Normative theory

1. Normative Theory M. SOHAIB AfzaAl

2. History Normative Theory Hypotheses or other statements about what is right and wrong, desirable or undesirable, just or unjust in society. The majority of sociologists consider it illegitimate to move from explanation to evaluation. In their view, sociology should strive to be value-free, objective, or at least to avoid making explicit value- judgements . This is because, according to the most popular philosophies of the social sciences, conflicts over values cannot be settled factually. Moral pronouncements cannot be objectively shown to be true or false, since value- judgements are subjective preferences, outside the realm of rational inquiry. Thus, in his classic statement of the role of values in sociological research, Max Weber informed his audience that ‘if Tolstoi's question recurs to you: as science does not, who is to answer the question: “What shall we do, and, how shall we arrange our lives?” … then one can say that only a prophet or a saviour can give the answers’ (‘Science as Vocation’, 1919). The majority of sociological enquiries are therefore analytical and explanatory. They do not pose normative questions such as ‘Which values ought to provide for social order?’ and ‘How ought society to organize itself?’ (Marxist sociologists are of course excluded from this generalization, since they generally subscribe to a different view of the relationship between facts and values, arguing with Marx that ‘the philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point … is to change it ’.)

3. DEFINITION Normative means relating to an ideal standard of or model, or being based on what is considered to be the normal or correct way of doing something. Normative has specialized meanings in different academic disciplines such as philosophy, social sciences, and the law.

4. PHILOSOPHY In philosophy , normative statements make claims about how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad, and which actions are right or wrong . Normative claims are usually contrasted with positive (i.e. Descriptive, explanatory , or constative ) claims when describing types of theories , beliefs , or propositions . Positive statements are (purportedly-) factual statements that attempt to describe reality . For example, "children should eat vegetables", and "those who would sacrifice liberty for security deserve neither" are normative claims. On the other hand, "vegetables contain a relatively high proportion of vitamins", "smoking causes cancer"

5. SOCIAL SCIENCES In the social sciences , the term "normative" has broadly the same meaning as its usage in philosophy, but may also relate, in a sociological context, to the role of cultural ' norms '; the shared values or institutions that structural functionalists regard as constitutive of the social structure and social cohesion . These values and units of socialization thus act to encourage or enforce social activity and outcomes that ought to occur , while discouraging or preventing social activity that ought not occur. That is, they promote social activity that is socially valued . While there are always anomalies in social activity (typically described as " crime " or anti-social behavior, see also normality ) the normative effects of popularly-endorsed beliefs (such as " family values " or " common sense ") push most social activity towards a generally homogeneous set. From such reasoning, however, functionalism shares an affinity with ideological conservatism .

6. ECONOMICS Normative economics deals with questions of what sort of economic policies should be pursued, in order to achieve desired (that is, valued) economic outcomes.

7. LAW In law , as an academic discipline, the term "normative" is used to describe the way something ought to be done according to a value position. As such, normative arguments can be conflicting, insofar as different values can be inconsistent with one another. For example, from one normative value position the purpose of the criminal process may be to repress crime. From another value position, the purpose of the criminal justice system could be to protect individuals from the moral harm of wrongful conviction.

8. STANDARDS Normative elements are defined in International Organization for Standardization Directives Part 2 as "elements that describe the scope of the document, and which set out provisions". Provisions include "requirements", "recommendations" and "statements". "Statements" include permissions, possibilities and capabilities. A "requirement" is an "expression in the content of a document conveying criteria to be fulfilled if compliance with the document is to be claimed and from which no deviation is permitted." It is not necessary to comply with recommendations and statements in order to comply with the standard, it is necessary to comply only with the requirements (that are denoted by the verbal form "shall"). There is much confusion between "normative" and "requirement", however the ISO terminology is supported by national standards bodies worldwide and is the legitimate description of these terms in the context of standards documents .

9. In standards terminology still used by some organisations , "normative" means "considered to be a prescriptive part of the standard". It characterises that part of the standard which describes what ought (see philosophy above) to be done within the application of that standard. It is implicit that application of that standard will result in a valuable outcome ( ibid. ). For example, many standards have an introduction, preface, or summary that is considered non-normative, as well as a main body that is considered normative. "Compliance" is defined as "complies with the normative sections of the standard"; an object that complies with the normative sections but not the non-normative sections of a standard is still considered to be in compliance. Normative = prescriptive = how to comply Informative = descriptive = help with conceptual understanding

10. NORMATIVE ETHICS Normative ethics is one of three main component areas of inquiry of philosophical ethics , the two others being meta-ethics and applied ethics . Normative ethics, also known as normative theory, or moral theory, intends to find out which actions are right and wrong, or which character traits are good and bad. In contrast, meta-ethics, as the term suggests, is a study of the nature of ethics. A meta-ethical study would be concerned, amongst other things, with determining the meaning and objectivity of moral concepts of right and wrong, or good and bad. Applied ethics is just the application of normative ethics to particular issues of practical concern such as abortion , euthanasia , cloning, animal rights , and criminal punishment , sometimes using the conceptual tools of meta-ethics as well.

11. TYPES Normative ethics is normative in that they have either moral principles as standards of right action or virtues as standards of good character in terms of which right action can be known eventually. There are four normative theories: 1 ) Utilitarianism with the principle of utility as the basic moral principle. 2 ) Kantianism with the categorical imperative as the fundamental moral principle. 3 ) ethical intuitionism (in its methodological sense) with a plurality of moral principles. 4 ) virtue ethics with virtues as its focus.

12. META-ETHICS Meta-ethics is an inquiry into the nature of ethics . The prefix meta suggests " aboutness ," as, for example, in the word meta-psychology, which is the study of psychology —what it is as a discipline—rather than a study in psychology. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that a meta-inquiry is a study of a study. Meta-ethics is then the study of ethics, which is itself an area of study. Meta-ethics is concerned with determining the nature of judgments of moral right or wrong, good and bad. It is not concerned with finding out which actions or things are right and wrong, or which states are good and bad, but with understanding the nature and meaning of concepts of right and wrong, good and bad. Meta-ethics does not ask whether lying is always wrong. Rather , it tries to ascertain whether there really is difference between right and wrong, or tries to clarify what it means to say that an action is right or wrong. A meta-ethical inquiry may ask: What, if anything, makes a judgment that lying is always wrong, true (or false)?

13. NORMATIVE ETHICS The word normative is an adjective which comes from "norm." In a philosophical context, the word norm usually means standard, or rule, or principle, as opposed to what is "normal" for people to do, that is, what they actually do. For example, the rules of arithmetic are normative in the philosophical sense, because reasoning can be assessed against these rules and judged correct or incorrect, irrespective of whether this usage is the normal usage. If everyone were to calculate 7+5 as 57, they would have made a mistake, for they would have misunderstood the rules (norms) of arithmetic. So even if this mistake were "normal," a normative appraisal would hold everyone's actual thinking to the rule which legislates how they ought to think, and judge it incorrect. Normative ethics is concerned with moral norms. A moral norm is a norm in the sense of being a standard with which moral agents ought to comply. "Thou shall not murder" is an example of a moral norm: It is meant to guide our actions, and to the extent that people do not comply, we may be judged morally—that is, morally blamed. This is then the meaning of a moral norm. It is important to bear in mind that when doing normative ethics, one sets aside meta-ethical concerns about whether there really is a moral truth and what moral judgments mean, and assumes that there is a difference between right and wrong, good and bad .

14. Two Foci Of Normative Ethics: Action And Character Normative ethics has two central concepts: The right and the morally good. The concept of the right is, roughly, the concept of duty , the concept of which actions we ought to perform, which it would be wrong not to perform. The concept of the morally good, a target of the theory of value, or axiology (Greek: axios = worth; logos = study of), refers to morally good properties of human beings . Virtuous character traits such as kindness, courage , and honesty are examples of states that are generally thought to be morally good. It is worth noting here that the term "right" is usually reserved for actions, whereas the "morally good" is for states of character, including motives. But normative ethics is interested in both: It is, roughly, the field of study that aims to determine which actions are right, and which states of character are morally good.

15. Which Actions Are Right? Perhaps the central question of normative ethics involves asking which actions fall into the category of the right and the category of the wrong. This is called the theory of right action. The theory of right action is an investigation and an attempt to answer the question: "What ought I to do?" The "ought" in this question is to be interpreted as a moral ought, and may be understood as equivalent to the question: "What is the right thing to do?" Besides the already mentioned terms, "right," "wrong," and "ought," other important normative concepts relating to action include "obligatory," "forbidden," "permissible," and "required." So, a normative theory aims to answer the question of "what makes actions right or wrong." This usually amounts to drawing out basic principles as standards of right action. These basic principles may be employed as a moral guide to human beings in their lives, deciding whether particular courses of action—or particular types of action—are right or wrong. The principle of utility in utilitarianism , for example, is a fundamental moral principle according to which right actions are those that maximize happiness. In Kantianism , the categorical imperative is such a fundamental principle from which right actions are derived as duties .

16. Which States Of Character Are Morally Good? The second important focus of normative theory is the question of what states of character are desirable, or morally good. Here normative ethics attempts to answer the question: "What sort of person ought I to be?" This is called the theory of virtue , or virtue ethics . The focus of this aspect of normative ethics is character. A virtue is a morally desirable state of character such as courage . So, the theory of virtue is directed not at what actions one ought to do, but what person one should be. What is a virtuous person like? What is a vicious person like? What makes traits of character virtuous or vicious? Important concepts for the theory of virtue include terms such as good, bad, virtuous, vicious, honest, courageous, and praiseworthy .

17. Important Normative Theories Normative theories are concerned with, broadly, the nature of right action and the nature of virtue . All normative theories will have something to say about which actions are right, and which states of character are virtues. Four normative theories currently exist. These are utilitarianism , Kantianism , ethical intuitionism (in its methodological sense), and virtue ethics. If we were to accept the division of normative theories into teleological and non-teleological theories, then utilitarianism and virtue ethics would count as teleological theories, whereas Kantianism and intuitionism as non-teleological theories (see the article on teleological ethics ). Utilitarianism Kantianism Ethical intuitionism Virtue Ethics

18. UTILITARIANISM Classical utilitarianism says that the right action is that which produces the greatest balance of overall happiness . By saying that happiness is the only determinant of the rightness of an action, classical utilitarianism endorses hedonism as a theory of value. Utilitarianism has undergone many revisions, but one common move has been to deny the hedonistic element, and preserve the claim that right action depends on the best consequences overall in view of the principle of utility, although the best consequences are not necessarily understood in terms of happiness but more broadly in terms of valuable states of affairs.

19. KANTIANISM Kantian ethics stems from the work of the great German philosopher Immanuel Kant . His work has been tremendously influential and thus the need to designate a branch of ethics as Kantian, in order to accommodate the many theories which are broadly influenced by Kant. Kant's own theory revolves around what he calls the categorical imperative , a moral principle which he regards as the fundamental principle of morality , and from which all our duties may be derived. The categorical imperative is basically a principle of consistency, demanding that we act on reasons which all rational agents could endorse, that is, universally acceptable reasons. Kant produces several different versions of the categorical imperative, and introduces the concept of respect for persons. The Kantian conception of respect has proved particularly significant, and here Kant has influenced important contemporary thinkers such as John Rawls .

20. ETHICAL INTUITIONISM When ethical intuitionism says that we can directly intuit or apprehend moral principles, it is epistemological and undoubtedly belongs to meta-ethics . But, ethical intuitionism has another sense in which it can be considered to be part of normative ethics as it methodologically refers to unranked pluralism that claims that there are a plurality of moral principles, and that none of these moral principles is more basic or important than any other. Ethical intuitionism in this sense is a normative ethical theory contrasted with versions of monism such as utilitarianism and Kantianism , which assert that there is only one basic moral principle: the principle of utility (utilitarianism) or the categorical imperative (Kantianism). The most well-known theorist in ethical intuitionism in this sense is probably W.D. Ross (1877-1971), who is the author of The Right and the Good. According to him, there are a number of irreducible moral duties ( for example, to keep promises, to refrain from harming the innocent, and so on), none of which takes precedence over any other. Ross thinks that the right action in a given situation is determined by a careful weighing of various moral principles which apply in that situation.

21. VIRTUE ETHICS The last of the four ethical theories currently under discussion is virtue ethics . In contrast with the other normative theories which tend to start with right action , virtue ethics begins with an account of virtuous character. In other words, virtue ethics offers an account of what states of character are desirable, or virtues, and then tends to define right actions in terms of these virtues. For example, virtue ethics might say that lying is wrong because it is dishonest, or not what an honest person (virtuous person) would do. (Contrast it with the utilitarian explanation: Lying is wrong because it tends to bring about unhappiness). Virtue ethicists, particularly, Aristotle and those who follow him, argue that right action cannot be understood as conformity of actions to rules (not even of the prima facie sort suggested by Ross). They tend to emphasize that the virtuous person is someone who acts rightly in the situation upon requirements that are unique to the situation. The virtuous person is someone who is able to perceive what the situation requires and act accordingly.

22. Basic Ethical Terms and Normative Theories Morality - Standards of right and wrong . Ethics - The study of the reasons justifying various standards of right and wrong. Ethics tests claims about right and wrong with argumentation, which is not necessarily the case for morality .   Normative Ethics - General theories of the nature of right and wrong: What is it about any right action that makes it right ? Applied Ethics - The application of normative theories to particular moral issues such as abortion, capital punishment, sexual morality, and animal rights, in order to clarify the ethical status of these issues . Metaethics - The critical examination of the assumptions in normative theories. For example, Is right and wrong determined by the pleasure and pain generated by an action, or by the rationality of that action? Is right and wrong determined by the individual, the customs or prevalent opinions in a society, or by universal moral principles ?

23. Normative Theories Ethical Relativism - There are no universal standards of right and wrong .   A . Cultural Relativism - The lack of universal standards is due to the fact that different cultures have varying standards of right and wrong. According to cultural relativists, the standards of right and wrong arise from the predominant views of a particular culture. E.g., it is acceptable to cane graffiti artists in Singapore, and unacceptable to kill cows in parts of India. “When in Rome, do as the Romans .” B . Individual Relativism - The lack of universal standards is due to the fact that individuals have varying standards of right and wrong. According to this view, the standards of right and wrong arise from individual opinions. “To each their own.” “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder .”

24. UTILITARIANISM The rightness of an act is determined by how much pleasure and how little pain it generates for everyone affected by it.

25. CARE ETHICS Over and above one’s general obligation to other people, one has an additional obligation to exercise special care for those with whom one has a close relationship. The rightness of an act is determined not only by how much it contributes to the good of others, but especially by how much it contributes to the good of those people we have close relationships with. Care ethics is argued for by some feminists, and the model it follows is the care that a mother shows for her child.

26. ETHICAL EGOISM The rightness of an act is determined solely by how much it benefits the agent doing it. Some defenders of ethical egoism argue that we are always motivated by our own self-interest, whether we realize this or not (psychological egoism). E.g ., a martyr is motivated to sacrifice her life in order to feel better about herself. Other defenders of ethical egoism argue that ethical egoism is the only rational course of action because self-sacrifice and dependence on others are harmful and degrading. These advocates argue that ethical egoism benefits everyone involved. These three theories can be compared to three Chinese theories of moral obligation.  Moism - We have a responsibility to be equally concerned with the basic needs of everyone. Social harms result from a lack of mutual concern . Confucianism - In addition to one’s obligation to other people, one has a special obligation to one’s family. A strong society is rooted in strong families .   Legalism - Everything should be done to increase the power of the ruler. One way to achieve this is to formulate strict laws that closely regulate the lives of the citizens. “Might makes right .”

27. Theories associated with Religious Morality Divine Command Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it is in accord with God’s will. Natural Law Theory - The rightness of an act depends on whether it is in accord with our natural inclinations as creatures. Natural law theorists (like Aquinas) usually hold that it is right to follow our natural inclinations because they were created by God with our well-being in mind. This theory is used to argue against homosexuality, non-procreative sex, sex outside of marriage, etc.

28. Theory Emphasizing Rationality Kant’s Ethics - An act is right if it is rational. Kant goes on to argue that rational beings have respect for their own rationality and that of others, and consequently will not do things that undermine the rationality of themselves or others. According to Kant, a rational being only acts in ways that can be universalized, ways in which everyone could act. Consequently , a rational being would not expect others to do something that he or she refuses to do (i.e., set double standards), such as telling the truth.

29. Theory Emphasizing Character Traits Virtue Ethics - Morally proper actions result from having the proper character traits or habits (virtues), such as courage, moderation, wisdom, justice, and truthfulness. A person will consistently act in the right manner only if they have these virtues. A virtuous person will be able to judge what is the right thing to do, which is often a very complicated and difficult matter. This theory is was held by the ancient Greeks, especially Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics, and has enjoyed a resurgence of interest in recent years.

30. Normative Ethical Principles and Theories Moral Vocabulary Definitions And Concepts Normative Ethical Principles For Selected Theories

31. Moral Vocabulary GENERAL ETHICAL FOUNDATIONS Foundational values are those concepts or ideas which do not by themselves constitute any one theory but which should be considered as a prerequisite to most satisfactory normative theories. These values by themselves do not constitute a justification or defense of your position; that is done through the application of a normative ethical theory. Rationality : All legitimate moral acts must be supportable by generally accepted reasons. Least Harm : When you must choose between evils, choose the least evil. Consistency: Moral reasons, including moral actions, if they are valid, are binding on all people at all times in all places given the same relevant circumstances. Impartiality: This principle forbids us from treating one person different than another when there is not a good reason to do so. We set aside our personal interests. Openness: When examining moral differences between ourselves and other individuals or cultures, we may discover that it is we, not they, who are morally wrong. We must be open to changing our view (Principle of Fallibility, L. Hinman ).

32. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS Ethics : the conscious reflection on our moral beliefs and attitudes though the use of normative ethical theories (L. Hinman ). Value: what we choose as worthwhile or believe to have merit, in a general or broad sense. Values should be freely and thoughtfully chosen. Value System : the ways in which we organize, rank, prioritize, and make decisions based on our values. Virtues: values turned into actions (Robert. Solomon ). Mores : the guidelines of a particular society. Mores are often relative to the needs of a particular society or culture (cultural relativism). Moral Rule: a specific guideline for action that justifies our moral judgments and actions in our everyday lives. Moral rules tell us what we ought to do and are often established by tradition, religion, laws, etc. Morality: the rules and guidelines, the mores, which an individual or a group has about what is right or wrong, good or evil. Ethical Principle: they are part of a normative theory that justifies or defends moral rules and/or moral judgments. Ethical principles are not contingent upon cultural features such as tradition, religion, or law. For example, a Normative Ethical Principle such as the principle of utility (Utilitarian ethics) or the categorical imperative (Kantian ethics) is not subject to one's subjective viewpoints. Ethics justify or ground morality .

33. Normative Ethics Examples of Virtues or Values: Autonomy: the duty to maximize the individual's right to make his or her own decisions. Beneficence: the duty to do good both individually and for all. Confidentiality: the duty to respect privacy of information and action. Equality: the duty to view all people as moral equals. Finality: the duty to take action that may override the demands of law, religion, and social customs. Justice: the duty to treat all fairly, distributing the risks and benefits equally. Nonmaleficence : the duty to cause no harm, both individually and for all. Understanding/Tolerance : the duty to understand and to accept other viewpoints if reason dictates doing so is warranted. Publicity: the duty to take actions based on ethical standards that must be known and recognized by all who are involved. Respect for persons: the duty to honor others, their rights, and their responsibilities. Showing respect others implies that we do not treat them as a mere means to our end. Universality : the duty to take actions that hold for everyone, regardless of time, place, or people involved. This concept is similar to the Categorical Imperative. Veracity : the duty to tell the truth .

34. Normative Ethical Principles For Selected Theories KANTIAN ETHICS: These are principles that form the basis for Kant's non- consequentialist theory. DO NOT simply attempt to apply each principle without a good understanding of Kantian ethics. The principles must be used within the context of the theory and must be grounded in the readings from the course. These are listed as only a guideline. Categorical Imperative: Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it would become a universal law of nature. Principle of Ends : Act so that you treat people never as a mere means to an end, but always as an end in themselves. Principle of Autonomy: Every rational being is able to regard herself or himself as a maker of universal law, and everyone who is ideally rational will legislate exactly the same universal principles. UTILITARIAN ETHICS. These are principles that form the basis for most utilitarian theories. DO NOT simply attempt to apply each principle without a good understanding of Utilitarian ethics. The principles must be used within the context of the theory and be grounded in the readings from the course. These are listed as only a guideline.

35. Principle of Utility: that principle which approves or disapproves of every action according to whether it increases or diminishes the amount of happiness of the party whose interest is in question. a . Act Utilitarianism: An act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative. One cannot be both an act and a rule utilitarian at the same time; thus, using them both in your paper would be contradictory. b . Rule Utilitarianism: An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules, the acceptance of which would lead to greater good for society than any available alternative. One cannot be both an act and a rule utilitarian at the same time; thus, using them both in your paper would be contradictory. Harm Principle: Society is justified in coercing the behavior of an individual in order to prevent her or him from injuring others; it is not justified in coercing her or him simply because the behavior is deemed immoral or harmful to herself or himself. Principles of Consequences: In assessing consequences, the only thing that matters is the amount of happiness/good or unhappiness/bad that is caused or not caused. The right or good actions are those that produce the greatest amount of good over bad in the long-term .

36. CONTRACT ETHICS: Morality consists in a set of rules (implicit or explicit), governing how people are to treat one another, which rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well. Contract principles form the basis for many social contract theories. Some of these principles will work with either a consequentialist or no consequentialist theory. If they are appropriate, you may use them as additional support in your paper. If you do use them, be sure they are consistent with other normative or prescriptive principles you use. Modern contract theories are based on the work of John Rawls, so if you use this approach, be sure you are familiar with his thought. The principles must be used within the context of the theory and be grounded in the readings from the course. These are listed as only a guideline .

37. Principle of Liberty: Each person has an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for all. Principle of Opportunity : There must be meaningful equality of opportunity in the competition among individuals for those positions in society that bring greater economic and social rewards. Principle of Distributive Justice : Basic goods should be distributed so that the least advantaged members of society are benefited. Principle of Justice: Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. The rights secured by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interests. Principle of Need : Each person is guaranteed the primary social goods that are necessary to meet the normal costs of satisfying one's basic needs in the society in which one lives, assuming there are sufficient social and economic resources in his society to maintain the guaranteed minimum.

38. Reference http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/normative_theory.aspx http ://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Normative_ethics http ://home.southernct.edu/~ gillilandr1/phil200/NormHandout.htm http:// faculty.stedwards.edu/ursery/norm.htm