Pollution control and waste disposal presentation

Pollution control and waste disposal

1. Pollution Control And Waste Disposal VII th Sem

2. Chapter I Introduction Air pollution Episodes Meteorological parameters Sources of Air pollution: Natural Sources and Man made sources Automobile pollution: cause , Effect and precaution Industrial pollution: cause, effect and precaution

3. Air Pollution Episodes An unusual combination of emissions and meteorology that gives rise to high levels of air pollution over a large area . Meteorological Factors Influencing Air Pollution The degree to which air pollutants discharged from various sources concentrate in a particular area depends largely on meteorological conditions. In a specified place the emission of pollutants may be the same but it is the weather that can trigger an air pollution episode.

4. Meteorological parameter Primary Parameter Secondary Parameter Wind direction and speed Temperature Atmospheric Stability Mixing height 1.Precipitation 2. Humidity 3. Solar Radiation 4. Visibility

5. Meuse Valley Episode, 1930 The 1930 Meuse Valley fog killed 60 people in Belgium due to a combination of industrial air pollution and climatic conditions. The area in the Meuse Valley where the incident occurred is densely populated as well as having many factories. There were several thousand cases of illness over the period of two or three days with the sixty deaths occurring at the same time. It was impossible to indicate any definite substance or chemical compound as the cause, but the investigators were of the opinion that the disaster in all probability had been brought about by sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) or oxidation products of that compound, of which quantities were found in the factory smoke.

6. Saint Louis Episode, 1939 The 1939 St. Louis smog was a severe smog episode that affected St. Louis , Missouri , in the United States in 1939 . Visibility was so limited that streetlights remained lit throughout the day and motorists needed their headlights to navigate city streets. The smog hung about for nine days over the course of the following month . However, on Tuesday, November 28, 1939, a meteorological temperature inversion trapped emissions from coal burning close to the ground, resulting in “the day the sun didn't shine”.

7. Donora Episode, 1948 Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora on the Halloween night of 1948, when a temperature inversion descended on the town. Fluoride emissions from the Donora Zinc Works smelting operation and other sources containing sulphur, carbon monoxide and heavy metal dusts were trapped by weather conditions, causing 20 deaths within 14 hours. The smog continued until it rained on October 31, by which time 20 residents of Donora had died and approximately a third to one half of the town's population of 14,000 residents had been sickened. Another 50 residents died of respiratory causes within a month after the incident.

8. Mexico, Poza Rica, 1950 A catastrophic exposure episode involving the release of large quantities of hydrogen sulfide occurred in Poza Rica, Mexico in November 1950. Poza Rica, a city of 22,000 people located about 210 km northeast of Mexico City, was then the centre of Mexicos leading oil-producing district and the site of several oil field installations, including a sulphur-recovery plant. An early morning malfunction of the waste gas flare resulted in the release of large quantities of unburned hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. The unburned gas, aided by a low-level temperature inversion and light early morning breezes, was carried to the residential area adjacent to the plant area. Residents of the area succumbed while attempting to leave the area and assisting stricken neighbours. Within a matter of 3 hours, 320 persons were hospitalised and 22 were killed.

9. 1952 London Episode, 1952 The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the set in of air pollution in Europe on a large scale. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and cooking. Due to burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and sulphur dioxide were much greater in winters than they were during the summer months. Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled over cities for many days. The smog-related deaths were first recorded in London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was more than 1000. London had one of its worst experiences of smog in December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths.

10. Bhopal Disaster, 1984 In the mid night of 2 nd - 3 rd December 1984, in a densely populated area of Bhopal, Central India, a poisonous vapor burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide plant . About forty tons of toxic gases had leaked from the Carbides Bhopal plant and spread throughout the city. The cause was the contamination of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) storage tank with water carrying catalytic material . Of the million people living in Bhopal at that time, more than 2,000 died immediately (one fourth of actual figures) and as many as 300,000 were injured. In addition, about 7,000 animals were affected, of which about 1000 were killed.

11. Indonesian forest fires Episode, 1997 The 1997 group of forest fires in Indonesia that lasted well into 1998 were probably among the two or three, if not the largest forest fires group in the last two centuries of recorded history . Malaysian Haze Episode, 2005 Southeast Asian Haze Episode, 2006

12. Natural Sources of Air Pollution Volcanoes: Volcanic activity produces smoke, ash, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and other air pollutants. Geysers: The air pollutants emitted by geysers include hydrogen sulfide , arsenic and other heavy metals . Digestive gases: Methane and other gases generated by the digestion of food and emitted by animals such as cattle. Oceans, Rivers and Estuaries: These are sources of methane emissions thought to be caused by the digestive systems of marine life, methanogenesis in sediments and drainage areas along coastal regions , and possibly seepage from methane hydrates on the ocean floors. Dust: Windblown dust from areas with little or no vegetation such as desert areas .

13. Sea salt: Wind-blown sea water which evaporates in the atmosphere and releases sodium chloride and other particulates into the atmosphere. Radioactive decay: Radon gas is released into the atmosphere by radioactive decay occurring in the Earth's crust. Forest fires : Forest fires created by lightning, or other natural causes, result in the formation and release of smoke, ash, dust, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other air pollutants. Plants and trees: Biogenic sources such as pine trees and certain other plants and trees which release volatile organic compounds (VOC). About 80% of the overall emissions of VOC are from biogenic sources.

14. Wetlands: Microbial action in wetlands result in significant amounts of methane being formed and released to the atmosphere. In fact, wetlands are the largest natural source of methane emissions. Termites: Termites are the second largest natural source of methane emissions. The methane is produced by their normal digestive process. Lightning: Lightning converts atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen oxides. Soil outgassing: Another biogenic source wherein microbial action in soils result in the formation and release of significant amounts of nitrogen oxides.

15. Volcano air pollution Sulfur dioxide geysers Pollution By Dust

16. Forest fires

17. Anthropogenic (Man Made) sources of air pollution Stationary point sources: A stationary point source is a single, identifiable source of air pollutant emissions. For example, the emissions from a combustion furnace flue gas stack. Mobile sources: Mobile sources include the exhaust emissions from vehicles driven by fuel-burning engines. For example: automobiles, trucks, buses, trains, marine vessels, airplanes, etc. Area sources: An area source is a two-dimensional source of diffuse air pollutant emissions. For example, the emissions of methane and ammonia from piggeries and other livestock operations.

18. Evaporative sources: Evaporative sources are volatile liquids that, when not completely enclosed in a tank or other container, evaporate and release vapors over time. For example, liquids such as paints, solvents, pesticides, perfumes, hair sprays, aerosol sprays and gasoline . Controlled burns: Controlled burning is a useful technique practiced in forestry management and in agriculture. Such controlled burns result in the formation and release of smoke, ash, dust, carbon dioxide , nitrogen oxides and other air pollutants. Waste disposal landfills: Microbes and chemical reactions act upon the waste and generate landfill gas that contains methane and carbon dioxide as well as small amounts of ammonia, mercaptans and other sulfides . Eventually, that gas escapes from the landfill and is released into the atmosphere.

19. Stationary sources Mobile Sources

20. Automobile Pollution Automobiles are a necessary evil, while they have made living easy and convenient, they have also made human life more complicated and vulnerable to both toxic emissions and an increased risk of accidents . Automobiles include cars, trucks, motorcycles and boats (anything that burns gas). They leave oil, antifreeze, grease and metals on streets and driveways. They also emit nitrogen and other contaminants, which settle in water.

21. Effect of Automobile Pollutants: Prolonged exposure to hydrocarbons contributes to asthma, liver disease, and cancer, overexposure of carbon monoxide poisoning may be fatal . NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain. NOx is a mixture of NO and NO2. NO2 destroys resistance to respiratory infection . Particulate matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited to respiratory disease . Oil, petroleum products and other toxins from automobiles kill fish, plants, aquatic life and even people. One quart of oil will contaminate thousands of gallons of water because it doesn’t dissolve. These toxins as well as trace metals and degreasing agents used on automobiles contaminate drinking water and can cause major illness. Some of these toxins and metals are absorbed in various sea life and cause medical problems to people when eaten . Phosphorus and nitrogen cause explosive growth of algae, which depletes water of oxygen, killing fish and aquatic life.

22. Control of Automobile Pollution: Engine efficiency has been steadily improved with improved engine design . Reduce use. Monitor and repair any leaks . Always take used oil, batteries and other fluids to a repair shop for proper disposal . Never allow oil or other toxins to runoff into the ground, street gutters or storm drains . Take your car to a commercial car wash or use detergents that don’t contain phosphorus to wash your car and direct the flow of runoff to grass clippings or gravel instead of the street . When purchasing a new automobile look for cars with high fuel efficiency ratings.

23. Industrial Pollution With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, humans were able to advance further into the 21st century. Technology developed rapidly, science became advanced and the manufacturing age came into view. With all of these came one more effect, industrial pollution. Any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to industrial practices is known as industrial pollution. Industrial pollution takes on many faces. It contaminates many sources of drinking water, releases unwanted toxins into the air and reduces the quality of soil all over the world.

24. Causes of Industrial Pollution Lack of Policies to Control Pollution: Lack of effective policies and poor enforcement drive allowed many industries to bypass laws made by pollution control board which resulted in mass scale pollution that affected lives of many people. Unplanned Industrial Growth: In most industrial townships, unplanned growth took place wherein those companies flouted rules and norms and polluted the environment with both air and water pollution . Use of Outdated Technologies: Most industries still rely on old technologies to produce products that generate large amount of waste. To avoid high cost and expenditure, many companies still make use of traditional technologies to produce high end products . Presence of Large Number of Small Scale Industries: Many small scale industries and factories that don’t have enough capital and rely on government grants to run their day-to-day businesses often escape environment regulations and release large amount of toxic gases in the atmosphere.

25. Inefficient Waste Disposal: Water pollution and soil pollution are often caused directly due to inefficiency in disposal of waste . Long term exposure to polluted air and water causes chronic health problems, making the issue of industrial pollution into a severe one. It also lowers the air quality in surrounding areas which causes many respiratory disorders. Leaching of Resources From Our Natural World: Industries do require large amount of raw material to make them into finished products. This requires extraction of minerals from beneath the earth. The extracted minerals can cause soil pollution when spilled on the earth. Leaks from vessels can cause oil spills that may prove harmful for marine life.

26. Effects of Industrial Pollution 1.Water Pollution : The effects of industrial pollution are far reaching and liable to affect the eco-system for many years to come. Most industries require large amounts of water for their work. When involved in a series of processes, the water comes into contact with heavy metals, harmful chemicals, radioactive waste and even organic sludge. These are either dumped into open oceans or rivers. As a result, many of our water sources have high amount of industrial waste in them which seriously impacts the health of our eco-system. The same water is then used by farmers for irrigation purpose which affects the quality of food that is produced. Water pollution has already rendered many ground water resources useless for humans and wildlife. It can at best be recycled for further usage in industries. 2. Soil Pollution : Soil pollution is creating problems in agriculture and destroying local vegetation. It also causes chronic health issues to the people that come in contact with such soil on a daily basis . 3. Air Pollution: Air pollution has led to a steep increase in various illnesses and it continues to affect us on a daily basis. With so many small, mid and large scale industries coming up, air pollution has taken toll on the health of the people and the environment.

27. . 4 . Wildlife Extinction: By and large, the issue of industrial pollution shows us that it causes natural rhythms and patterns to fail, meaning that the wildlife is getting affected in a severe manner. Habitats are being lost, species are becoming extinct and it is harder for the environment to recover from each natural disaster. Major industrial accidents like oil spills , fires, leak of radioactive material and damage to property are harder to clean-up as they have a higher impact in a shorter span of time. 5. Global Warming: With the rise in industrial pollution, global warming has been increasing at a steady pace. Smoke and greenhouse gases are being released by industries into the air which causes increase in global warming. Melting of glaciers, extinction of polar beers, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes are few of the effects of global warming . The issue of industrial pollution concerns every nation on the planet. As a result, many steps have been taken to seek permanent solutions to the problem. Better technology is being developed for disposal of waste and recycling as much polluted water in the industries as possible. Organic methods are being used to clean the water and soil, such as using microbes that naturally uses heavy metals and waste as feed.

28. Chapter II Air pollution: sources and effect Classification of air pollutants: Primary and Secondary Properties of air pollutants Effect of air pollutants : health, material and vegetation

29. Air pollution : Sources and Effect Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable effect on man and environment These substances includes Gases( sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, etc.) Particulate Matter( smoke, dust, fumes, aerosols) Radioactive materials and many others. Most of these substances are naturally present in the atmosphere in low( background) concentrations and are usually considered to be harmless.

30. The background concentrations of various components of dry air near sea level and their estimated residence times. Thus, a particular substance can be considered an air pollutants only when its concentration is relatively high compared with the background value and its adverse effect.

31. Classification and properties of air pollutants The variety of matters emitted into atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic sources are divided into two categories:

32. Properties of air pollutants Particulate matters Atmospheric substances that are not gases Can be suspended droplets/ solid particles/mixture of two. Can be composed of inert / extremely reactive material ranging from 100µm down to 0.1µm and less. Inert: do not react readily with the environment nor do they exhibit any morphological changes as a result of combustion o r any other process Reactive material could be further oxidised / may react chemically with the environment.

33. Classification of Particulate matter Dust Contains particles of the size ranging from 1 to 200µm. Formed by natural disintegration of rocks and soil or by the mechanical processes of grinding and spraying Have large settling velocities and are removed from the air by gravity and other inertial processes. Fine dust particles acts as centres of catalysis for many of the chemical reactions taking place in the atmosphere.

34. Smoke Contains fine particles of the size ranging from 0.01 to 1µm which can be liquid/ solid Are formed by combustion or other chemical processes. Smoke may have different colours depending on the nature of material burnt. Fumes Solid particles of the ranging from 0.1 to 1µm Normally released from chemical and metallurgical processes. Mist Made up of liquid droplets generally smaller than 10µm are formed by condensation in the atmosphere or released from industrial operation.

35. Fog It is the mist in which the liquid is water and is sufficiently dense to obscure the vision. Aerosol Includes all air borne suspensions either solid or liquid; these are generally smaller than 1µm.

36. Oxides of Sulphur SO 2 :colourless gas, sharp and pungent odour. :Moderately soluble in water( 11.3 g/100ml) forming weakly acidic sulphurous acid ( H 2 SO 3 ). :Oxidised slowly in clean air to sulphur trioxide. In a pollutant atmosphere, SO 2 reacts photo chemically or catalytically with other pollutants or normal atmospheric constituents to form sulphur trioxide, sulphuric acid and salts of sulphuric acid. Sulphur trioxide(SO 3 ) is generally emitted along with SO 2 , at about 1-5% of the SO 2 concentration. SO 3 rapidly combines with moisture in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid which has a low dew point. Both SO 2 and SO 3 are relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain or settle out as aerosols. This is reason why SO 2 mass in clean dry air is so small compared to annual emission from anthropogenic sources.

37. Nitrogen Oxides Of the six or seven oxides of nitrogen , only three- nitrous oxide(N 2 O), nitric oxide(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 )- are formed in any appreciable quantities in the atmosphere. Often NO and NO 2 are analysed together in air and are referred to as No x . Nitrous oxide(N 2 O ): colourless, odourless non toxic gas, present in atm. In relatively large conc. (0.25ppm). Major source: biological activity of the soil. It has a low reactivity in the lower atmosphere and is generally not considered an air pollutants.

38. Nitric Oxide(NO): colourless, odourless gas largely produced by fuel combustion. It is oxidised to NO 2 in a polluted atmosphere through photochemical secondary reactions. Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ): brown pungent gas with an irritating odour which can be detected at conc. of about 0.12ppm. It absorbs sunlight and initiates a series of photochemical reactions. NO 2 is probably produced by the oxidation of NO by ozone. Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) is major concern as a pollutant; it is emitted by fuel combustion and nitric acid plants.

39. Carbon Monoxide It constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere. CO is colourless, odourless, tasteless, and has BP of 192 C. It has a strong affinity towards the haemoglobin of the bloodstream and is a dangerous asphyxiant. The rate of oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere seems to be very slow; mixture of CO and O2 exposed to sunlight for several years have been found to remains unchanged. CO is present in small concentrations( 0.1 ppm) in the natural atmosphere and has residence time of about six months. The main sources of CO in the urban air are smoke and exhaust fumes of many devices burning coal, gas or oil.

40. Hydrocarbons The gaseous and volatile liquid hydrocarbons are particular interest as air pollutants. Hydrocarbons can be saturated or unsaturated, branched or straight chain , or can have a ring structure as in the case of aromatics and other cyclic compounds. In the saturated class , methane is by far the most abundant hydrocarbon consisting about 40 to 80% of the total hydrocarbon present in an urban atmosphere. The unsaturated class includes alkenes( olefins) and acetylenes. Among the alkenes the prominent pollutants are ethylene and propene. The substitute derivatives of benzene in the class of aromatic i.e. toluene and m-xylene are usually present in large conc. in the urban atmosphere. In the cyclic no aromatic class , Terpenes found in pine tar and in other wood sources.

41. Classification of anthropogenic air pollution sources Source type Category Important sources Typical pollutants Combustion Stationary Power plants, Industrial boilers, Diesel generators, Municipal / industrial incineration, Refuse burning Oxides of sulphur, NOx , CO, Smoke, Fly ash , trace of metal oxides. Mobile Motor Vehicles, air craft CO, Hydrocarbons, NOx , SO 2 particulates Roasting and heating process Non ferrous metallurgical Roasting, smelting, and refining operation. Dust, Smoke, metal fumes( Cu, Pb , and Zn), oxides of sulphur Ferrous metallurgical Material handling Ore sintering and palletising, Coke oven blast furnace, Steel furnace Smoke, Fumes, CO, Colours, H 2 S, organic Vapours, fluorides Non Metallic minerals Crushed stone, gravel and sand processing, cement, glass, refractories, and ceramic manufacture, coal cleaning Minerals and organic Particulates, SOx , NOx , dust fumes.

42. Source type Category Important sources Typical pollutants Chemicals, petrochemicals, pulp and paper Petroleum refining Boilers, process heaters, catalyst regenerators, flares, reactors, storage tanks, compressor engines Oxides of sulphur, hydrocarbons, NO x , particulate matter, CO, aldehydes ammonia, odours Inorganic chemicals Sulphuric Acid plants, fertilizer manufacture, nitric acid and ammonia plants, phosphoric acid manufacture SO 2 , HF, H 2 S, NO x , NH 2 , particulate matter, H 3 PO 4 , etc Organic Chemicals Plastics, paint and varnish manufacture, nitric acid and ammonia plants, phosphoric acid manufacture Particular matter, odors, SO 2 , CO, organic intermediates, product gases and vapors, solvent vapors, etc. Pulp and paper ( Kraft process) Digester blow system, pulp washers, recovery furnace, evaporators, oxidation towers Particulate matter, odorous sulphur compounds( H 2 S, methyl mercaptan , dimethyl sulphide) and SO 2 ( sulphite process)

43. Source type Category Important sources Typical pollutants Food and Agriculture Food processing Drying, preserving, packaging Vapours , odours , dust Crop spraying and dusting Pest and weed control Organic phosphates , Chlorinated HC, arsenic, lead. Field burning Refuse burning Smoke, flash, soot

44. Pollutants Emission (millions of Tonnes / year) Natural Emission Anthropogenic Emission Particulate Matter Primary particle production Sea salt spray 908 84 Soil dust 182 Volcanic and forest fires 07 Total 1097 Total 84 Gas to particle conversion Sulphate from H 2 S 182 Sulphate from SO 2 133 Nitrate from NO and NO 2 390 Nitrate from NOx 27 Ammonium 245 Photochemicals from HC 25 Terpenes 182 Total 999 Total 185

45. Pollutants Emission (millions of Tonnes / year) Natural Emission Anthropogenic Emission Sulphur dioxide Emission expressed as S biological decay(H 2 S) 90 Coal 92 Sea Spray ( Sulphates ) 40 Petroleum 26 Smelting 14 Total 130 Total 132 Nitrogen oxides NO 455* Emission expressed as NO 2 N2O 537 Coal combustion 24.4 Petroleum refining 0.6 Gasoline Combustion 6.8 Other oil combustion 12.8 Natural gas combustion 1.9 Other combustion 1.4 Total 992* Total 47.9

46. Pollutants Emission (millions of Tonnes / year) Natural Emission Anthropogenic Emission Carbon Monoxide Oxidation of CH 4 and formaldehyde 3000 400 Decay and synthesis of chlorophyll 90 Photochemical oxidation of terpene 54 Ocean 220 Total 3364 Total 400 Hydrocarbons CH 4 1450 88 Terpenes 170

47. The prime factors affecting human health are: Nature of pollutants Concentration of the pollutants Duration of exposure State of health of the receptor Age group of the receptor Effect of air pollution on human health

48. Effect of air pollution on human health

49. Major Air pollution Disasters Location Conditions and causes Symptoms and effects Meuse Valley, Belgium , Dec. 1930 Inversion, smoke, SO 2 (9.6-38.4ppm) H 2 SO 4 mist 60 excess deaths, thousands ill, eye and nasal irritation , cough Donora, USA, Oct. 1948 Inversion and fog, SO 2 (0.5-2.0ppm) smoke, zinc particles, H 2 SO 4 mist 20 excess deaths, 6000 of town’s 1400 population became ill, irritation of eyes, nose and respiratory tract, breathlessness, nausea Poza Rica, Mexico, Nov. 1952 Shallow inversion, fog and calm conditions, H 2 S release due to burner failure 22 excess deaths, 320 hospitalized, irritation of respiratory tract London, England ,Jan. 1952 Low temperature inversion, thick fog , stagnant air, smoke( 450 μ g/ m 3 ) and SO 2 (1.4ppm) accumulation Estimated 4000 deaths, thousands hospitalized for respiratory and heart disease, chronic bronchitis, bronchopneumonia London, England, Jan.1956 Extended fog conditions similar to 1952 episode, particulates (3250 μ g/ m 3) , SO 2 (0.57ppm) 1000 excess deaths

50. Location Conditions and causes Symptoms and effects London , England , Dec. 1962 Shallow inversion, thick fog smoke (2000 μ g/ m 3 ) , SO 2 (1.26ppm) 700 excess deaths, increased illness New York , USA, Nov. 1966 SO 2 , particles 168 excess deaths Seveso, Italy, July 1976 Reactor explosion releasing dioxine plume and cloud settle d over an area of 1430 hectares No excess deaths, 187 cases of skin chloraene, 32 official abortions, 15 cases of deformed births and 6 premature offspring, dizziness, diarrhea Bhopal, India, Dec. 1984 Release of 30 tonnes of deadly methyl isocynate gas from storage tanks due to alleged failure of vent scrubber system Estimated deaths more than 2500; 1,00,000 people severely affected, vomiting, violent coughing, chemical conjunctivitis, suffocation, cardiac failure

51. Mechanism of action of air pollutants The effect of air pollution on human health generally occurs as a result of contact between the pollutants and the body. Bodily contact: surfaces of Skin and exposed membranes. Contact with exposed membranous surfaces is of utmost importance because of their high absorptive capacity compared to that of skin.

52. Human respiratory system

53. Particulate matter inhaled may be deposited in various regions of the respiratory system depending on particle size. Particle above 10 μ m are almost wholly retained in the nose. Those below 10 μ m escape entrapment and are generally pass through the upper respiratory system. Fine particles in the size range 0.5 to 5 μ m are deposited as far as bronchioles, but few reach the alveoli. The walls of the bronchi and bronchioles are lined with fine hair like structures called cilia. These are responsible for removing such fine particles along with the mucous by moving them upto the larynx where they may be eliminated by swallowing. The health risk is primarily from deposition of particles smaller than 0.5 μ m in the alveoli where they cause damage to the respiratory system.

54. Particulate matter The toxic effect of particles can be grouped into three categories: Interference of inert particles with the clearing mechanisms of the respiratory tracts : The effect includes a slowing of ciliary beat and mucus flow in the bronchial tree. Particle act as carriers of absorbed toxic gases such as SO 2 and produce synergistic effects:

55. Conditions Effects 1. Particulate level of 750 μ g/ m 3) with SO 2 at 715 μ g/ m 3 (0.25ppm), both 24 hr mean Increased daily death rate ; substantial increase in illness of persons with bronchitis 2.Low particulate level with SO 2 levels ranging between 300 and 500 μ g/ m 3 ( 0.11 – 0.19ppm) , both 24 hr mean Increased hospital admissions of elderly people respiratory disease cases; increased absenteeism among older workers 3. Particulate level of 300 μ g/ m 3 with SO 2 level of 600 μ g/ m 3 (0.21ppm) , both 24 hr mean Worsening of symptoms in person s suffering from chronic bronchitis 4. Particulate level of 185 μ g/ m 3 with SO 2 level ranging between 105 and 265 μ g/ m 3 ( 0.04- 0.09ppm), both annual mean Increased frequency of respiratory symptoms and lung disease 5. Particulate level of 100 μ g/ m 3 with SO 2 level of 120 μ g/ m 3 (0.05ppm), both annual mean Increased incidence of respiratory disease among school children Relations between particulates and SO 2 level and health effect

56. Particulates, SO 2 and NOx level in Indian cities annual averages

57. Particles may be intrinsically toxic because of their physical / chemical characteristics : Such particles belong to metals which are usually found in the atmosphere in trace quantities but may constitute a great health hazard because of the possibility of their concentrations increasing beyond normal levels (0.01 to 3.0 % of all particulate air pollution) Major toxic metals and their effects: Element Sources Health Effect Lead Auto exhaust ( from gasoline), paints, storage batteries, pipes Neurotoxin, affects blood system, behavioral disease, death Cadmium Coal, zinc mining, incineration of plastic containers, refining of metals, tobacco (Cigarette) smoke Cardiovascular disease and hypertension, interference with zinc and copper metabolism , kidney damage Nickel Combustion of coal, diesel and residual oils, tobacco smoke, Chemicals and catalysts, steel and non-ferrous alloys manufacture Respiratory symptoms, lung cancer ( as nickel carbonyl) Mercury Combustion of fossil fuels, evaporation from ore mining, exhaust from metal smelters, chloralkali cells, paints, pharmaceuticals Nerve and brain damage, kidney damage

58. Occupational pollutants Element Sources Health Effect Beryllium and Beryllium oxides particulates Industrial activities: ceramic industry, processing plants which converts the ores into beryllium powder, rocket motor test facilities, coal combustion, nuclear power industry Acute: Affects mucus membranes of the eyes and lungs. Chronic: berylliosis caused by beryllium conc. as low as 0.01 to 0.10 μ g/ m 3 . Berylliosis: systematic poisoning which starts with progressive shortness of breath, weight loss and cough, and finally affects many organs including heart. When inhaled as a dust: causes lung cancer. Asbestos (hydrated silicates) Separates into strong flexible fibers upon crushing and processing. Most abundant type: Chrysolite, main fiber used in asbestos textiles Insulating materials, asbestos cement and brake lining Cause disabling lung disease called asbestosis. Asbestosis : disease characterized by shortness of breath and pleural calcification. Causes lung cancer, mesothelioma: incurable and fatal cancer.

59. Gaseous Pollutants The effect of gaseous pollutants on the respiratory system depends on The concentration Period of exposure The solubility Highly soluble gases such as sulphur dioxide are absorbed in the upper part of the respiratory system where as relatively insoluble gases like CO, NO2 and ozone penetrate deep and reach the alveoli of the lungs. Some adverse effects of these pollutants include pulmonary edema, emphysema, and prevention of oxygen transfer to blood.

60. Sulphur dioxide It aggravates existing respiratory diseases in humans and contributes to their development. Even healthy individuals experience bronco-constriction when exposed for a few minutes to level of 1.6 ppm. This condition accompanied by shallow breathing and an increased respiratory rate. Acute effect: the upper respiratory tract where more than 95% of inhaled SO 2 is absorbed. Chronic effect: resulting from extended exposure to low concentrations include incidence of respiratory infection in children

61. Effect of sulphur dioxide on humans Concentration (ppm) Effects 0.2 Lowest concentration causing a human response 0.3 Threshold for taste recognition 0.5 Threshold for odor recognition 1.6 Threshold for inducing reversible bronco-constriction in healthy individuals 8-12 Immediate throat irritation 10 Eye irritation 20 Immediate coughing

62. Carbon monoxide When inhaled, passes through the lungs and diffuses directly into the blood stream where it combines with the red blood pigment called hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin, COHb. The affinity of CO for hemoglobin is 210 times greater than that of oxygen and as a result the amount of hemoglobin available for carrying oxygen for body tissue is considerably reduced. The body tissue are thus deprived of their oxygen supply and death could result by asphyxiation (lack of oxygen) In addition, the presence of COHb in the blood retards the dissociation of remaining oxyhemoglobin, so the tissues are further deprived of oxygen. The equilibrium level of COHb may be estimated for concentrations of CO below 100ppm in the inhaled air by using approximate equation: %COHb in blood=0.16(ppm CO)+0.5

63. Health effect of COHb blood levels COHb blood level (%) Effect on healthy individuals Effect on hearth patient 1-5 Blood flow to certain vital organs increases to compensate for reduction in oxygen carrying capacity of blood Heart patients may be lack sufficient cardiac reserve to compensate 5-9 Visual light threshold increased Patients with angina pectoris require less exertion to induce chest pain 16-20 Labored respiratory during exertion , visual evoked response abnormal May be lethal for patients with severe cardio muscular disease 20-30 Headache, nausea 30-40 Severe headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness 40-50 Slurring of speech; tendency to collapse 50-60 Convulsions; coma 60-70 Fatal coma if not treated

64. The concentration of up to 500ppm in the air, when inhaled for 1hr produces no observable symptoms but a similar exposure to 1000ppm can be dangerous. Concentrations of 4000ppm and above are fatal, usually within 1 hr increased COHb in the blood deprives oxygen supply to various vital organs, especially the brain. This leads to impairment of mental performance, visual acuity and other functions. The chronic effect : they may induce heart and respiratory disorders.

65. Oxides of Nitrogen The major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are nitric oxide(NO) and nitrogen dioxide(NO 2 ). NO is not an irritant and at conc that occurs in the atmosphere it does not show any adverse health effects. However, its main toxic potential results from its oxidation to NO 2 . NO 2 is relatively insoluble and upon inhalation can reach the moisture filled alveoli of the lungs. There it is converted to nitrous and nitric acids which are highly irritating and cause damage to the lung tissues. Long term exposure to concentrations of the of 1ppm could lead to symptoms resembling emphysema and biochemical alteration in blood. NO 2 in combination with hydrocarbons acts as the initiator of photochemical smog leading to the production of secondary pollutants like the oxidants. These oxidants are ones that cause most damage to human health.

66. Effect of atmospheric NO 2 Effects NO 2 conc. (ppm) Exposure Increase in acute respiratory disease 0.06-0.1 2-3 years Increase in acute bronchitis in school children Up to 0.1 6 months Human olfactory threshold 0.12 < 24 hrs Increase in airway residence 5 10 min Pulmonary edema 90 30 min

67. Hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants At the concentrations usually found in urban air, the hydrocarbons cause no adverse effects on human health. Aliphatic hydrocarbons produce undesirable effects only at conc 10 2 to 10 3 times higher than those usually found in the atmosphere. No effects have been observed for levels below 500ppm. Aromatic hydrocarbons are more reactive than aliphatic ones and cause irritation of the mucous membranes. The major oxidant produced in photochemical smog is ozone. Contrary to the popular belief, ozone appears to have no effect on the eyes at usual urban conc. The respiratory system, however, may respond to very low conc. There is definite increase in airway resistance in some people exposed to concentration as low as 0.1ppm.

68. Other oxidants produced in photochemical smog: Peroxyacyl nitrates: cause eye irritation Peroxycetyl nitrate and peroxybenzyl nitrate: irritate the nose and throat, and cause chest constriction. The one with the lowest threshold is peroxybenzyl nitrate, having a value of 0.005ppm for five minute exposure. Effect Conc ppm Exposure ozone Increased airway resistance 0.1 – 1.0 1 hr Extreme fatigue, lack of coordination 1.0-3.0 2hrs Severe cough 2.0 2 hrs Pulmonary edema 9.0 unknown Total oxidants Eye irritation 0.1 Instantaneous Aggravation of asthma 0.05 -0.06 1 hrs Impaired performance of athletes 0.03-0.3 1 hrs

69. The process by which farm animals get poisoned is entirely different from that by which human being exposed to polluted atmospheres are poisoned. In case of farm animals it is a two step process: 1. Accumulation of the air borne contaminant in the vegetation and forage. 2. Subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the contaminated vegetation. The three pollutants responsible for most livestock damage are 1. Fluorine 2. Arsenic 3. lead These pollutants originate from industrial sources / from dusting and spraying. Effect of air pollution on animals

70. Pollutants Symptoms of Acute Poisoning Symptoms of Chronic Poisoning Tolerance limit Fluorine Lack of appetite Rapid loss in weight Decline in health and vigor Lameness Periodic diarrhea Muscular weakness and death Chronic fluorosis Bone lesions Lack of appetite General ill health due to malnutrition Lowered fertility Reduced milk production and growth retardation Mottling, staining and wearing of the teeth Bony overgrowths of the skeleton, stiffness and lethargy General ill-health from malnutrition and starvation Arsenic Severe salivation, thirst, vomiting, uneasiness, feeble and irregular pulse and respiration. Diarrhea and the faeces have a garlic odor and are sometimes bloody. The ears becomes cold, the body trembles and develops abnormal temperature and convulsion. Death may occur in few hours or days. Appears to have a depressing effect upon the central nervous system. Animal become dull and exhibits a lack of appetite, with a resulting weight loss. Also, there may be a chronic cough and diarrhea may occur continuously. There may be thickening of the skin, anemia and abortion or sterility. Chronic poisoning can result in eventual paralysis and death. Arsenic as well as its soluble compounds are extremely poisonous Sheep: 0.25- 0.5 g Cattle and horses: 1.3- 1.9 gm

71. Pollutants Symptoms of Acute Poisoning Symptoms of Chronic Poisoning Tolerance limit Lead Prostration, staggering and inability to rise are prominent symptoms . Pulse is always fast but weak. Some animals may fall suddenly, stiffen the legs and have convulsions. There is a complete loss of appetite, paralysis of digestive tract and diarrhea. Other nervous symptoms in cattle are grinding of the teeth and rapid chewing of the cud. In cases of horses, it may result in complete loss of appetite, nervous depression, lethargy and death. Observed frequently in horses that have been grazing on forage near smelters , lead mines, and in orchards that have been sprayed. Paralysis of muscles of the larynx and difficulty in breathing. Convulsion may occur from the paralysis of the throat Difficulty in breathing may be unusually severe and persistent, during and after exercise. Cumulative poison. Therefore, the continuous ingestion of even very small daily doses will be finally as effective as one toxic dose. Slight contamination death occur after many months Severe contamination death occur within 24 hrs.

72. The surface of leaf is covered by a waxy layer known as the cutile. In between the waxy layer is the epidermis, a single layer of cell forming the surface skin of leaf. Its chief functions are the protection of the inner tissues from excessive moisture loss and the admission of carbon dioxide to these internal tissues. The leaf surface is penetrated by a large number of opening called the stomata. Each stoma is protected by a pair of guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the stoma. The internal tissues of the leaf are the palisade , the spongy mesophyll, and the conducting tissues, or veins, which carry water , minerals and food. of particular interest with regard to air pollution are the stomata through which gasses diffuse to the surface of the cells within the leaf. Effect of air pollution on vegetation

73. Necrosis : The dead areas on a leaf structure Epinasty: a downward curvature of the leaf due to higher rate of growth on the upper surface and dropping the leaves. Chlorosis: The loss / reduction of chlorophyll and leads to yellowing of the leaf.

74. In general, the pollutants enter the inner tissues through the stomata, where they destroy the chlorophyll and disrupt photosynthesis. The adverse effect range from reduction in growth rate to death of the plant. The effect of particulates on vegetation is not well known. However, some specific dusts have been observed to cause the damage. Cement dust deposited on leaves, on combination with mist or light rain, forms incrustation.

75. Effect of specific air pollutants on vegetation Pollutant Level( ppm ) and exposure Effects SO 2 0.3 to 0.5 for several days Bleached spots, chlorosis, chronic injury to spinach, and other leafy vegetables NO 2 0.25 for 8 months 0.5 for 10-12 days 3.5 for 21 days 25 for 1 hr Increased abscission and reduced yield in citrus plants Suppressed growth of tomatoes Spots of mild necrosis on cotton and bean plants Acute leaf injury Ozone 0.03 for 8 hrs, time effect reduced if low level SO 2 Is also present Fleck on upper surface; Necrosis and bleaching; damage to tobacco leaves at O 3 =0.027 ppm and SO 3 = 0.24ppm after 2 hrs of exposure. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) 0.01 to 0.05 for a few hrs Glazing / bronzing of underside of leaf; damage to sensitive plants; young leaves more susceptible to damage HF 0.001 for 7-21 days can be significant; cumulative effect Necrosis of leaf tip, grapes are particularly susceptible Ethylene 0.1 for several hrs / 0.05 for several weeks Epinasty ; leaf abscission, flower droping

76. Effect of various fumigants on plants Chlorine: marginal and interveinal lesions Hydrogen chloride: cause first chlorotic then necrotic Nitric oxides: brown margin and brownish black spots on leaves Ammonia: intermediate toxicity Hydrogen cyanide: fumigates: injures the vegetation Herbicides: excess use may cause injures the vegetation

77. Air pollution damage to property covers a wide range: Corrosion of metals Soiling and eroding Fading of dyed materials Rubber cracking Interference with production and services Another important economic effect of air pollution is deterioration of work of art. Effect of air pollution on materials

78. Mechanism of deterioration in polluted atmosphere Air pollutants cause damage to materials by five mechanisms: Abrasion Deposition and removal Direct chemical attack Indirect chemical attack Corrosion

79. Building material Building materials are corroded and disfigured by air pollutants in a no of ways in addition to the usual weathering process. Smoke and aerosols adhere to stone, brick and other building surfaces to produce unsightly coatings. SO 2 and SO 3 in presence of moisture can react with limestone (CaCO 3 ) to form calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 ) and gypsum (CaSO 4 , 2H 2 O), both of which are soluble in water. This type of damage is notable especially in work of art. E.g. Taj Mahal Agra, which is constructed out of marble. Similarly, carbon dioxide in presence of moisture, produces carbonic acid. This acid converts limestone into water soluble bicarbonates, which then leached away. Staining of building stone by sulphur compounds and particulates requires additional cleaning expense.

80. Textiles Sulphur oxides cause deterioration of natural and some synthetic textile fibers. E.g. cotton, which is cellulose fiber is weakened by sulphur dioxide. The most common form of permanent damage to textiles has been the deterioration of nylon hose. This has been usually traced to sulphuric acid mist. The fading of textile dyes by air pollutants, primarily oxides of nitrogen, and ozone has been problem in the textile industry.

81. Rubber Another form of property damage which is becoming increasingly common in the USA and other countries is rubber cracking. The main affected areas are the side walls of tyres and various forms of electrical insulation. This type of damage is caused by ozone. The mechanism appears to be an attack at the double bonds in the hydrocarbon polymer compounds used in the rubber. More rapid failure of rubber insulation in atmospheres of high ozone content has also been noticed in power transmission substations and in telephone exchanges.

82. Paints Paint is affected by air pollutants. Areas of high pollution require more frequent painting. Paint contains both pigments and vehicle. Pigment: provide color, hiding power, durability Vehicle: holds the pigment to the surface. Together, they enhance the attractiveness of the surface and protect the underlying material from corrosion/ weathering. Air pollutants may limit both of these functions by damaging the protective coating and by exposing the underlying surface to attack. Common pollutants that can cause this damage are SO 2 , ozone, hydrogen sulphide and aerosols.

83. Leather Sulphur dioxide causes leather to lose much of its strength and ultimately disintegrate. The storage of leather bound books in libraries can pose a serious problem. Paper The small amounts of absorbed sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid , in presence of moisture. This sulphuric acid content of some papers has been found to be as high as 1%, which makes the paper extremely brittle. Glass and Ceramics HF, are capable of attacking a wide range of ceramic materials and glass through their ability to react with silicon compounds.

84. Electronic industry Sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide tarnish copper and silver contact by producing sulphide film. These pollutants even cause gold- silver bonded contact to fail. Atmosphere particles can settle on contacts and prevent intimate surface contact when closed. If the particles contain corrosive components, direct chemical action can occur.

85. Effect on art treasure in India Taj Mahal : Sulphur dioxide emissions from industries have reached levels ten times above the prescribed standard level. Combined with oxygen and moisture, sulphur dioxide settles on the surface of the tomb and corrodes the marble, forming a fungus that experts refer to as “marble cancer”. Blaming pollution and regulatory negligence for the Taj’s decay, Mahesh Chandra Mehta, a prominent environmental lawyer, filed a case before the Supreme Court of India in 1984 . In August 1999, the Supreme Court struck ordering the closure of 53 iron foundries and 107 other factories in Agra that had not cleaned up their act. The order has become a call to arms for foundry owners, workers, trade union representatives and small-scale industry. In the meantime, Agra’s Iron Founders’Association are building up their case. They argue that 3,000 cottage and engineering units depend on the foundries, and that about 300,000 workers are directly or indirectly employed by them. They hold that the technology for using natural gas in their industries is not yet ready.

86. Although union leaders are firmly opposed to any relocation or factory closures, the battle has brought other concerns to the fore. According to a leader from the Centre for Indian Trade Unions, the entire foundry industry is highly exploitative and the working conditions hazardous. The majority of workers are employed on a contract basis despite having worked for long periods in the foundries–which means they would receive no protection if factories were to close. The Hon'ble Supreme Court after examining all the reports were the active contributors to the air pollution in the said area. All the 292 industries were to approach/apply to the GAIL before 15.2.1997 for grant of industrial gas-connection. The industries which were not in a position to obtain gas-connections, to approach UPSIDC before 28.2.1997, for allotment of alternative plots in the industrial estates outside. Those industries, which neither applied for gas-connection nor for alternate industrial plots should stop functioning using coke/coal as fuel in the TTZ ( Taj Trapezium Zone) w.e.f . 30.4.1997. The supply of coke/coal to these industries shall be stopped forthwith. PRESENT SITUATION ALL INDIAN MONUMENTS ARE NOT AS LUCKY AS TAJ TO HAVE SAVIOUR LIKE AD. MEHTA AND MANAGE TO SURVIVE SUFFOCATING IN POLLUTION , IGNORANCE OF CITIZENS AND INEFFICIENCY OF JUDICIARY.

87. Ozone Layer

88. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O 2 ), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O 2 to create ozone, O 3 . O 2 + ℎν uv → 2O O + O 2 ↔ O 3

89. Ozone , a gaseous molecule of three oxygen, makes it possible for you to do so without reaping the harmful effects of the sun's radiation. This helpful ozone is found in the stratosphere, which is the atmospheric layer just above where life exists and weather occurs. When that same gaseous ozone is found in our lower layer (called the troposphere), it is considered an air pollutant and is very harmful to human health. However, we need it in the stratosphere because even at the low concentration of 12 parts per million, ozone is so effective at absorbing the sun's UV radiation that this small amount is plenty enough to protect us on Earth. Just how harmful is UV radiation? In humans, UV radiation causes skin cancer and cataracts. UV radiation also affects the fertility of other animals, as well as the viability of their offspring. Plants are affected by UV radiation because it affects their ability to grow and develop correctly.

90. Causes of Ozone depletion The destruction of ozone layer is caused by one factor only which is Cholorofluorocarbons . The main cause of the ozone hole was found to be gases that contained Cholorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Halons and Freons . Found commonly in aerosol cans and released by many electronic appliances, these were seen to decrease the level of ozone in the stratosphere. All of these gases contain chlorine, which is a major cause behind the thinning of the ozone layer. The presence of chlorine within CFC’s break down the ozone gases in ozone layer which increases the chances of ozone depletion. Till date, CFC’s have accounted for about 80% of ozone depletion. The destruction of the ozone layer is primarily caused when the amount of gases that contain chlorine begins to increase in the environment. As these gases rise upwards, they are exposed to UV light. This then causes a chemical reaction which creates chlorine atoms. These affect the atoms of ozone and cause ozone depletion . Although the process has been taking place for several years, the ozone layer was repairing itself naturally. With the marked increase in the emission of these gases, the ozone hole above Antarctica is becoming a permanent part of the layer. Even though the damage is reversible, it will require several decades and a major reduction in the emissions. CFC’s are not washed back to the earth and are not even destroyed in reaction with other chemicals which means that they can remain the atmosphere for large period of time may be from 20 to 120 years or more. As a result, they are transported back to stratosphere, where they are eventually broken down by UV rays from the sun, releasing free chlorine.

91. Effect of ozone depletion Thinning of ozone layer means getting direct in touch with ultra violet rays which can cause skin cancer or skin irritation which can lead to death. A decrease in 1% of ozone layer can cause 5% increase in cases of skin cancer. Exposure to UV rays has also increased the cases of cataracts which in turn affects people’s vision and could also cause an increase in people becoming blind. Depletion of ozone layer and increase in UV rays can also cause DNA damage which can also be catastrophic. Aquatic plants and animals are not even safe. UV rays can penetrate through water and can kill small plants and animals. If ozone hole keep on expanding, there would be very few plants which means less food in the whole world. The effect of the ozone hole and the damage done to the layer is still not very well understood. Apart from the gradual decrease of the ozone layer all over the world, there is little quantifiable evidence of new holes appearing any time soon. Even so, a number of countries have been working towards mitigating the damage.

92. CFC’s have been banned, especially in aerosol cans and various electrical appliances. There have been many conventions held to discuss the methods that will slowly phase out the use of the gases. However, this has been met with a great deal of resistance from industries that are based on the production and use of the gases. However, the few known and verifiable effects seen within the environment has been a catalyst for change. One of widespread and long lasting effects has been the public awareness towards the environmental issues facing the planet. As one of the first major man-made problems to be discussed on a public forum, it set the ground for public opinion and action on issues such as pollution, green house gases, global warming and the climate crisis . It also sparked off renewed research about how weather patterns and natural phenomenon may be disturbed small changes in the atmosphere. Ozone depletion is not as serious as it once was, but nonetheless it has had an impact on the planet. Scientists have been able to determine a number of consequences related to ozone depletion. First is the increase of UVB (Ultraviolet B) light that enters into the atmosphere. This causes environmental damage and problems in human health. Cancer of the skin is being connected to the thinning of the ozone layer. In the animal kingdom, many species of animals have been found suffering from growing sunburn as a result of increased UV light. Certain crops will also be affected, since they are dependent on cyanobacteria which is quite sensitive to changing levels of the UV radiation. On the other hand, it has also been found that the increased levels allow for the production of more Vitamin D in the animal kingdom. The ozone layer does not face rampant ozone depletion anymore, as most governments and environmental agencies have worked hard to reduce the emission of CFCs. This has proven to be a success and is the base for further work in reducing dangerous emissions.

93. Green house effect