Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

1. Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language Babylen A. Soner Ma Applied linguistics 1

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5. Phonology 5 is concerned with how sounds function in relation to each other in a language. is about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of sounds in different positions in words etc . describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning . is how speech sounds are organized and affect one another in pronunciation . The sound patterns of language

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8. Phonemes are not physical sounds. They are abstract mental representations of the phonological units of a language. The process of substituting one sound for another word to see if it makes a difference is a good way to identify the phonemes of a language. These words differ only in their vowel: beat [bit] [ i ] boot [but] [u] bait [bet] [e] boat [ bot ] [o] bite [ bajt ] [ aj ] bot [bat] [a] Can you think of any others? 8

9. Punctuation Marks : phonemes use / / marks – allophones/phones use [ ] marks Phonemically the words bead and bean are transcribed a s /bid/ and /bin/ Phonetically the words are t ranscribed to be pronounced a s [bid] and [bin] 9

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19. Non-language Examples 19 Allophones – different versions of the same underlying representation phoneme

20. Non-language Examples 20 Allophones – different versions of the same underlying representation phoneme

21. Phonemes: Looking for Minimal Pairs 21 Phonemes are the psychological (abstract) representations or units of actual physical realizations of phonetic segments. Review: If two sounds are separate phonemes, then they are contrastive (in terms of meaning). • If the two phones are allophones of the same phoneme, then they are non-contrastive. To determine whether a given pair of sounds is contrastive, look for minimal pairs

22. Minimal Pairs… a re two words with different meanings that are identical except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in each word. Say the following word pairs and determine in which sound segment the difference occurs: c ab/cap rot/lot had/bad pin/bin zeal/seal 22

23. Minimal Pairs 23 A minimal pair is a pair of words that: have different meanings are pronounced the same except for one sound Examples: [ te ɪ k ] vs. [ te ɪ p ] "take" vs. "tape“ [ t im ] vs. [ d im] "team" vs. "deem“ [ ka p i ] vs. [ ka p h i ] "copy" vs. "ample" (Hindi)

24. Minimal Pairs 24 Do [l] and [r] belong to the same phoneme in English? Look for minimal pairs! [ l if ] "leaf“ [ l æk ] "lack“ [ r if ] "reef“ [ r æk ] "rack“ Since we have minimal pairs that contain [l] and [r], we can say that [l] and [r] are contrastive. Thus they are separate phonemes and are are NOT allophones of the same phoneme. Phonemes  /l/ /r/

25. Minimal Pair Practice 25 Use the following group of words to build five minimal pairs. jeep, yes, tack, chips, they, mice, day, wading, bill, cheap, pill, tick, than, weight, waiting, do, tail, chess (a) ______________&_______________ (b) ______________&_______________ (c) ______________&_______________ (d) ______________&_______________ (e) ______________&_______________

26. COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION Variants of a phoneme that never occur in the same phonetic environment*. e.g. voiced [ l ] in slip [sl ɪ p] voiceless [ l ] in clap [klæp] *Environment is the phonetic context in which a sound occurs.

27. Complementary Distribution 27 Superman and Clark Kent are different "physical realizations" of the cartoon character. When Clark Kent is present, Superman is NOT. Remember: When sounds are in complementary distribution, they cannot be contrastive. The replacement of one sound for the other does not change the meaning of the word.

28. Complementary Distribution i s the relationship between two phonemically similar segments. The sound is modified by the environment. Which variant occurs is determined by the immediate preceding letter. For example: the letter l has a complementary distribution in the words glue and blue . sat vat mill will rack rock 28

29. Dataset: Standard Spanish 29 Standard Spanish is an Indo-European language of the Romance family. Examine the phones [d] and [ð]. 1) Are these allophones of one phoneme, or separate phonemes? 2) Identify the type of distribution. 3) If they are separate phonemes, give minimal pairs that prove this. Std. Spanish English translation Std. Spanish English translation [drama] drama [ komiða ] food [dolor] pain [anda] scram [dime] tell me [sweldo] salary [kaða] each [durar] to last [laðo] side [toldo] curtain [ oðio ] hatred [falda] skirt

30. Dataset: Standard Spanish 30 Std. Spanish English translation Std. Spanish English translation [ d rama] d rama [ komi ð a ] food [ d olor] pain [ an d a ] scram [ d ime] tell me [ swel d o ] salary [ ka ð a ] each [ d urar ] to last [ la ð o ] side [ tol d o ] curtain [ o ð io ] hatred [ fal d a ] skirt Are these allophones of one phoneme, or separate phonemes? No minimal pairs found so the phones [d] and [ ð ] are NOT contrastive. They are found in different environments, and are thus said to be in complementary distribution . [d] occurs everywhere, while [ ð] occurs intervocalically (V___V, in between vowels) They are allophones of one phoneme so no minimal pairs were found.

31. Dataset: Sindhi Sindhi is an Indo-European language of the Indo-Aryan family, spoken in Pakistan and India. 31 Examine the distribution of the phones [p], [p h ], and [b]. 1) Determine if the three are allophones of separate phonemes, or allophones of the same phoneme. 2) What is your evidence? 3) Is the relationship between the sounds the same as in English? Why or why not? Sindhi gloss Sindhi gloss [ pənu ] leaf [ təru ] bottom [ vəʤu ] opportunity [k h əto] sour [ ʃeki ] suspicious [bəʤu] run [ gədo ] dull [bənu] forest [dəru] door [bəʧu] be safe [ p h ənu ] hood of snake [ʤəʤu] judge In Sandhi and English, /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes. In English, [p p h ] are allophones of the same phoneme, but in Sindi they’re phonemes.

32. Review: a comparison 32 English Hindi Korean Spanish Sindhi [p p h ] Allophones of the same phoneme /p/ Allophones of different phonemes /p p h / [r l] Allophones of different phonemes /r l/ Allophones of the same phoneme /l/ [d ð ] Allophones of different phonemes / d ð / Allophones of the same phoneme / d / [p p h b] [p p h ] allophones of the same phoneme /p/; /b/ Allophones of different phonemes /p p h b /

33. The Pronunciation of Morphemes Pronounce the plural forms of: Child – Ox – Mouse – Criterion – Sheep The old spelling rule to add s or es is misleading. These are special plurals that have to be memorized early in the use of English. 33

34. The old English rule of adding s or es to make a plural word is often misleading. There is no rule to predict how all plural words are formed in English. Allomorph is the technical term describing the plural variance. The words may vary in shape or pronunciation, but not meaning. For example, s has 3 allomorphs: the -s sound in hats the -z sound in dogs the Ə z sound in boxes 34

35. The following Minimal Pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial , & final positions. Initial Medial Final pit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cab Find similar sets of minimal pairs for the following consonant pairs: /k/ - /g/ /l/ - /r/ /s/ - /z/ 35

36. Morphophonemic Rules d etermine the phonetic form o f the plural morpheme and o ther morphemes. Like plurals, s ome irregular past tenses conform to no particular rule and must be learned individually. For example: go / went sing / sang hit / hit run / ran 36

37. A Phoneme the basic form of a sound Each phoneme has associated with it one or more s ounds, called Allophones , which represent the actual sound corresponding to the phoneme. For example, notice the d ifferences as you pronounce: Aspiration allophone [p] in pit Without aspiration allophone [p] in spit 37

38. - Distinctive Features of Phonemes – Phonetics provides the means to describe the phones (sounds) of language, showing how they are produced and how they vary. Phonology tells us how various sounds form patterns to create phonemes and their allophones. 38

39. Phoneme Feature Values Voicing and/or Voicelessness is the presence of a single feature. This single feature may have two values: + = voicing or -- = voicelessness . Nasality presence or absence is designated as + or -- also. Determine the values of: feel / veal cap / cab m / b 39

40. Voicing When verbs add - ed to become past tense this ending becomes voiced if the preceding sound is voiced as in “planned” or voiceless if the preceding sound is voiceless as in “jumped.” Since /t/ is not voiced and vowels are voiced, a /t/ between vowels often becomes voiced so that “latter” and “writer” are pronounced like “ladder” and “rider.” 40

41. Aspiration /p/ /t/ and /k/ form the natural class of voiceless stops. In English, voiceless stops are aspirated if they are followed by a stressed vowel and not preceded by /s/. This makes sense because aspiration is a puff of air. This puff would occur after a stop. It would occur into a stressed syllable. If the consonant were voiced or if some of the air had leaked out because of a preceding /s/, the aspiration would be less pronounced. 41

42. Detour: Aspiration in English 42 PHONETIC FACT: There is a burst or puff of air after the /p/ in pill, till, and kill, that is absent in spill, still, and skill. ASPIRATION: The period between the release of the closure of a consonant and the start of the vocal cord activity for the vowel that comes after it. This period is usually felt as a puff of air. pill [ p h ɪ l ] spill [ sp ɪ l ] till [ t h ɪ l ] still [ st ɪ l ] kill [ k h ɪ l ] skill [ sk ɪ l ]

43. Detour: Aspiration in English 43 Aspiration Rule in English: Aspiration occurs on all voiceless stops [p, t, k] occurring as the first sound in a stressed syllable. • Although aspirated stops and unaspirated stops are physically different , we consider both to be the same sound in English. • For English, aspiration is not employed to create a meaning difference (unlike in Hindi, for example). The diacritic (=special mark) for aspiration in the IPA is a superscript [ h ] Narrow vs. broad transcription

44. Palatization When a word that ends with a /t/ is followed by a – ual , - ial , or -ion ending, the palatal vowel <y-> changes the /t/ sound into a / ʃ / sound. Examples include: addict addiction act actual or action part partial predict prediction 44

45. 45 Alveolar Palatal Labial Labiodental Dental Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Laryngeal Places of Articulation

46. Active Articulators Bilabial is one of the 5 active articulators. Put your lips together and say the letters – B P M 46

47. Active Articulates Labiodental is another example of an active articulate. Put your lip to your teeth: Now say - F V 47

48. Active Articulates The third example of an active articulate is Interdental Place your tongue on the back of your incisors Say the letter N 48

49. Nasality is a nondistinctive feature for English vowels. There is no way to predict that the difference between the words meat and beat. You simply learn the words. On the other hand, the nasality feature value of the vowels in bean, mean, comb, and sing is predictable because they occur before nasal consonants. When a feature value is predictable by rule for a sound, the feature is nondistinctive or redundant or predictable (the three terms are equivalent). Thus, nasality is a redundant feature in English vowels, but a nonredundant feature for English consonants. 49

50. Feature Values : Nasality Nasality occurs with a lowering of the soft palate or velum so that air escapes both through the nose and the mouth. The presence or absence of nasality is designated as [ +nasal ] or [ -nasal ] Determine nasality for: /m/ /p/ mother patrol parrot milk Can you think of any others? 50

51. Aspiration of voiceless stops illustrates the asymmetry of the phonological systems of different languages. Both aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops occur in English and Thai, but they function differently. Aspiration in English is not a distinctive feature because its presence or absence is predictable. In Thai, it is not predictable. 51

52. In English, vowel length and consonant length are nonphonemic . Prolonging a sound in English will not produce a different word. In other l anguages, long and short v owels that are identical e xcept for length are phonemic. In such languages, length is a nonpredictable distinctive feature. 52

53. Natural classes of sounds are those groups of sounds described by a small number of distinctive features. One example is where the [-- voiced], [--continuant] , which describes /p/, t/, /k/. Any individual member of a natural class would require more features in its description than the class itself, so /p/ is not only [ -- voiced ], [--continuant] but also [ + labial]. 53

54. Phonotactics the permitted arrangement of sounds 54 big, rig, fig, dig, wig, lig , vig How do we know that ‘ lig ’ and ‘ vig ’ could be viewed as possible words in English? Our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words What about [ ts ɪg ] or [ tn ɪ g ]? These words have been formed without obeying some PHONOTACTIC constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes.

55. Phonotactic constraints : restrictions on possible combinations of sounds, these constraints operate on a unit larger than the single segment/phoneme Syllable structure : 55 Phonotactics syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant(s) v owel consonant(s) Basic elements of the syllable: onset – can be empty or have one or more consonants rhyme – consists of the nucleus (a vowel or vowel-like sound) and coda (can be empty or have one or more consonants

56. Syllables and Clusters 56 What must a syllable contain? At the minimum, A VOWEL or VOWEL-like sound e.g. English – ‘ a ’, ‘ I ’, ‘ a .bove ’ Symbol for syllable

57. Syllables and Clusters 57 syllable CV.CVC onset rhyme ‘ Ja.nice ’ nucleus coda consonant(s) vowel consonant(s) open d ʒ æ closed n ɪ s

58. Syllables and Clusters 58 syllable (open) onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant(s) vowel consonant(s) V ‘I’ a Ι V ‘a’ e Ι CV ‘be’ b i CV ‘though’ ð oʊ

59. Syllables and Clusters 59 syllable (closed) onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant(s) vowel consonant(s) ‘of’ Ʊ v ‘mug’ m Ʌ g

60. Syllables and Clusters 60 σ (closed) Onset Rhyme Nucleus Coda C C V C CCVC ‘step’ s t ɛ p Consonant Cluster

61. Syllables and Clusters 61 σ (closed) Onset Rhyme Nucleus Coda C V C C CVCC ‘tans’ t æ n s Consonant Cluster

62. Syllables and Clusters 62 σ (closed) Onset Rhyme Nucleus Coda C C V C C CCVCC ‘plots’ p l a t s CCVCC ‘ smooths’ s m u ð z Consonant Cluster Consonant Cluster

63. 63 syllable (open) CVV ‘I’, ‘eye’ onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant(s) V V consonant(s) a I Syllables

64. 64 syllable (open) CVV ‘go’ onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant(s) V V consonant(s) g o Ʊ Syllables

65. 65 Syllables: when vowel length is contrastive A. Tagalog galing / ga : . liŋ / from / ga . liŋ / excellence pito /pi: . toh / whistle /pi . toh / seven Japanese ojisan / ozisan / uncle ojiisan / oziisan / grandfather tsuki / tuki / moon tsūki / tuuki / airflow The diacritic : means vowel lengthening = a  aa

66. Syllables and Clusters 66 In English, there are a wide variety of syllable types, as shown in the table below (from Language Files ): Languages generally prefer CV syllables, but some languages, like English, allow up to 3 consonants to start a word, as long as the first is /s/, the second /p/, /t/, or /k/, and the third /l/, / ɹ /, /j/, /w/

67. Syllables and Clusters 67 Other languages don’t have as many syllable structures as English, as shown in the table below (from Language Files ): Single vowel can be a syllable; No consonant clusters consonant clusters at beginning and end

68. Syllables and Clusters 68 Determine the syllable structure of the words below. The first three are done for you. Remember that a single consonant or vowel can be spelled with more than one letter, some letters are not pronounced, etc., so focus on sound and not spelling. up (VC) 7. map _____ hat (CVC) 8. spring _____ judge (CVC) 9. slick _____ eggs _____ 10. stress _____ and ______ 11. can.dy _____ beat ______ 12. brea.thy _______

69. The Rules of Phonology The relationship between the phonemic representations of words and the phonetic representations that reflect the pronunciation of these words is rule-governed. Although the specific rules of phonology differ from language to language, the kinds of rules, what they do, and the natural classes they refer to are the same throughout the world. 69

70. Assimilation 70 Assimilation : the process of making one sound (or gesture) to become more like a neighboring sound (or gesture) with respect to some phonetic property [ ɪ], [æ], [ʌ], etc. – in isolation, no nasal quality. But in a word in which it’s followed by a nasal, the vowel becomes nasalized ( produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through nose as well as the mouth)

71. Assimilation 71 [ ɪ] [æ] [ʌ] [ b ɪ̃n ] [ bæ̃n ] [ bʌ̃n ] ‘bin’ ‘ban’ ‘bun’ Phonological rule: Any vowel becomes nasalized in English whenever it is immediately followed by a nasal, /m n ŋ/ The diacritic for nasalization in the IPA is a tilde [ ̃]. This is another example of narrow transcription.

72. Assimilation 72 ‘I can go’ [ aj k æn go ʊ ] [ aj k əŋ go ʊ ] The influence of the velar sound /g/ causes the alveolar nasal /n/ to assimilate, become like, into a nasal. Thus, in rapid speech, you hear the velar nasal / ŋ/

73. Assimilation It is a common phonological process by which the phonetics of a speech segment becomes more like that of another segment in a word (or at a word boundary). Let´s see some examples …

74. Examples : Family ( fam-i-ly / fam -lee) Telephone ( tel -e-phone/ tel -phone) Separate (sep-are-rate/sep-rat) Chocolate (choc-o-late/choc-lat) Mathematics (math-e-mat- ics /math-mat- ics ) Diamond ( di -a- mond / di-mond )

75. Elision 75 Elision (deletion) : the process of not pronouncing a sound segment (consonant, vowel, or whole syllable) that might be present in careful pronunciation ‘You and me’ [ ju æ n d mi ] [ ju ən mi ] ‘ above his hat’ [ əbʌv h ɪz hæt ] [ əbʌv ɪz hæt ]

76. Elision Is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel , a consonant , or a whole syllable ) in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes , sounds may be elided for euphonic effect . Let´s see some examples …

77. Examples : Comfortable : /ˈkʌmfərtəbəl/ → /ˈkʌmftərbəl/ Fifth : /ˈfɪfθ/ → /ˈfɪθ/ Him : /hɪm/ → /ɪm/ Laboratory : /læˈbɔrətɔri/ → /ˈlæbrətɔri/ (American English), /ləˈbɔrətri/ (British English) Temperature : /ˈtɛmpərətʃər/ → /ˈtɛmpərtʃər/, /ˈtɛmprətʃər/ Vegetable : /ˈvɛdʒətəbəl/ → /ˈ vɛdʒtəbəl /

78. Dissimilation Rules Dissimilation rules make sounds less s imilar. Sometimes it is easier to articulate dissimilar sounds: Say the “tongue twister:” The sixth sheik’s sixth sheep is sick . Now say, The fifth sheik’s fourth sheep is sick . Which is easier for you to say? Why? 78

79. Epenthesis Epenthesis is the addition of one or more sounds to a word. Excrescense occurs if the sound added is a consonant. Anaptyxis occurs if the sound added is a vowel. 79

80. Excrescense An example of Excrescense – addition of an extra consonant to a word Hamp – ster Hamster Can you think of other examples of Excrescense ? 80

81. Anaptyxis An example of Anaptysix – addition of An extra vowel to a word Pic – a – nic basket Can you think of other examples? 81

82. Epenthesis can also occur as a Poetic Device where the meter of a piece of literature requires extra syllables. For example: In “The Umbrella Man” movie/song the word adds a 4 th syllable: um – buh – rel – a Can you think of others? 82

83. Metathesis Rules Phonological rules may a lso reorder sequences o f phonemes, as in a sk/ aks nuclear/ nucular a nimal/ aminal spaghetti/ pusketti Can you add any others to This list? Dog lovers have metathesized the Shetland Sheepdog into a sheltie. 83

84. The more we look at languages, the more we realize that what appears at first to be irregular and unpredictable phonetic forms are actually rule-governed. We learn, or construct, these rules when we are acquiring the language as children. The rules form an important part of the sound pattern that we acquire from birth. 84

85. Phonological Rules The function of the p honological rules i n a grammar is to p rovide the phonetic information necessary for the pronunciation of utterances. Input Phonemic representation of words Phonological Rules Output Phonetic representation of words 85

86. From One to Many – From Many to O ne Rarely is a single phoneme realized as one and only one phone. Consider the vowels in the following pairs of words: A - comp e te B - comp e tition med i cinal med i cine s o lid s o lidity In column A, all underlined vowels are stressed with a variety of vowel phones; in column B, the underlined vowels are pronounced as schwa. 86

87. The Flap Rule Flap is a rapid movement of the tongue tip from a retracted vertical position to a horizontal position, during which the tongue brushes the alveolar ridge. When /t/ or /d/ occurs between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, they both become a “flap.” The following words sound similar: auntie/Annie metal/medal planter/planner coating/coding futile/feudal waiter/wader latter/ladder matter/madder Can you name any others? 87

88. Neutralization Neutralization is a merger of a contrast in certain contexts or specified environment Some examples of neutralization Before /g/ are: bag egg Greg keg leg peg Can you name any others? 88

89. Slips of the Tongue Unintentional speech errors show phonological rules in action. We all make speech errors, and they tell us something about language and its use. Consider: Intended Utterance Actual Utterance g one to seed god to seen s tick in the mud smuck in the tid s peech pronunciation preach seduction 89

90. Word Stress In many languages, including English, one or more of the syllables in every content word is stressed. (the words to, the, of, a are functional/support words). A stressed syllable, marked by an acute accent ( ‘ ) is more prominent in the following examples: Pervert noun as in My neighbor is a pervert. Pervert verb as in Don’t pervert the idea. Can you think of other examples? 90

91. Stress can be shown by placing a 1 over the primary stressed syllable, a 2 over the syllable with secondary stress, and leaving unstressed vowels unmarked. Place the appropriate stress marks on these words: fundamental introductory secondary Stress is the property of the syllable rather than a segment. To produce a stressed syllable, you may change the pitch, make the syllable louder, or make it longer. We often use all three of these phonetic means to stress a syllable. 91

92. In English we place primary stress on the adjectival part of a compound noun. But, we place stress on the noun when t he words are a noun phrase consisting of a n adjective followed by a noun. Consider w here you would place the primary stress: Compound Noun Adjective + Noun tightrope tight rope redcoat red coat hotdog hot dog White House white house 92

93. Pitch and Intonation Pitch plays an important role in tone & intonation. Say: John is going home. What’s in the tea, honey? Falling pitch at the end indicates a statement. Pitch rising at the end may indicate a question. 93

94. Phonolactic Constraints are language specific combinations of phonemes. In Japanese, the / st / consonant cluster is not allowed – while it exists in English In English, the sounds / kn / and / gn / are not permitted at the beginning of a new word – however, they do exist in both German and Dutch 94

95. Lexical Gaps Advertisers often use possible but nonoccurring words for new products – Xerox Bic Kodak Spam Other words like creck and cruck are nonsense words found in the lexicon – often called Lexical Gaps Can you name some others? 95

96. Why Do Phonological Rules Exist? Because languages have general principles that constrain possible sequences of sounds. The rules specify minimal modifications of the underlying forms that bring them in line with the surface constraints. Thus, we find different variants of a particular underlying form depending on the phonological context. One example is the English past-tense rule . Can you think of any others? 96

97. VOWELS Definition: Vowels are defined from the phonetical and phonological points of view Phonetically: deals with the way a sound is produced, so, vowels are sounds articulated without any closure in the vocal tract or a degree of narrowing (oral or nasal) Phonologically: deals with the place vowels have in a word, so vowels are sounds occurring at the center of the syllable and receive the stress with most intensity.

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99. English Vowel Features 99

100. CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS ACCORDING TO PHONETIC FEATURES Changes in movement during articulation Simple Complex / æ / / e / / i:/ / ɔ:ɪ / The tension of the tongue muscles Tense Lax / əʊ / / əʊ / / ɪ / /ɔ: / The position of the lower jaw High Mid Low / ɪ / / u: / / e / / ɔ:ɪ / /æ / / a / The position of the tongue Front Central Back / i: / / a: / /u: / The position of the lips Rounded Unrounded / uʊ / / ɪ /

101. VOWELS ACCORDING TO LENGTH Short: /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/ Long: / ı:/, /ɜ:/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/, /u:/ VOWELS ACCORDING TO THE PLANES OF THE MOUTH. ACCORDING TO THE VERTICAL PLANE OF THE MOUTH: HIGH, MID and LOW VOWELS. These names correspond to the position of the lower jaw . It was explained before. ACCORDING TO THE HORIZONTAL PLANE OF THE MOUTH: FRONT, CENTRAL and BACK VOWELS. These names correspond to the position of the tongue and it was explained before.

102. SEMIVOWELS AND GLIDES Sound functioning as a consonant, but lacking the PHONETIC characteristic normally associated with consonants (such as FRICTION or CLOSURE) but functioning as them. They are: / y /, / w /, / r / and / : / GLIDES WITH / y /: The / y /-glide is a movement in the point of articulation of the vowel toward a higher and more in front position. yellow GLIDES WITH / w /: The / w /-glide is a movement toward a position that is higher and farther back in the mouth, with accompanying lip-pounding. water GLIDES WITH / r / AND / : / : The / r /-glide is a movement toward a central retroflex position from some other position. here there

103. NASALIZATION What is it? We call nasalization to the change of an oral vowel to a nasal one because of the effect of a neighboring sound. medal, neighbor, nasal, mother When does it occur? It occurs when a vowel is preceded by a nasal consonant. Compare: mate / late pen / men

104. DISTRIBUTION It is the total set of context or environments, in which a sound unit can occur. Vowel allophones, Minimal pairs, Diphthongs and triphthongs . VOWEL ALLOPHONES: LENGTHENED and UNLENGTHENED ALLOPHONES. They are articulated in such a way that the vowel sound is the longest within the syllable. The length or duration of a vowel depends on the type of consonant sound that follows in an adjacent position. We use a dot [ : ] to indicate that a vowel is lengthened. sell, begin, singer UNLENGTHENED VOWEL ALLOPHONES: This type of sounds are relatively short within the syllable, and it determines that the syllable is UNSTRESSED. rip , pick, set, left MINIMAL PAIRS, phonologically : a pair of words which differ in only one phoneme. m e n, m a n A minimal pair with vowel contrast is a pair of words which differ only by a vowel sound. For example, in the words SIT and SAT, the difference is in the vowel sound of each word / i/ and / e / respectively.

105. DIPHTHONGS: DIPHTHONG: combination of two vowel sounds within a single syllable. Two elements: stronger, weaker = Elements of the diphthong Diphthongs are made with the tongue beginning in one position and gliding to another before the sound closes. ARTICULATORILY: - Distance the tongue travels: “WIDE”= long glide “NARROW” = short glide - Direction of the tongue: "CLOSING" = closer position "CENTRING“= central position AUDITORILY: A ccording to the prominence of the elements: "FALLING“ = when the first element is more prominent than the second "RISING“ = when the second element is more prominent than the first. In English, all diphthongs are considered generally "falling".

106. PITCH SEGMENTAL PHONEMES ( vowles and consonants ) SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONEMES special features of speech add meaning to what we say. They are PITCH, STRESS and JUNCTURE. What is PITCH? The h eight of tone, produced by the tension of the vocal cords. Permits the ordering of sounds on a scale running from low (grave) to high (acute). INTONATION PATTERNS: A RISE IN PITCH.- occurs on the last syllable and reaches a point below the next higher pitch,. In the drill material, the rise is represented by a rising arrow ( ). Is it yours ? A FADING AWAY INTO SILENCE, not accompanied by a terminal rise. There is often a fall in pitch, especially if the phrase ends on pitch 1 . The "fading away" is represented by a break or space in the "staff" and the absence or an upturned arrow. We are going to the movies A SLOWING DOWN OR SUSTENSION OF THE VOICE, not accompanied by a pitch rise or a fading away. Sometimes this kind of phrase-ending contour has been described as a "SHIFTING OF GEARS". A dotted vertical line is used to represent this kind of contour. I would like to talk about …. er …

107. STRESS D efined as the loudness, intensity or articulatory energy with which a syllable is spoken. The same as pitch, it helps to add meaning to what we say . Stress also helps to differenciate the meaning or grammatical function of a word To emphasize or contrast information present / present There are four contrasting degrees of stress in English. / ' / called the PRIMARY, LOUD or HEAVY STRESS; / ^ / called the SECONDARY or MEDIUM STRESS; / ` / called the TERTIARY, THIRD or LIGHT STRESS; / ◡ / called the WEAK or MINIMAL STRESS.

108. WORD STRESS: It's the stress given to one or more syllables in an individual word when it stands alone. One-syllable words or any other word said in isolation, so it is not necessary to use a stress mark when transcribing them. If a word has two or more syllables, at least one of them is stressed. SENTENCE STRESS: It is the stress given to different words in a sentence to bring out the meaning of connected speech. The same sentence can be said using different stress depending on what you want to say. yes How are you ? yes? How are you ?

109. MAJOR-MINOR STRESS DISTINCTION: (useful). Major stress: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs ,. Minor stress: personal pronouns, short prepositions, auxiliary verb, articles and the like, except when these have special contrastive (or shifted) stress. CONTRASTIVE OR EMPHATIC STRESS: primary stress can be put on any word in the phrase to show contrast or emphasis . This is not the only means of showing contrast, but it is an extremely common device. For example, it is possible to say: HER DRESS IS PRÉTTY, HER DRESS ÍS PRETTY, HER DRÉSS IS PRETTY, or HÉR DRESS IS PRETTY.

110. JUNCTURE This is another suprasegmental phoneme, known as the manner of transition from one segmental phoneme to another. Juncture is an extremely important sound feature in English. Let's note its role differentiating phrases such as: A NODE from AN ODE WHITE SHOES from WHY CHOOSE NIGHT RATE from NITRATE A NAME from AN AIM

111. INTERNAL JUNCTURE identifies a type of juncture that occurs within a phrase . We can distinguish: 1. INTERNAL CLOSE JUNCTURE: is the normal transition from one phoneme to the next within an utterance. For example, in the word TR AIN, the close juncture is determined by the manner of transition / t/ to / r /. 2. INTERNAL OPEN JUNCTURE ( +) it is a manner of transition which contrasts with close juncture. It keeps meanings apart. This is a manner of transition from one phoneme to the next in two uterances . Let's analyze the following pairs of phrases: A NAME AN AIM NIGHT RATE NITRATE SHORE TRAIN SHORT RAIN

112. TERMINAL OR EXTERNAL JUNCTURE: The term TERMINAL JUNCTURE refers to a juncture that occurs AT THE END OF SENTENCES AND PHRASES. We also have: DOUBLE BAR JUNCTURE/ /: This is a terminal juncture that means A RISE IN PITCH. Also called RISING JUNCTURE, ocurs in QUESTIONS. are you OK? a:+ ju:+ əʊ keɪ || DOUBLE CROSS JUNCTURE/#/: This is a terminal juncture that indicates a fading away into silence. let’s go lets +g əʊ # SINGLE BAR JUNCTURE/ /: This is a terminal juncture that is marked by a sustention of the voice. This pause determines a change in the sense or meaning of the expression. Let's see these two questions: I CAN TELL MARY I CAN TELL, MARY a ɪ + kæn + tel meri : # a ɪ + kæn + tel | meri :/

113. TRANSCRIPTIONS What is to transcribe? Transcribing means to put what we say into speech sounds. What do we use to transcribe? We use the English Phonetic Alphabeth which is the set of symbols that represent speech sounds. When transcribing: do not use capital letters (we do not use letters, but symbols) most of the times the symbol is the same letter. do not use periods or punctuation marks. write the word as it is pronounced, not as it is written do not use other phonetic symbols

114. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION.- is a graphic representation of speech sounds which records as many differences in sound as it is possible to perceive. This is also called narrow or allophonic. This is written within square brackets [ ]. PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION , it is also a graphic representation of speech sounds, which records only those differences in sound that are significant in the particular language. It is also called phonemic or broad This is written between diagonal bars or slanted lines / /.