidic behavior. Contd …

16. 1 . At higher gas velocities the drag forces on the particles cause them to become suspended in the gas stream or fluidized and such a suspension resembles a boiling liquid and it is called a minimally fluidized bed. Contd …

17. 3. With further increase in gas velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid – “bubbling fluidized bed”.

18. 4. At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some amounts of particles have to be re circulated to maintain a stable system – “circulating fluidized bed”.

19. Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the air velocity. The mean solids velocity increases at a slower rate than does the gas velocity, as illustrated in Figure below.

20. The difference between the mean solid velocity and mean gas velocity is called as slip velocity. Maximum slip velocity between the solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and intimate contact. If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840 O C to 950 O C. Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream.

21. Combustion process requires the three “T”s that is Time, Temperature and Turbulence. In FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidization. Improved mixing generates evenly distributed heat at lower temperature. Residence time is many times greater than conventional grate firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower temperatures.

22. Types of Fluidized Bed Combustion: There are three basic types of fluidised bed combustion boilers: Atmospheric classic Fluidized Bed Combustion System (AFBC) 2. Atmospheric circulating (fast) Fluidized Bed Combustion system(CFBC) 3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion System (PFBC).

23. 3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion System (PFBC): 1. The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power generation. By combining the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is generated more efficiently than in conventional system. The overall conversion efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%.

24. 2. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of fluid bed technology that is meant for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure up to 16 ata ( 16 kg/cm2). 3. The off-gas from the fluidized bed combustor drives the gas turbine. 4. The steam turbine is driven by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidized bed. The condensate from the steam turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and is then taken as feed water for steam generation.

25. Advantages of FBC: Higher Combustion efficiency of 90% to 92% and Boiler efficiency of 80%. As bed is maintained between 850 and 950 C ash does not get heated to the initial deformation temperature. Hence no clinkering or slagging or hard deposits on heat exchanger tubes. Require much less boiler plant area than a stoker. Uniform temperature throughout the furnace volume. Reduced emission of harm full nitrous oxide. Sulpher dioxide emission can also be reduced with less expanse. Operation is simple & Quick Start up. Fuel Flexibility: flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These can be fed either independently or in combination with coal into the same furnace. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel. Ability to Burn Fines: Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC boiler, which is very difficult to achieve in conventional firing system. Low Corrosion and Erosion: The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower combustion temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity (of the order of 1 m/sec). Fast Response to Load Fluctuations. High Reliability. Reduced Maintenance

26. Disadvantages: Increased Reactor Vessel Size. Pumping Requirements and Pressure drops. Lack of Current understanding. Erosion of Internal components. Pressure Losses.

27. Oil: Oils have been used to produce electricity. On the atomization (The making of an aerosol, which is a colloid suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas) and combustion of petroleum improves energy efficiency. Improved efficiencies in the range of 5-15%. Oil burner design have been improved in terms of primary air, secondary air mixing and combustion. Another development in this area is that the liquid is better atomized at low/below nozzle pressures if a high voltage of the order of 20 kV, dc is applied to the nozzle. This technique generates very fine droplets at high surface area and the power consumption was much smaller than that of the conventional mechanical pressure atomization.

28. Gas: Gas have been used to produce electricity. It is become economical to run long distance pipe lines for the gas to be transported several hundred kilometers to the place where it can be used. This can be very significant improvement. Natural gas is very profitable employed for a raw material to produce several important chemicals which have been traditionally obtained from petroleum fractions.

29. SOLAR ENERGY: Solar Energy is Major source of Power. Its potential is 178 billion MW which is about 20,000 times the worlds demand. Sun energy can be utilized as thermal & Photovoltaic. The former is currently being used for steam and hot water production .

30. WIND ENERGY: 1. California state of USA is generating 500 MW from 900 Wind mills. 2. 0.7 million wind pumps are in operation in different countries. 3. A minimum wind speed of 3 m/s is needed. This is considered to have high efficiency. In India estimated 20,000 and 25,000 MW. The Maximum generated from any single unit is 1MW.

31. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: 3400 MW exists in New Zealand, USA,JAPAN and ICELAND. 700 MW power is generated in Philippines and China. India does not appear to have any major exploit able source. This energy also used for cooling by using heat for vapour absorption system.

32. Solar Radiation and Its Measurement Introduction: Solar Energy received in the form of radiation, can converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat & electricity. The major drawbacks of solar energy: The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface. The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.

33. SUN The sun is a large spherical of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions. Diameter of sun is 1.39 * 10 6 km i.e 109 times of earths diameter (1.27 * 10 4 km). The mean distance between earth and sun is 1.50 * 10 8 km.   Its mass (about 2×10 30  kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of  hydrogen , while the rest is mostly  helium . The remainder (1.69%, which nonetheless equals 5,628 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including  oxygen,  carbon,  neon and iron , among others. Due do large distance, the sun subtends an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth surface.

34. Solar Radiation Solar Radiation received by the earth surface & Vary with location. Solar radiation received outside the earth atmosphere is different than what we receive on the earth because of absorption, reflection, scattering and attenuation aerosol, particulates and clouds present in the atmosphere. The solar radiation grouped in to the two categories. 1 . Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation 2. Terrestrial Solar Radiation

35. Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation: The intensity of the sun’s radiation outside the earth atmosphere is called extraterrestrial solar radiation. The radiations are measured as an earth sun distance on a surface of earth. The energy flux (irradiance) is called solar constant. Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation

36. Solar Constant: The rate at which solar Energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar constant I sc . Solar constant is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.

37. Extraterrestrial solar radiation deviates from solar constant value due to two reasons. The variation in the radiation emitted by the sun itself. Then the solar constant values vary up to about + 1.5 with different periodicities. The variation of earth-sun distance. Then the solar constant values vary up to about + 3 in either directions. For practical purpose, NASA standard values for the solar constant expressed in three common units. 1. 1.353 kw /m 2 or 1353 W/m 2 . 2. 116.5 langleys (calories/cm 2 ) per hour or 1165 kcal/m 2 per hour (1 langleys is equal to 1 cal/cm 2 ) 3. 429.2 Btu per squ.ft . per hour.

38. Due to the variation of distance between earth and sun, the Extraterrestrial solar flux is also varies. The earth is closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter. This variation in distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation I that reaches the earth. The intensity of solar radiation can be approximated by the equation. I/ I sc = 1+ 0.033 ( cos (360 (n-2)/365) = 1+ 0.033 ( cos (360*n)/365)

39. Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial solar radiation as shown in figure below. The maximum value of extraterrestrial solar radiation is 2074 W/m 2.

40. The percentage of radiation obtained up to a certain wavelengths is also give in table as shown in table below. Wave Length ( μ ) 0-0.38 0.38-0.78 0.78-4 Approximate Energy (W/m 2 ) 95 640 618 Approximate percentage of total energy 7% 47.3% 45.7%

41. The radiation we receive on the earth surface is called the terrestrial radiation. The maximum value of terrestrial radiation on horizontal earth surface is 1000 W/m 2 , because Terrestrial solar radiation divided in to 1. Direct or Beam Radiation 2. Diffuse Radiation 3. Global Radiation. Terrestrial Solar Radiation:

42. Direct or Beam Radiation: The radiation received on the earth surface directly without change in direction and does not get absorbed, reflected and scattered while passing through atmosphere as shown in Fig. below.

43. 2. Diffuse Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky as shown in fig below.

44. 3. Total or Global Radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiation intercepted at the surface of the earth per unit area of location is called the total radiation or insolation. The total radiation is referred to global radiation with its maximum value is 1000 W/m 2 .

45. Solar energy reaches the top of the earth atmosphere consists of about 1. 8% of ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less than 0.39 μ m) 2. 46% of Visible Light (0.39 μ m to 0.78 μ m) 3. 46% of infrared radiation (long wave length more than 0.78 μ m)

46. Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth entirely different due to the various reasons. 1. Part of the radiation reflected back into the space, especially by clouds. The radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. 3. Oxygen and Ozone (0 3 ) absorb nearly all the UV radiation below 0.29 micrometer. 4. Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. 5. Part of the solar radiation is scattered (its direction has been changed)by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules and dust particles as shown in fig below. 6. Hence for terrestrial application of solar energy, only wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.5 micrometer to be consider.

47. The distribution pattern of Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial solar radiation as shown in figure below.

48. Phyrheliometer: Phyrheliometer is an instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long narrow tube to collect beam radiation from the sun at normal incident.

49. It converts sun’s energy into an electric signal that can be easily measured. Sun’s light is allowed to enter the instrument and is then passed on to a thermopile which makes conversion of this energy into electrical signals. The voltage that is generated tells us watts per square meter of energy that is received. Problems with pyrheliometer measurements: 1. The aperture angle 2. The Circum Solar contributions 3. imprecision in the tracking mechanism. The first two problems are almost impossible to eliminate because of the inability to define the solar disk precisely and the finite dimensions of the instrument components.

50. Three pyrheliometers are widely used : 1. The Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer 2. The Abbot Silver Disc Pyrheliometer 3. Eppley Pyrheliometer

51. 1. The Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer: 1. Consist of blackened shaded manganin strip. 2. One strip is heated electrically. 3. Another strip is exposed to solar radiation. 4. Under steady state condition (both strips at identical temperature). 5. The energy used for heating is equal to the absorbed solar energy. 6.Galvanameter is used to test for the equality of temperature.

52. 2. The Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer: It consists of blackened silver disk positioned at the lower end of a tube with diaphragms to limit the whole aperture to 5.7 . A mercury in glass thermometer is used to measure the temperature at the disk. A Shutter made of three polished metal leaves is provided at the upper end of the tube to allow solar radiation to fall on the disk at regular intervals and the corresponding changes of the disk are measured.

53. 3. Eppley Pyrheliometer: An Eppley pyrheliometer is a temperature compensated 15 junction bismuth silver thermopile mounted at the base of a brass tube, the limiting diaphragms of which subtend an angle of 5.7 0. A thermopile is basically a series arrangements of thermocouples used to develop a much greater voltage than is possible using only one. The tube is filled with dry air and is sealed with a crystal quartz window.

54. Pyranometer: A Pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded from beam radiation by using a shading ring, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation.

55. The main parts of the pyranometer is 1. Black surface; 2. Glass domer , 3. Guard plate; 4. Three levelling screws; 5. Mounting plate; 6. Grouted bolts; 7. Platform; 8. Thermopile. Thermopile has two junctions. They are : (a) Cold junction and (b) Hot junction. A black surface on the guard plate is covered by a transparent glass domes. The hot junctions of the thermopile is connected to black Surface and the cold junctions of thermopiles connected where there is no solar radiation. The other ends of thermopile are connected to millivoltmeter . It records an emf (electro motive force) generated. When the sunrays falling on the black surface, heat is generated inside the glass dome. This causes the temperature difference takes place in the two junctions of the thermopile. As a result, an e.m.f is generated and it is recorded in the milli voltmeter.

56. Sunshine Recorder: The Instrument measures the duration of bright sunshine in a day. It consists of a glass sphere mounted on its axis parallel to that of the earth, within a spherical section as shown in figure below. The sun rays are focused by a glass spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. On a spherical bowl a special paper arrangements with time scale. Due to the bright sunshine burns a path along this paper. Through the day the sun moves across the sky, the image moves across the strip. Thus a burnt space whose length is proportional to the duration of sun shine is obtained on the strip.

57. Latitude Latitude is the angular measurement between radial line joining location (observer) to the centre of earth and its projection on equatorial plane. Latitude is taken as positive for any location towards the north and negative towards south . The latitude at equator is 0 while at north and south poles are +90 and -90 respectively.

58. Longitude: Longitude is the angular distance measured from west of east of to an observer point on the earth’s surface which passes through the prime meridian (Greenwich, England). (or) The angle between meridian of the observer and Greenwich is called Longitude. Longitude is positive towards the west. Longitude is negative towards the east. Ex: Delhi located at 77.2 E of longitude.

59. Declination Angle ( δ ) : The angle between the line joining sun and centre of earth and its projection on the equatorial plane is called declination angle. The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year, and ranges between –23.5º and +23.5º

60. Hour Angle: The angular distance that the earth has rotated in a day to bring the meridian of the sun inline with meridian of the observer on an equatorial plane.

61. Altitude Angle: The solar altitude is the vertical angle between the sun rays and a horizontal surface. Zenith Angle: The angle made by the sun rays from vertical line passing through the observer is called Zenith angle.

62. Incidence Angle is the angle between the direction of direct radiation and a line exactly perpendicular to the array angle Tilt angle is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the array surface Array Azimuth Angle is the horizontal angle between a reference direction –typically south- and the direction an array surface faces

63. THANK YOU