Performance And Flight Operations_20f24.pdf

aeronautica

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FLIGHT MECHANICS

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Standard LiftEquation
•Withm = Aircraftmass
•g = Gravitationalacceleration
•ρ = Air density
•S = Wingarea
•CL = liftcoefficient
FLIGHT MECHANICS

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AIRCRAFT LIMITATIONS

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“JAR/FAR25.321FlightLoads
FlightLoadFactorsrepresenttheratiooftheaerodynamic
forcecomponent(actingnormaltotheassumedlongitudinal
axisoftheairplane)totheweightoftheairplane.Apositive
loadfactorisoneinwhichtheaerodynamicforceactsupward
withrespecttotheairplane.”
LimitLoad Factors

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“JAR/FAR 25.1503 AirspeedLimitations: General
When airspeed limitations are a function of weight, weight distribution, altitude, or
Mach number, the limitations corresponding to each critical combination of these
factorsmustbe established.”
MaximumSpeeds

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MaximumSpeeds

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MaximumSpeeds
JAR: Joint Aviation Requirements

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MaximumSpeeds

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MaximumSpeeds

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MinimumSpeeds

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•MinimumControlSpeedontheGround:VMCG:
Theminimumcontrolspeedontheground,isthecalibratedairspeedduringthe
take-offrun,atwhich,whenthecriticalengineissuddenlymadeinoperative,itis
possibletomaintaincontroloftheaeroplanewiththeuseoftheprimary
aerodynamiccontrolsalone(withouttheuseofnose-wheelsteering)toenablethe
take-offtobesafelycontinuedusingnormalpilotingskill.
MinimumSpeeds

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“VMCG must be established, with:
• The aeroplanein each take-off configuration or, at the option of the applicant, in
the most critical take-off configuration;
• Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the operating engines;
• The most unfavourablecentreof gravity;
• The aeroplanetrimmed for take-off; and
• The most unfavourableweight in the range of take-off weights.”
MinimumSpeeds

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•MinimumControlSpeedintheAir:VMCA
VMC[A]isthecalibratedairspeed,atwhich,whenthecriticalengineissuddenly
madeinoperative,itispossibletomaintaincontroloftheaeroplanewiththat
enginestillinoperative,andmaintainstraightflightwithanangleofbankofnot
morethan5degrees.
MinimumSpeeds

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•MinimumControlSpeedintheAir:VMCA
MinimumSpeeds

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Duringrecovery,theaeroplanemaynotassumeanydangerousattitudeorrequire
exceptionalpilotingskill,alertness,orstrengthtopreventaheadingchangeof
morethan20degrees
MinimumSpeeds
MinimumControlSpeedintheAir:VMCA

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VMC[A] may not exceed 1.2 VS with
•Maximum available take-off power or thrust on the engines;
•The most unfavourablecentreof gravity;
•The aeroplanetrimmed for take-off;
•The maximum sea-level take-off weight
•The aeroplanein the most critical take-off configuration existing along the flight
path after the aeroplanebecomes airborne, except with the landing gear
retracted; and
•The aeroplaneairborne and the ground effect negligible
MinimumSpeeds
MinimumControlSpeedintheAir:VMCA

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•MinimumControlSpeedduringApproachandLanding:VMCL
VMCL, the minimum control speed during approach and landing with all engines
operating, is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplanewith that
engine still inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not
more than 5º.
MinimumSpeeds

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IndemonstrationsofVMCL,…lateralcontrolmustbesufficienttoroll
theaeroplanefromaninitialconditionofsteadystraightflight,throughanangleof
20degreesinthedirectionnecessarytoinitiateaturnawayfromtheinoperative
engine(s)innotmorethan5seconds.”

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•MinimumUnstickSpeed:VMU
VMU is the calibrated airspeed at and above which the aeroplanecan safely lift off
the ground, and continue the take-off…”
MinimumSpeeds

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MinimumUnstickSpeed: VMU

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•MinimumUnstickSpeed:VMU
Two minimum unstick speeds must be determined and validated by flight tests:
-with all engines operatives : VMU (N)
-with one engine inoperative : VMU (N-1)
In the one-engine inoperative case, VMU (N-1) must ensure a safe lateral control to
prevent the engine from striking the ground.
MinimumSpeeds

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•StallSpeed
Air velocity over the wing increases with the angle of attack, so that air pressure
decreases and the lift coefficient increases.
MinimumSpeeds

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-VS1g: maximum lift coefficient (i.e. just before the lift starts
decreasing). At that moment, the load factor is still equal to
one
-VS: conventional stall (i.e. when the lift suddenly collapses).
At that moment, the load factor is always less than one
MinimumSpeeds

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STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Manufacturer’s Empty Weight (MEW) :
Theweightofthestructure,powerplant,furnishings,
systemsandotheritemsofequipmentthatare
consideredanintegralpartoftheaircraft.Itisessentially
a“dry”weight,includingonlythosefluidscontainedin
closedsystems(e.g.hydraulicfluid).
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Operational Empty Weight (OEW) :
Themanufacturer’sweightemptyplustheoperator’sitems,i.e.theflightand
cabincrewandtheirbaggage,unusablefuel,engineoil,emergencyequipment,
toiletchemicalsandfluids,galleystructure,cateringequipment,seats,
documents,etc…
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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DryOperatingWeight(DOW):
Thetotalweightofanaircraftreadyforaspecifictypeofoperationexcludingall
usablefuelandtrafficload.OperationalEmptyWeightplusitemsspecifictothe
typeofflight,i.e.catering,newspapers,pantryequipment,etc.
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Zero Fuel Weight (ZFW) :
Theweightobtainedbyadditionofthetotaltrafficload(payloadincludingcargo
loads,passengersandpassenger’sbags)andthedryoperatingweight.
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Landing Weight (LW) :
Theweightatlandingatthedestinationairport.ItisequaltotheZeroFuelWeight
plusthefuelreserves.
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Takeoff Weight (TOW):
Theweightattakeoffatthedepartureairport.Itisequaltothelandingweightat
destinationplusthetripfuel(fuelneededforthetrip),ortothezerofuelweight
plusthetakeofffuel(fuelneededatthebrakereleasepointincludingreserves).
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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AircraftWeightDefinitions

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https://youtu.be/UmfQHt-FAPI?t=138
STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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¿ que lo compone?
MINIMUM FUEL REQUIRE

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MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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MaximumStructuralTakeoffWeight(MTOW)
Thetakeoffweight(TOW)mustneverexceedaMaximumstructuralTOW(MTOW)
whichisdeterminedinaccordancewithinflightstructureresistancecriteria,
resistanceoflandinggearandstructurecriteriaduringalandingimpactwitha
verticalspeedequalto-1.83m/s(-360feet/min).
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Maximum Structural Landing Weight (MLW)
The landing weight (LW) is limited, assuming a landing impact
with a vertical speed equal to -3.05 m/s (-600 feet/min). The
limit is the maximum structural landing weight (MLW). The
landing weight must comply with the relation:
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Maximum Structural Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW)
Bendingmoments,whichapplyatthewingroot,aremaximumwhenthequantity
offuelinthewingsisminimum.Duringflight,thequantityoffuellocatedinthe
wingsdecreases.Asaconsequence,itisnecessarytolimittheweightwhenthere
isnofuelinthetanks.ThislimitvalueiscalledMaximumZeroFuelWeight
(MZFW).
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Maximum Structural Taxi Weight (MTW)
The Maximum Taxi Weight (MTW) is limited by the
stresses on shock absorbers and potential bending of
landing gear during turns on the ground.
Nevertheless, the MTW is generally not a limiting factor
and it is defined from theMTOW, so that:
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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MINIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS

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Theminimumweightisthelowestweightselectedby
theapplicantatwhichcompliancewitheach
structuralloadingconditionandeachapplicable
flightrequirementofJAR/FARPart25isshown.
Usually,thegustsandturbulenceloadsareamong
thecriteriaconsideredtodeterminethatminimum
structuralweight.
MINIMUM STRUCTURAL WEIGHTS