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1. Variations: Variations may be defined as the differences in characteristics shown by the individuals of a species and also by the offsprings or siblings of the same parents. Variations play an important role in Species formation. Depending on the nature of variations different individuals would have different kinds of advantages. Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave. Selection of variants by environmental factors forms the basis for evolutionary processes. 3

2. Heredity or inheritance are those characters which are transmitted from generation to generation and, is therefore, fixed for a particular individual. The rules of heredity determine the process by which traits and characteristics are reliably inherited. Free and attached earlobes are two variations found in human populations. 4

3. Inherited traits: These are the characteristics transmitted from parent to the offspring. Inherited trait is genetically determined characteristic that distinguishes a person. These have effects on non- somatic cells which pass to the progeny. Eg: Colour of hair and eye. 5

4. Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-84) known as Father of genetics, proposed the theory of inheritance. He performed his experiments on garden peas and formulated the laws of genetics which explain the manner of inheritance of characters. His paper “Experiments on plant Hybridization” was published in the fourth volume of “Annual Proceedings of Natural History Society of Brunn” in 1886. 6

5. Monohybrid cross: It is a cross made to study simultaneous inheritance of a single pair of Mendilian Factors, in other words, the cross in which only alternative forms of a single characters are taken into consideration. In monohybrid cross Mendel obtained 3- Tall: 1- Dwarf phenotypic ratio and 1: Pure Tall: 2 Hybrid Tall: 1 Dwarf Genotypic ratio. 7

6. D ihybridcross: Mendel performed crosses involving two characters at a time. A 8 dihybrid cross is a cross made to study the inheritance of two pairs of Mendilian factors of genes, eg, cross between pea variety having yellow cotyledon and round seeds. With another variety having green cotyledon and wrinkled seeds. The classical example of dihybrid cross given in the next slide is the use of two pairs of characters namely the seed shape and seed colour. The plants with yellow and round seeds (pure) were crossed with those having green and wrinkled seeds (pure). The F1 seeds were yellow and round. When these F1 seeds were grown into plants, F2 seeds obtained which showed all the four combinations in the following phenotypic ratio: Yellow and round seeds: 9 Yellow and wrinkled seeds: 3 Green and round seeds: 3 Green and wrinkled seeds: 1 Genotype: It is the gene complement of an individual. Phenotype: It is the external manifestation of gene products brought to expression.

7. 9 DIHYBRID CROSS

8. S ex Determination: Different spices use different strategies for sex determination, some organisms rely on environmental cues (temperature), in some animals such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that sex is not genetically determined. In human beings, the sex of the individuals is largely genetically determined, thus the sex of the children will be determined by what they inherit from their father. A child who inherits an X- chromosome from her father will be girl and one who inherits a Y- chromosome from him will be a boy. 10

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10. What is Environmental Management? Environmental management is concerned with the man environmental interface, the complex boundary where bio- physical and socio cultural systems interact (Hare, 1970). An approach which goes beyond natural resource management, to encompass the political and social as well as the natural environment (Clarke, 1999). It is an attempt to control human impact on and the interaction with the environment in order to preserve natural resources.

11. Environmental Management Associated Issues

12. Characteristics of Environmental Management It deals with the world affected by human. It supports sustainable development. It demands a multidisciplinary approach. It has to integrate different developmental points of view.

13. Characteristics of Environmental Management Applied for both short term and long term concerns. Integration of natural and social sciences. Integration of policy making and planning.

14. Significance of Environmental Management To prevent and solve environmental problems. To develop research and monitoring. To warn threats and identify opportunities. To suggest measures to resource conservation. For long term/short term sustainable developments. Develop a strategy to solve the environmental issues.

15. General Scheme for Environmental Management Identification of objectives and define problems Determination of appropriate action plan Implementation and progress evaluation Monitoring and adjust management Future environmental management and planning

16. Approaches of Environmental Management Ecological EMS Spatial There are 3 approaches of environmental management- Spatial approach Ecological approach Environmental Management System (EMS) Approach

17. Spatial Approach Spatial Approach Local Regional Global Spatial Approach considers the management of environment at 3 levels- Local level Regional level Global level At global level, the spatial dimension and management strategies may be chalked out on the basis of needs, aspirations, perceptions, priorities and inhibitions of the individuals, society and government.

18. Ecological Approach Ecological approach Conservation Preservation Ecological approach considers the management of ecological resources to save the environment. It has two methods to manage ecology. 1. Conservation: To utilize the natural environment for social needs but a simultaneous effort to maintain the ecological balance. 2. Preservation: To save some species or natural environments from social utilization in order to protect them.

19. Environmental Management System (EMS) Approach EMS has been defined by ISO 140001as- “The part of the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources for developing, implementing achieving and reviewing the environmental policy.”

20. What EMS does? ▶ Facilitates environmental compliance ▶ Addresses environmental impacts ▶ Broadens environmental responsibilities to all whose work can have a significant impact on the environment

21. Workflow of EMS Implement Plan Review Plan Implement Check Check Review Plan Implement

22. Framework for Environmental Management System ▶ ISO 14001 Standard ▶ Code of Environmental Management Principles ▶ Compliance-Focused EMS ▶ Eco- Management and Audit Scheme

23. ISO 140001 ISO 14001 is a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to help organizations minimize how their operations negatively affect the environment; comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements; and continually improve in the above.

24. Components of ISO 140001 ▶ Environmental Policy ▶ Planning ▶ Implementation and Operation ▶ Checking and Corrective Action ▶ Management Review

25. Components of ISO 140001 Checking/ Corrective Actions Measurement and Monitoring EMS Nonconformance and Corrective Actions Records EMS Audits Continuous Improvement Implementation Roles and Responsibilities Training and Communication EMS Document Control Emergency Preparedness and Response Planning Environmental Aspects Compliance Objectives and Targets Environmental Mgmt. Programs Environmental Policy Management Review

26. Environmental Policy An environmental policy is a statement about an organization's environmental position and values. The ISO 14001 standard states that an environmental policy is the organization's overall environmental performance intentions and direction formally expressed by top management.

27. Environmental Policy Features ▶ It is Issued with a policy statement signed by facility manager ▶ At a minimum, it commits to ▶ Continual improvement ▶ Pollution prevention ▶ Environmental compliance ▶ Identifies EMS framework ▶ It is publicly available

28. Environmental Planning Environmental Planning is a decision- making process that considers the environmental, social, political, economic, and governance factors that can affect development. Its goal is to manage the relationship between natural systems and human systems in the present and the future.

29. Features of Environmental Planning ▶ Identify aspects and impacts from facility activities, products, and services ▶ Review legal requirements ▶ Set objectives and targets ▶ Establish formal EMS program

30. Scope of Environmental Management ▶ The awareness regarding environmental problems and their proper management began in 1970s through various people movement around many countries of the world. ▶ The Green peace movement, The Chipko movement etc. are some of them. ▶ The advancement in the field of science and technology helped to provide various tools and instrument supported by statistical data to properly solve environmental problems and help in its management.

31. Asexual reproduction

32. Asexual reproduction Formation of a new individual from a single parent without fusion of an egg and a sperm No specialized sex cells involved Offspring is genetically identical to the parent

33. Asexual reproduction in unicellular organism 1. Binary Fission 2. Multiple Fission 3. Budding

34. 1. Binary Fission Prokaryotes (Bacteria) , Protists(Amoeba, Paramoecium, Euglena etc.) and eukaryotic cell organelle like mitochondria and chloroplast perform asexual reproduction by binary fission Parent cell divides to form two similar daughter cells. Binary fission occurs either by mitosis or amitosis Binary fission is performed in favorable condition i.e. availability of abundant food material Axis of fission is different in different protist

35. Axis of fission Simple binary fission : Amoeba divides in any plane due to lack of specific shape hence called as simple binary fission

36. Transverse binary fission

37. Longitudinal binary fission

38. 2. Multiple Fission It is performed by amoeba and similar protists. In adverse/unfavorable condition , amoeba stops the formation of pseudopodia and thereby movements. It becomes rounded and forms protective covering around plasma membrane. This is called as a “ Cyst ” Many nuclei are formed by repeated nuclear divisions in the cyst. Then cytoplasmic division takes place and thus many amoebulae are formed They remain encysted till unfavorable condition. During favorable condition the cyst breaks open and many amoebulae are released

39. 3. Budding An outgrowth (bud) from a parent cell, later detached from the parent & is released as an independent individual Eg Cnidarian like Hydra, Obelia, Saccharomyces ( yeast) Yeast cell produces two daughter cell by mitotic division

40. 1. Fragmentation The body of the parent organism breaks up into many fragments Each fragments starts to live as an individual new organism Eg. Algae like spirogyra and sponges like sycon

41. 2. Regeneration Planaria breaks up its body into two parts and then each part regenerates remaining part of the body and thus two new planaria are formed. Wall lizard breaks up and discards some part of its tail in emergency. Discarded part is regenerated after a period

42. 3. Budding In Hydra, under favorable conditions, at specific part of its body an outgrowth is formed by repeated division of regenerative cells of body wall. This outgrowth is called as bud. The bud grows and finally forms a small hydra Dermal layers and digestive cavity of the budding hydra are in continuity with those of the parent hydra. Parent hydra supplies nutrition to the budding hydra. The budding hydra seperates from the parent hydra and leads an independent life

43. 4. Vegetative Propagation Reproduction in plants with the help of vegetative parts like root, stem, leaf and bud. In potatoes it is performed with the help of “eyes” present on the tuber. In Bryophyllum it is performed with the help of bud present on the leaf margin In sugarcane and grasses it occurs with the help of buds present on the nodes Plants like carrot and raddish perform vegetative propagation with the help of roots.

44. 5. Spore Formation Fungi like Mucor have filamentous body They have sporangia Once the spores are formed , sporangia burst and spores are released Spores germinate in moist and warm places and new fungal colony is formed

45. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION It occurs with the help of two germ cells i.e. male gamete and the female gamete Two main processes occur in sexual reproduction 1. Gamete formation : Gametes are formed by meiosis thereby chromosomes number are reduced to half i.e. haploid gametes are formed 2. Fertilization: A diploid zygote is formed by the union of haploid male and female gamete. This zygote divides mitotically and embryo is formed. This embryo develops to form a new individual. Due to fusion of male and female gametes the new individual has recombined genes of both the parents therefore shows similarities with both the parents Diversity in organism occurs due to genetic variation which helps them to adjust to the changing environment and help to save themselves from extinction

46. SEXUAL RERODUCTION IN PLANTS A flower is the structural unit of sexual reproduction in plants It has four whorls i.e. calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium arranged in sequence from inside to outside Androecium and gynoecium are called as the essential whorls as they carry out the process of reproduction Calyx and corolla are called as the accessory whorls as they are responsible for the protection of inner whorls Members of the calyx are called as sepals Members of corolla are called as petals A flower is called bisexual if both androecium and gynoecium are present in the same flower eg. Hibiscus flower A flower with only androecium is called a male flower A flower with only gynoecium is called a female flower eg. papaya

47. Reproduction and modern technology Many couples cannot have children due to many reasons but due to advance medical technique it is now possible for the childless couple to have a child Some of these techniques are : In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Surrogacy Sperm Bank/ semen Bank

48. Twins Two embryos develop simultaneously in the same uterus and thus two offspring are delivered . There a two main types of twins i.e. monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins In monozygotic twins, during early period of development the cells of the embryo divides into two groups Such twins are genetically exactly similar in appearance and their gender is also same If the embryonic cells are divided into two groups 8 days after the zygote formation then there is high risk of formation of conjoined twins

49. Dizygotic twins When two oocytes are released from the ovary of the women and they are fertilized by two separate sperm and thus two zygotes are formed Two embryos are formed from two zygotes and the both the embryo are separately implanted in the uterus. Thus dizygotic twins are delivered after complete development Such twins are genetically different and may be of same or different gender