Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 1

Capacity Building for the NGO Sector

A Practical Guide

To

Programme/Project Cycle
Management

By
NGANG Carol Chi

Southern Africa Social Development Agency

PG-PCM: Version 1.0 - September 2009

Project Management Tools & Techniques
for
Capacitating the NGO Sector across
Southern Africa

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 2

This guide was prepared by

Ngang Carol Chi
Southern Africa Social Development Agency (SASDA)
604 Church Gardens, Bourke Street
Sunnyside 0002, Pretoria
South Africa

Tel: +27 (0) 78 491 4620
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.sasda-hq.org

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 3

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Overview __________________________________________________________ 5

Purpose of the Guide _________________________________________________ 5

Skills to be Developed ________________________________________________ 6

Intended Audience ___________________________________________________ 6

How to use the Guide _________________________________________________ 7

PCM Concepts and Components

Defining the Concepts ________________________________________________ 8

The Concept of Programme/Project Cycle Management ________________ 8

The Concept of Development Partnership _________________________ 10

Components of Programme/Project Cycle Management _____________________ 11

Managing Development Partnership ______________________________ 11

Managing the Programme/Project Cycle ___________________________ 14

Logical Framework Approach to Programme/Project Cycle Management

What is Logical Framework Approach ___________________________________ 18

Logical Framework Approach as Management Tool __________________ 18

LFA as an Embedded Structure of PCM ___________________________ 18

Interlinked Phases of the Logical Framework Approach _______________ 19

Strengths and Weakness of the Logical Framework Approach ________________ 31

Application of the Logical Framework Approach ___________________________ 32

Using the LFA to Develop Operational Plans _______________________ 32

Role of the LFA in Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting ______________ 35

Glossary of Terms ______________________________________________________ 43

Resources ____________________________________________________________ 46

References for Further Reading ____________________________________________ 47

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 5

INTRODUCTION

Overview

This section presents an overview of the relevance and importance of the
Programme/Project Cycle Management (PCM) approach in the context of social
development programmes and projects and explains the role of the guide as a valuable
support material to training workshops on programme or project cycle management.

The PCM approach to managing programmes and projects developed out of a
combination of experiences gained from project management and the Logical Framework
Approach (LFA) and has since been adopted by leading development agencies all over
the world. The approach is becoming very popular with development partnerships in
determining:

 The relevance of programmes and projects to target beneficiaries
 The extent to which risk is taken into account in programming
 Considerations for factors affecting sustainability, and
 How lessons learnt and best practices are incorporated into decision making and
further planning.

At the operational or implementation level, the PCM approach is essential for assuring
improvements in programmes and projects by ensuring:

 Proper feasibility assessment
 Structured monitoring and evaluation, and
 Informed decision making at every stage in the project or programme cycle.

This guide presents PCM as a method that allows for flexibility in the management of
programmes and projects and explains the principles on which development partnerships
are planned and driven.

Purpose of the Guide

The Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management has been produced as
part of the broader SASDA Capacity Building Programme for the NGO sector across
Southern Africa. We are confident that through the use of this guide social development
programme and project managers will not only become conversant with the PCM
approach but will also reap substantial benefits from its application.

The guide is prepared with a mind to facilitate programme or project cycle management
through the introduction of appropriate management tools that will ensure quality
monitoring of programme or project implementation and to orientate the focus of
programme or project managers to the PCM approach. The emphasis on the latter is
directed towards developing analytical and logical framework approaches in designing
and managing programmes and projects.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 6

As part of the training toolkit on Programme/Project Cycle Management the guide is
intended to promote and integrate the application of the PCM approach into social
development programme and project management so that the approach becomes a
universal concept not only with international development agencies but also with
organisations that operate at grassroots level. The guide will:

 Explain PCM and how you can use it to design and implement programmes and
projects as well as to identify opportunities for replication
 Explain how to build a logical framework to help partners discuss and think
through all the implications of what they are planning to do.
 Put all the elements into a simple plan,
 Explain some best practice techniques for programme or project management.

Skills to be Developed

The use of this guide will enable you to gain knowledge and understanding in:

 The concept and structure of the PCM method
 The analytical steps in programme or project design
 The use of the logical framework in operational planning and in developing a
monitoring and evaluation system.

Use together with other SASDA practical guides and as a participant in a workshop on
programme/project cycle management this guide will enable you to overcome difficulties
in programme or project management, develop and enhance practical skills and
techniques relating to programme or project cycle management and increase the
potential of your programme or project to perform optimally in development partnerships.
It is important to understand the philosophy of thinking of development agencies and to
apply and incorporation such philosophy at grassroots level.

Intended Audience

The guide is prepared to meet the capacity needs of programme and project managers,
programme/project designers and other social development practitioners who have had
little or no experience in programme or project cycle management and who require
fundamental knowledge about the PCM approach and its application to be able to design,
implement, evaluate and mainstream projects. The guide is design purposefully to
capacitate those that will be involved in programme or project design and management
and as such focus is centered more on the practicalities and applicability of the analytical
steps and the use of the logical framework than on the concept.

As part of a training toolkit, the guide will be useful both to the trainer as well as to the
workshop participants in facilitating learning, understanding and application of the
concept and components of the PCM method and in improving skills and techniques in
programme or project cycle management. Used for training, the guide should be
accompanied by other elements of the Programme/Project Cycle Management toolkit.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 7

How to use the Guide

This document is just a guide with practical step by step instructions to help you through
the phases and stages of development partnership and of programme/project cycle
management and to enable you develop standardized documentation with relative ease.
The guide also contains some practical examples to help you in the understanding of the
different concepts and principles used.

Used alone, as a novice in the field the
guide might not necessarily provide you
with all the skills, techniques and
competences required to qualify you as a
technocrat in programme or project cycle
management. Accompanied by other
SASDA Practical Guides, for example the
Practical Guide to Programme/Project
Design and the Practical Guide to
Programme/Project Planning, and as part of
the workshop training toolkit it will greatly
help to break the mystery and complexity of
programme/project cycle management as a
methodology for managing, especially
complex programmes and projects that
involve more than one donor partner.

The glossary of terms gives an explanation
of some of the terms and concepts used in
the guide. Also included is a list of websites
for reference and further reading to give
more understanding on how different
organisations apply the Programme/Project Cycle Management methodology in their
programmes and projects.

The guide serves as a post workshop reference and support material to the application of
techniques and approaches learnt during the training.

About this Guide

Audience
Programme & project managers & development
practitioners who want to gain knowledge about
the PCM concept & its application

Content
Defines & illustrates the PCM concept,
introduces the logical framework approach,
explains how to use the logframe for
operational planning & for designing a
monitoring & evaluation system.

Outcomes
Users of this guide will gain knowledge &
understanding of the concept of PCM & its
benefits in development partnership, develop
the skills and techniques in the use of the LFA,
increase their skills & competences in
programme/project cycle management &
consequently increase organisational capacity.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 8

PCM CONCEPTS & COMPONENTS

Defining the Concepts

The Concept of Programme/Project Cycle Management

Project and Programme

A project is defined as an undertaking for the purpose of achieving established objectives
within the constraints of time, space and budget. In other words, a project can be
described as a process of providing inputs over a period of time using resources provided
to carry out activities and produce outputs (results) in order to achieve defined objectives
(project purpose) or as a set of related activities planned to take place during a defined
time frame and budget to improve the situation of a specific group of people.

A programme is a much broader concept involving a collection of interrelated projects
and activities, with a variety of methods of intervention contributing to an overall goal. A
programme will thus have a range of strategies working towards defined outcomes.

Programme/Project Cycle

The programme or project cycle describes the sequence or pattern through which
projects are planned and carried out and how they relate and affect each other. The cycle
starts with an idea which is developed into a working plan that can be implemented,
monitored and evaluated. The basic components of a programme or project cycle are
generally identical but how they are formulated
varies. The breakdown of the programme or
project cycle into phases helps to orientate
managerial action. The PCM method was
introduced to improve quality of programme or
project design and management and
consequently the quality of development aid.

Management

Management refers to the act of structuring
social processes in order to achieve
predetermined objectives. It is broken down into
key functions such as agreeing on objectives,
planning, decision making, motivating,
organising, steering, monitoring and informing.
The performing of these functions and the
resultant task throughout the programme or
project cycle constitutes what is known as
management.
Principles of PCM

 Project Cycle Stages -
Structured & informed decision
making
 Client Orientation - Stakeholder
involvement in decision making
 Logframe Analysis –
Comprehensive & consistent
analysis
 Sustainability – Mechanisms for
continued flow of benefits
 Integrated Approach – Vertical
integration & standardized
documentation

Source: PCM Training Handbook - ITAD

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 9

Programme/Project Cycle Management

Programme or project cycle management describes management activities and decision
making processes used during the life of a programme or project. In essence, PCM is a
way of thinking through the life cycle of a programme or project and consists of a set of
design and management concepts, techniques and tasks that is used to support informed
decision making and to strengthen the management of programmes and projects.

 Programmes and projects tend to be developed
to attract funds

 Programmes and projects are designed to
solve problems

 Programmes and projects have to fit a
standardized set of outputs

 Programmes & projects develop criteria &
indicators to suite the local situation & achieve
excellence

 Focus is on writing applications for funding

 Focus is on designing and making decisions
before writing the proposal

 Stakeholders have not been actively involved in
designing programmes and projects

 Stakeholders help to define the problems and
make decisions about the solutions

 Programmes and projects are driven by the
funder or technical supply

 Programmes and projects are driven by
demand

 Poor analysis of local situation

 Through stakeholders’ involvement the local
situation is well understood

 Programmes and projects are activity focused

 Programmes and projects are designed
through identifying objectives as solutions to
problems

 Programme or project impact cannot be verified

 Each objective has clear evidence indicators
that can be verified

 The vision is usually short-term

 The focus is always on the long-term and
sustainable benefits

 Programmes and projects tend to include many
areas and become complex and exclusive

 Programmes and projects tend to be placed in
an operational strategy and remain focused on
a single goal

 Inconsistent documentation

 All documents are standardized to improve
consistency and content

Fig. 1 – PCM rationale
PCM & the Logical Framework Programme/Project Management

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 10

The Programme/Project Cycle Manager

Programme and Project Managers play a central and catalytic role in ensuring that
interventions go through their life cycle and produce the desired outcomes. Seeing that
the methodology of managing programmes and projects is gradually shifting from
traditional programme or project management to programme or project cycle
management managers as well need to make a shift towards becoming programme or
project cycle managers in order to be able to better articulate the concept.

The PCM approach to managing programmes and projects is a complex methodology
and therefore requires mastery of the skills and techniques involved, especially with
regards to the understanding of the logic of intervention and use of the Logical
Framework Analysis.

 Controlling and directing

 Empowering and releasing
potential

 Imposing norms

 Releasing creativity

 Creating certainty

 Managing uncertainty

 Telling

 Listening

 Vertical/line authority

 Matrix programme or project
management

 Solving problems

 Creating opportunities

 Area and scope management

 Collaboration and partnerships

Fig. 2 – The changing roles of Programme and Project Managers

The Concept of Development Partnership

Development has become a very complex and interwoven process that no single
organisation can claim to go the distance alone. Given the stakeholders that are
supposed to be taken into consideration and the logical nature by which programmes and
projects are designed the essence for partnerships comes into play. This means that the
management processes of all the actors involved become interlinked and have to be
systematically taken care of, which tend to exert high demands on managers. The need
for a unifying system to coordinate the links and processes to achieve desired goals
therefore becomes imperative. The PCM concept was thus introduced to facilitate
successful development partnerships by helping to define the parameters of
collaboration, clarifying roles, duties and responsibilities of all the actors involved. To
have a better understanding of this, let us look at some key concepts:
Now Then

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 11

Development

Development can be described as the structured process of an intervention to change or
improve a current undesirable situation to a future situation, which is considered
satisfactory. Experiences gathered over the years from different development initiatives
have shown that development can only succeed when the persons affected by the
problem are directly involved in bringing about the necessary change or improvement.
Development can only take place when the people affected by a problem are assisted in
self-help initiative to address their actual needs with the resources and scope of action
available to them.

Development Partnership

Development partnership is geared towards empowering disadvantaged groups,
encouraging development processes within target groups and ensuring that such self-
help initiatives are properly coordinated to run successfully. The level of intervention of
each of the actors to the partnership may vary depending on the roles they are expected
to play. Whatever the role, the principle advocates for limited intervention either to
facilitate or assist the development process through funding or technical assistance to the
extent to which the target group cannot provide for itself. The bed rock of development
partnership is participation, which means the active and equal involvement of especially
those who are usually excluded from development initiatives.

The preconditions for development partnerships are that:

 The initiative must be geared towards addressing the needs of the target group
 The initiative should strengthen the self-help capacities of the people affected by
the problem
 The initiative should be feasible within the social, economic and political context
 The initiative must create the preconditions to ensure the sustainability of the
situation it helped to improve.

Components of PCM

Managing Development Partnership

Structure of Development Partnership

The structure of development partnership indicates the various actors that are usually
involved in a development process and the different levels at which they intervene to
achieve the established development goal. The different actors should be clearly
identified as indicated in Fig. 3 and the various levels at which they intervene in the
development process.

 At the very core is the target group, at whose level the intended development is
supposed to take place.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 12

 Next down the line is the implementing organisation(s) that design and implement
a programme or project based on the needs of the target group so that the
intended development can take place.
 Far down the ladder are the agencies that provide the input (funding and technical
assistance) to enable the implementing organisation(s) to carry out the
programme or project.

Basic Structure of Development Partnership

Development Process

Activities of the target group
(Self-help initiative)

Fig. 3 – The Structure of Development Partnership indicating various actors and their levels of intervention.
(Adapted from the GTZ Guidelines on Project Cycle Management and Objectives Oriented Planning)

The basic point of consensus between these various actors should be a common
development goal, which should be the desired improvement that the target group wants
to see happen and the necessary measures and methods to achieve the goal. The self-
help initiative may be initiated by the target group itself or by the implementing
organisation. In the latter case, the affected group must be consulted and allowed
ownership over the process of implementing the activities.

It is obvious that every development effort requires considerable input to accomplish it.
According to the principle, the affected group should be able to sufficiently mobilize its
own resources and strategies in relation to the planned improvement. However, the
nature of the problem might require huge financial resources or technical expertise that
the target group by itself cannot provide. Under the programme or project carried out the
implementing organisation should on its part establish what shortcomings there are in
achieving the desired improvement of the situation of the affected groups and what
external input is needed to ensure that the planned development takes place. Input from
external sources, be it funding, technical assistance or collaboration is determined by
what the target group and the implementing organisation plan to do and what they would
need in terms of human, material and financial resources.

Current situation
(Desired to be changed
or improved)

Future situation
(Intended improvements
or development goals)

Programme/Project Activities
(Implementing Organisation)

Funding, technical assistance, collaboration
(Input)

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 13

The Relevance of PCM in Development Partnership

When you submit a proposal for funding and the funding agency approves the proposal
and decides to fund your programme or project it is to a large extent a partnership that
has been established. The funding agency will deserve to know how their funds are being
used, what is happening in the project and what impact it is making. Funding is hardly a
once off show. Most funding agencies will also want to reap valuable lessons from the
intervention for possible replication in other situations. Partnership is not limited to
funding but also to technical assistance or collaboration.

In development partnerships each of the actors involved has specific priorities and
interests to protect. The use of the PCM approach has proven to be a valuable tool for
designing such partnerships such that they run successfully and satisfactorily for all the
partners. Programme/project cycle management ensures that affected groups become
actively involved as equal partners, that they gain ownership over the process of creating
their own development and that the other actors - funding agencies and implementing
organisation, for example, gain optimal satisfaction for their input.

In a development partnership there is bound to be some expectations from each of the
actors involved to ensure a smooth collaboration.

Good Governance: Good governance relates to the way you structure your working
relations with the other actors involved in the partnership. It is an important component of
development partnership and describes the good practices of the partnership. The
partnership good governance statement should describe:

 The purpose of the partnership and each partner’s interests
 Terms of reference specifying each partner’s involvement in terms of decision
making, planning, monitoring and reporting.
 Relevant reference documents relating to the legal and legislative requirements of
the partnership

Stakeholder Analysis: In development partnership you will need to define the range of
stakeholders that you aim to work with. Stakeholders refer to individuals, groups of
persons or entities that have interest or a relationship with your development partnership.
After identifying the stakeholders it is good to categorise them so that it becomes easy to
determine the extent of involvement of each of them.

 Primary stakeholders: This category includes those whose interest lies at the heart
of the programme or project. Their involvement is indispensable.
 Secondary stakeholders: This category normally provides the primary support for
the programme or project and from it you are likely to identify partners for the
development partnership.
 Tertiary stakeholders: This category might not necessarily be directly involved but
their involvement might become necessary at a later stage.

An assessment of the different stakeholders will help to determine expectations,
commitment and contribution to the intervention.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 14

Roles and Responsibilities: Defining specific roles and responsibilities for each of the
development partners will enable you identify how and when each of them would be
involved at the different phases of the programme or project cycle. Some of the partners
may have to play keys roles while others may have to play a supporting role. Once the
roles and responsibilities for each partner have been established the information can be
used to draw up terms of reference for the development partnership.

Managing the Programme or Project Cycle

Structure of Programme/Project Life Cycle

The life cycle of a programme or project describes the process that starts from the
conception of an idea through planning to completion of the programme or project
activities. According to this concept a programme or project goes through different
phases. The number and duration of each phase vary according to the nature of the
programme or project. The structure of the cycle does not follow any unique pattern.
However, the generic structure usually consists of six phases as indicated in Fig. 4.

Analysis of the Main Phases
The programme or project cycle is a diagrammatic description of the sequence of how
interventions are planned and carried out, beginning with an idea, which leads to a
strategy for a specific action, which then is formulated, financed, implemented and
evaluated with a view to improving the situation and taking further action. The cycle
defines the various phases in the life of the programme or project, with a well defined
process of involvement of different stakeholders, management activities and decision
making processes that need to happen before, during and after implementation.

Programme/Project Cycle

Fig. 4 – Structure of programme/project cycle showing six phases and the outcome of each of the phases

Programming
Identification
Formulation
Evaluation
Implementation
Financing
Programme/ project
idea conceived

Programme/ project
concept developed

Programme/ project
designed & proposal
developed

Funding agreement
specifying deliverables

Implementation plan
& monitoring system

Impact assessment &
feedback of lessons learnt

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 15

The phases of the programme/project cycle are designed to:

 Help you think through the key steps of setting up and running a programme or
project
 Help you to formulate problems and ideas into programmes or projects
 Ensure that programmes and projects are documented and prepared so that they
are technically and institutionally feasible
 Ensure that programmes and projects are sustainable
 Help to improve monitoring and evaluation
 Encourage and improve the process of learning by experience

Before Implementation
Programming: Programming is concerned with analysing problems, constraints and
opportunities, establishing general principles and guidelines, agreeing on sectoral and
thematic focus and outlining of programme or project ideas. The main actors involved at
this stage are the implementing organisation and the affected group. This phase also
includes the actual selection of potential partners.

Identification: This phase consists of the framework for analysis of problems, needs and
interest of potential stakeholders and the identification of options to address the problem.
The analysis will also help in understanding the programme or project context with
regards to its relevance, feasibility and sustainability and the chances of funding based
on comparison of the programme/project objectives with the funding criteria of potential
partners. The implementing organisation plays a leading role during this phase and the
outcome is a programme or project concept that has the potential of being funded.

Formulation: Also known as the design phase, involves an intensive participatory process
that brings together the principal actors into a planning process and allow for relevant
programme or project ideas to be developed into operational issues such as activity and
resource scheduling. All significant aspects of the idea are studied, taking into account
stakeholders’ views, relevance to the problem, feasibility and other issues. The outcome
of the process is a decision to carry the programme or project forward or not. If the
decision is reached to go ahead then a proposal is put up, aimed at securing funding for
the proposed programme or project.

The submitted proposal is subject to a final appraisal and review by the potential donor,
leading to a decision on whether to approve the programme or project for funding or not.
If it is approved, then the phase concludes with the signing of a formal agreement
between the implementing organisation and the donor partner.

During Implementation
Implementation: Implementation involves carrying out programme or project activities as
planned. To ensure that the programme or project stays on course, constant and proper
monitoring and mid-term evaluations are necessary to measure the extent to which
results and objectives are being achieved, to identify any shortfalls and to enable
adjustments to the changing circumstances. During this phase, all the actors get involved
directly or indirectly.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 16

After Implementation
Evaluation: Evaluation is carried out to measure the results of the intervention in relation
to the objectives – whether they were achieved or not and helps to determine the
relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and impact. Evaluation should provide information
that is credible and useful, allowing for valuable lessons learned during the course of the
programme or project to be incorporated into decision making and to influence further
action. The results of evaluation would determine if the intervention should be carried on,
terminated or if the strategy should be changed. The conclusions would be relevant for
planning and implementation of other programmes or projects. The evaluation phase
may involve some external experts but the role of the implementing organisation and the
affected group is very important in conducting an affective evaluation. The outcome may
consist of lessons learnt and feedback that is channeled into future programming and/or
policy frameworking.

Programme/Project Spiral
Effective and efficient programme or project cycle management provides a framework for
on-going learning from the process and consequently improvement of interventions. In
order to measure lasting impact it is important that the change process is tracked
throughout the life cycle of the programme or project. The entire process is therefore not
linear but has many feedback loops by which to review the analysis, planning and
decision making informed by lessons learned from each of the phases.

This explains the fact that development work is never a straightforward process and in
reality does not follow the ideal “programme or project cycle.” Since all development work
involves continuous learning and change at every stage in the process it is reasonable to
think in terms of a programme or project spiral rather than a cycle. The spiral is
presented as a changing process whereby experience gained through different activities
is systematically incorporated into future ones.

Beneficiary and Stakeholder Orientation
The active participation of all stakeholders in the different stages is a critical factor for the
success of the programme or project. Participation helps to enhance ownership of the
intervention by the affected group and to ensure maximum use of the expertise and
experience of the other actors involved. In most grassroots projects focus is laid on the
local partner as the major stakeholder and every external intervention is directed to
supporting the priorities and needs as identified by the local partner. In more complex
and sophisticated programmes and projects the requirement is for mutual exchange of
knowledge and expertise and the outcome is usually a negotiation between all the
stakeholders. In this regard the negotiation process must ensure that the expectations of
all stakeholders are clarified and given equal consideration. The approach in this
instance is more of collaboration in order to ensure sufficient mutual interest.

Understanding the importance of effective and efficient programme or project cycle
management practice is paramount to clarifying how the different actors involved in the
different stages of a programme or project can learn from the process. While a broad
range of approaches and tools have been developed to increase stakeholder
participation, PCM serves as the major integrating approach through which all such tools
are related and coordinated.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 17

The use of the PCM method ensures that the input processes between partner
organisations and the target group are properly interlinked and geared towards a
common purpose, which is to achieve the development goal or to improve the current
unsatisfactory situation experienced by the target group.

Levels of Partnership Input Processes

Target
Group

Partnership

Implementing
Organisation

Partnership

Funding
Agency

Fig. 5 – Levels of partnership and input processes (Source: GTZ Guidelines on Project Cycle Management
and Project-Oriented Planning)

Development goal
achieved

Programme/project
purpose achieved

Partnership
objective achieved

Partnership
Proposal

Programme/project
concept

Current
unsatisfactory
situation

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 18

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH TO PCM

What is Logical Framework Approach?

PCM defines different phases in the lifecycle of a programme or project with well defined
process of involvement of different stakeholders, management activities and decision
making procedures. It is a methodology to manage the entire programme or project
cycle, from analysis, planning, implementation to evaluation using the Logical Framework
Approach (LFA) or simply referred to as the logframe.

The LFA is a way of thinking and an effective technique for enabling stakeholders to
identify and analyse problems and to define objectives and activities that need to be
undertaken to address problems identified. Programme and project planners use the
logframe structure to test the design of a proposed intervention to ensure its relevance,
feasibility and sustainability. The logframe as a key management tool provides the basis
for the preparation of activity or implementation plans and for the development of a
monitoring system and a framework for evaluation.

LFA as a Dynamic Management Tool

The logical framework is an essential tool that is used by those who prepare and
implement projects to structure and formulate their ideas and to present them in a clear
and standardized format. However, the establishment of each logframe should be the
result of a thorough analysis and a joint planning process whose quality depends on the
following factors:

 Information available
 The skills of the planning team
 Consultation of a balanced representation of stakeholders
 In depth consideration for lessons learnt

The logframe as such is not a rigid instrument but a dynamic tool that needs to be re-
assessed and revised as the programme or project develops and as circumstances
change during implementation. Such flexibility, however, especially where it concerns
budgetary changes must be regulated by agreement and consensus by all the parties
involved in the development partnership.

LFA as an Embedded Structure of the PCM Approach

The logframe can only serve as a useful and dynamic management instrument with
limited shortcomings when it is embedded within the broader context of the PCM
approach. This means that by itself alone, the logframe is characterized by potential
flaws and limitations. The PCM approach should indeed allow for constant integration of
changes and new insight that are the result of analyses and experiences gained during
the programme or project cycle. Within PCM such integration and adaptation will be

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 19

undertaken in a flexible but organised, transparent and negotiated manner. Only in this
context, PCM guided learning can outweigh the risks of rigidity.

The Interlinked Phases of the LFA

The logframe comprises of two phases which are carried out progressively during the
identification and formulation phases of the programme or project cycle. Using the LFA
during identification (analysis) phase helps to ensure that programme/project ideas are
relevant, while during the formulation (planning) phase it helps to ensure feasibility and
sustainability. Basically the approach can be ear-marked by the following characteristics:

 Stakeholder participation
 Logicality in the design process
 Reaching consensus based on mutual understanding
 Consistency in implementation and decision making.

The approach consists of a combination and interlink between the Analysis phase and
the Planning phase.

Analysis Phase

The analysis phase provides the basis upon which the existing situation is assessed to
develop a vision of the future desired situation and to select the strategies that will be
applied to achieve them. Programme or project analysis is best done in a workshop
environment where all key stakeholders are represented and problems and issues are
discussed openly. The four stages of analysis include stakeholder analysis, problem
analysis, analysis of objectives and strategy analysis. The LFA is used at this stage to
ensure that programme or project ideas are relevant

Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder analysis is a systematic way of assessing the role that different stakeholders
have to play in your programme or project. Stakeholders may be affected positively or
negatively by programme or project activities and this is based on how each of the
stakeholders perceives the existing situation. They may either be individuals, groups,
communities or institutions. Understanding all those who would be affected and how they
will be affected sets a good base for analysing the problem that your programme or
project seeks to address. This information is important in every aspect of programme or
project management, especially in design and planning.

It is important to do a stakeholder analysis in terms of particular projects or programmes
rather than the implementing organisation. This is because stakeholders for different
programmes or projects may not be the same. For instance, an NGO that runs many
programmes and projects may have stakeholders who are interest in one programme or
project and not in another.

When conducting a stakeholder analysis, the following issues should be taken into
consideration:

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 20

 Stakeholder profile, which involves the stakeholder’s interests and how they relate
with your programme or project aims
 Stakeholder consultation, which involves gathering relevant information or data.
 Stakeholder participation, which involves the input of each of the stakeholders to
the programme or project.
 Informed decision making based on what has been learnt from the process

Gender and Rights Based Considerations
Programme or project relevance, feasibility and sustainability are likely to be much
greater when major stakeholders are consulted during the analysis phase and are
actively involved in the planning process. Right holders deserve to be consulted and
involved in any decision making process or intervention that affects them, either
positively or negatively. For instance, certain programme or project activities may be
impossible to realise if both women and men have not been consulted and their
respective roles in relation to the programme or project activities agreed upon.

Discrimination by gender and downplaying the rights of other right holders affected by an
intervention is likely to mitigate the efficiency and impact of the intervention. It is
essential therefore to analyse the potential impact of an intervention on men, women,
children, ethnic minorities, the disabled and other social groups and their rights given due
consideration before important decisions are taken with regards to the intervention, its
objectives, strategies and resource allocation.

Problem Analysis

Problem analysis is an assessment of the negative aspects of an existing situation and
representing the relationship that exists between causes and effects in the form of a
problem tree. Problem analysis is best done in a participatory workshop involving
representatives of all the stakeholder groups. The actual needs of the affected group
should first be established, the major or central problem faced by the affected group is
identified and then the process follows by identifying the causes to the problem and the
effects they produce. Problems do not exist all by themselves; they are always part of a
cause-and-effect relationship. If you identify a problem wrongly the solution is most
certainly going to be wrong, reason why problems must be expressed in concrete and
factual terms and not wrapped up in general and vague language.

How to do a Problem Analysis
For a better understanding of the concept of problem analysis the process can be done
by way of a visual mapping using cards. It is obvious that before the problem assessment
workshop, you must have identified a general problem for which you need to provide an
intervention.

 Get all stakeholders, especially the affected group into a workshop to discuss the
general problem and clarify it to make it relevant to contextual priorities. Once the
problem has been clarified it becomes a core or central problem
 Write the problem down on a card and place it at the centre of a board, for
example.
 Among the workshop participants, different people will see the same problem in
different ways. You should therefore encourage every participant to bring up their

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 21

views about the problem. The exercise should capture every perceptive as they
form the basis for understanding the whole problem. Try as much to present the
problem in terms of how it affects the affected group and make it specific.
 Each participant may have to write down their perceptions, each on a card or the
workshop facilitator may have to write them down as they are raised by the
participants. Participants should use one set of colour cards (orange) for problems
that they judge to be causes and another set of colour cards (blue) for problems
that they judge to be effects. This helps to distinguish the causes from the effects.
 The cards are then arranged on the board in a manner to create a cause and
effect hierarchy. If the problem raised is a cause it goes on the lower level below
the core problem. If it is an effect it goes on the upper level. The causes should be
arranged in their order of ascendency, that is, from the root causes to the
immediate causes. The causes help to establish why the problem exists and the
effects help to clarify what impact the problem has on the community.

Problem Tree

EFFECTS

CAUSES

Fig. 6 – Example of a problem tree indicating the problems facing the NGO sector

When the process is completed, the diagram will take the structure of a tree – the
Problem Tree – representing a comprehensive picture of the existing negative situation,
with the causes representing the roots, the core problem representing the trunk and the
effects representing the branches of the tree. Problem analysis is particularly important:

 In helping to analyse a given situation
 In identifying key issues to focus on
 In clarifying the causes and effects of a problem
 In setting programme/project objectives through participation of all stakeholders

Discussing the problem itself is important and can lead to greater understanding of the
issues surrounding it.
Projects
Failure

Freezing/Withdraw
al of Funds

Loss of Stakeholder/
Donor Confidence

Financial
Malpractices

Accountability is
compromised

Poor Reporting on
Project Results

Poor
Governance

Low Staff
Morale

Stakeholder
Dissatisfaction

Poor Monitoring &
Evaluation system

Project Sustainability
not properly addressed
Limitations in scope &
Area of Operation

Mismanagement of
Funds
Poor Programme
design/implementation

Inadequate
Organisational Capacity

Insufficient Funding

Problems Facing the
NGO SECTOR

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 22

Analysis of Objectives

Unlike problem analysis, analysis of objectives is an assessment and projection of the
positive aspects of a desired future situation. It looks at the possible options to solve the
identified problem. The assessment involves converting the problems (causes and
effects) into objectives that the intervention will seek to achieve and establishing the
relationship that exists between the means (methods) and the ends (results). Objectives
clearly express what the programme or project is trying to achieve so that activities can
be designed to meet them. If objectives are clear, everyone has the same idea why they
are engaged in specific activities and progress related to achieving the objectives can be
measured. As things change and develop, it may become necessary to alter the
objectives on the basis of lessons learnt or changes that occur during implementation.

How to do Objectives Analysis
The procedure for doing objectives analysis is much simpler once the problem analysis
has been done and the problem tree formulated. It involves taking each of the causes
and effects and formulating it into objectives so that the resultant objectives tree looks a
direct positive reflection of the problem tree.

 It is most appropriate to do the analysis of objectives in the same workshop and
with the same participants that did the problem analysis.
 For each of the problems ask participants to write an objective for the
corresponding problem. The objectives should be written on colour cards
corresponding to causes and effects on the problem tree but in this case arranged
in the hierarchy of means and ends.

Objectives Tree

ENDS

MEANS

Fig. 7 – Example of an objectives tree projecting the desired future situation
Project purpose
is achieved

Funding becomes
increasingly available

Donor confidence &
support is restored

Sound financial
systems in place

Accountability is
increased

Lessons learnt are
widely disseminated

Improve
governance

Increase staff skills &
capacity to deliver

Stakeholders eagerly
use services provided

Projects regularly
monitored & evaluated

Sustainability factors put
in place
Best practices for
replication identified

Efficient financial
management
Application of PM tools
& techniques

Increase access to capacity
building programmes

Access is opened for
increased funding

Increase capacity &
empowerment of the NGO
Sector

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 23

 Ensure that objectives identified are desirable and realistically achievable
 Check the means-ends relationship thus derived to ensure validity and
completeness of the logic of the hierarchy. At the initial analysis the hierarchy
might not seem practical. You may need to revise and reorganize the objectives
so that they become relevant, feasible and realistic to achieve.

The exercise, when completed will produce an objectives tree as illustrated in Fig 7. The
analysis of objectives is important because its outcome will determine the different
objectives and results to be included in a logframe. Objectives that are similar should be
clustered so that they form the basis for deciding on strategies to achieve them.

Strategies Analysis

Strategy analysis involves deciding on appropriate strategies for achieving objectives -
which of the objectives need to be tackled and which ones need to be left out. It involves
deciding on the programme/project purpose, the goal and feasibility of each intervention.

How to Choose the Strategy Options
 From the objectives tree identify those objectives that are not desirable or feasible.
 Objectives of the same kind should be clustered into possible strategies.
Agreements should be obtained that the selected strategies are all relevant to
solving the core problem.
 Arrange strategies as to produce a hierarchy of outputs, purpose and outcomes.
 Assess the strategies to identify potential projects that can become part of an
operational strategy. Depending on the magnitude of the problem, intervention
strategies may require that a programme be designed into a number of projects or
a project into a variety of activities.

Strategy Options

Outcomes

Purpose

Outputs

Fig. 8 – Example of an objectives tree projecting the desired future situation
Increase capacity &
empowerment of the
NGO Sector
Project Purpose
achieved
Funding becomes
increasingly available
Donor confidence &
support restored
Sound financial
systems in place
Accountability
increased

Lessons learnt are
widely disseminated
Improve
governance
Increase staff skills &
capacity to deliver
Stakeholders eagerly
use services provided
Projects regularly
monitored & evaluated
Sustainability factors
put in place
Best practices for
replication identified
Efficient financial
management
Application of PM tools
& techniques
Opportunities for capacity
building created

Access is opened for
increase funding

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 24

Certain considerations need to be taken into account when doing a strategy analysis:

 What combination of activities or interventions is likely to improve or change the
existing situation and ensure sustainability?
 Which options best encourage and promote local ownership?
 Which are the most cost effective options?
 What are the resources or funding potentials available
 What other interventions are being carried out

Once identified, the selected strategies can then be transferred into the first column of
the logframe to make up the beginning of the construction of the logframe matrix.

Logical Framework Analysis

The Logframe Approach

 Stakeholder Analysis: Identify stakeholders,
their interest & priorities, how they are consulted
& their participation in the programme or project

 Intervention Logic: Identify & define
programme or project elements, test the
internal logic & formulate objectives in
measurable terms

 Problem Analysis: Identify key problems,
constraints and opportunities & determine the
relationship between causes & effects

 Activity Planning: Decide on what activities
need to be done & their sequence &
dependency of one to the other, set time
frames & milestones & assign responsibilities

 Objectives Analysis: Transforming problems
identified into objectives to be achieved and
determining the relationship between the means
(methods) & the ends (results)

 Resource Allocation: Matching activity
plans with input schedules & developing a
budget.

 Strategies Analysis: Map out different
strategies to achieve objectives and determine
overall goals and programme/project purpose

 Monitoring & Evaluation: Define indicators
for measuring progress, means of verification
& decide on frequency of M&E,

Fig. 9 – The logical framework approach indicating components of the analysis and planning frameworks

Planning Phase

The planning framework provides the basis for the programme or project idea or concept
to be developed into operational details. The process is the continuation of the LFA
sequence and involves transferring the strategy options into the design framework matrix.
It forms the basis for scheduling activities and resources and helps to define the exact
parameters of the intervention, to ensure that all the pre-requisites for implementation,
monitoring and evaluation are in place and to increase the likelihood that the programme
or project will be implemented efficiently, effectively and successfully.

Planning Framework Analysis Framework

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 25

The planning framework involves identifying priority needs and opportunities, choosing
the most appropriate courses of action, agreeing on expected outcomes, calculating the
resources needed to achieve objectives, anticipating possible problems and setting clear
targets and timeframes for execution. Proper programme or project planning enables you
to analyse and assess present needs and future challenges that may undermine and
threaten the success of the intervention. The use of the LFA at this stage helps to ensure
programme or project feasibility and sustainability.

Preparing the Logical Framework – Programme/project Design Matrix (PDM)

The PDM is a format that sets out the basic structure of a programme or project in table
format with a four by four matrix and defines the logical interrelationship between the
different elements. The PDM otherwise known within other development circles as the
logical framework matrix (LFM) is an analytical stakeholder presentational tool that helps
to present the relationships between activities, outputs, programme/project purpose and
overall goal in a logical and summarised format. It is an important tool, especially for
understanding programmes and projects supported by different donors.

Programme/Project
Description

Objectively
Verifiable Indicators

Means of
Verification

Important
Assumptions
Overall Goal
Contribution to a broader
impact, programming
framework or policy

How will the overall goal
be measured in quantity,
quality and time?

Data collection - how
when & by whom?

Programme/project
Purpose
Direct benefits to the
target groups

How will the specific
objectives be measured
in quantity, quality &
time?

Data collection - how
when & by whom?

If purpose is achieved,
what assumptions must
hold true to achieved
overall goal
Outputs
Tangible products or
services delivered by the
programme or project

How will the outputs be
measured in quantity,
quality & time?

Data collection - how
when & by whom?

If outputs are achieved,
what assumptions must
hold true to achieved the
purpose
Activities
Tasks that have to be
undertaken to deliver the
desired results
Means Costs
If activities are
completed, what
assumptions must hold
true to achieved outputs
Pre-conditions
Conditions that must be
me for activities to
commence
Fig. 10 – Format of the programme/project design matrix

Interpretation of the logic of PDM

The matrix in its basic form is a table consisting of four columns and four rows. For better
understanding, the logic must be read vertically and horizontally. The vertical logic
identifies what the programme or project intends to do and clarifies the causal
relationships, important assumptions and uncertainties that are beyond the control of the

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 26

programme or project. The horizontal logic has to do with measuring the effects and the
input through the specification of key indicators and means of verification.

Programme/Project Structure - Levels of Objectives
The objectives selected for inclusion into the programme or project is transposed into the
first column of the logframe. This sets out the intervention logic, otherwise known as the
programme or project structure which defines the basic strategy underlying the
intervention. The structure is specified in terms of four elements and the logic is that
inputs allow for activities to be carried out through which outputs (results) are generated.
The outputs contribute to the achievement of specific objectives (programme or project
purpose), which then contribute to the overall goal. At this stage it is important to ensure
that the levels of objectives are correct.

Overall Goal: The overall goal defines a broad development objective to which the
programme or project contributes in terms of its impact or broader benefits to society. It
should explain why the programme or project is important to society in terms of the
longer term benefits to the target group and the wider benefits to other groups and how it
fits into sectoral, national and/or international development policy frameworks.

It is important to note that the singular intervention of your programme or project cannot
all by itself claim achievement of impact. Impact is measured by the contribution of many
different initiatives.

Programme/project Purpose: The programme or project purpose, which is also known as
the specific objectives should address the core problem and be defined in terms of the
intended direct benefits to the beneficiaries or target group.

Outputs: Also referred to as results, the outputs describe the product of the intervention
which accords benefits to the target group. It describes the added value generated by the
programme or project as a result of the activities carried out. The outputs should address
the main causes of the problem that the target group is confronted with. In order to
guarantee relevance of outputs the target group demand for the programme or project
services should have been identified during problem analysis stage.

Activities: Activities describe how the programme or project is implemented, what it will
do to produce the expected or desired output.

Mastery of the use of the logframe is determined not only in understanding the definitions
of the terms used but also in understanding the operational practicalities, especially with
regards to the relationship between outputs and programme or project purpose. Although
Programme and Project Managers are accountable for delivering the outputs, the extent
of their control over the target group is limited. The achievement of the programme or
project purpose requires response from the target group itself, whereby they make use of
the services provided and by so doing derive benefits for themselves. Programme and
Project Managers have a clear responsibility for ensuring that services provided by the
programme or project meet beneficiary needs and preferences.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 27

Considering Assumptions
It is obvious that when objectives are set not all of them would have to be addressed by
the programme or project. As strategies are set and transposed into the PDM those that
are left out, together with other external factors, are likely to affect the programme or
project implementation and long term sustainability. Assumptions describe the external
environment of the programme or project and constitute factors that influence programme
or project performance and sustainability but which are beyond the direct control of the
programme or project. They must be presented as positive conditions that need to be in
place in order to move from activities through to the goals. This helps management to be
constantly aware of the risks and uncertainties facing the programme or project.

The relationship between the programme or project structure and the external
environment is summarised in the “if and then” statement. For example, if the activities
are carried out and certain assumptions hold true then outputs will be achieved.
Assumptions are likely to change and so must be monitored regularly in order to be able
to take corrective action to safeguard the success of the programme or project when they
do change.

Programme/proje
ct Structure
Objectively
Verifiable
Indicators
Means of
Verification
Important
Assumptions

Overall Goal

Then

Programme/Project
Purpose
If
Then

and

Outputs (Results)

If
Then

and

Activities

If

And

Pre-conditions

Fig. 11 – Relationship between programme/project structure and the external environment

Preconditions on the other hand are factors that must be met before commencement of
the programme or project. These conditions need to be met if the programme or project
is to succeed and for the benefits to become sustainable.

They are therefore different from assumptions. In adding assumptions into the PDM two
steps need to be distinguished namely; identifying assumptions and assessing the
assumptions.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 28

Identifying Assumptions:

 From the objectives analysis, identify those objectives that are not considered
within the selected strategy but which are important in determining the success of
the programme or project.
 Place them as factors that are beyond the control of the programme or project at
the appropriate levels on the PDM.
 Identify other external factors that must be fulfilled in order to achieve the overall
goal, the programme or project purpose and the output.
 Identify pre-conditions that have to be met before commencement of programme
or project activities.

Once assumptions have been identified they are stated in terms of the desired situation
so that it becomes easy to verify and assess them.

Assessing the Assumptions:

 Assess the importance of the external factors based on conclusions arrived at as
indicated in the diagram below.
 The external factor that answers almost uncertainly to the question if it will be
realised, must be left out.
 The external factor that answers likely should be included as an assumption.
 The one that seem unlikely must be redesigned.

Fig. 12 – Assessment of Assumptions
Do not include in logframe

Do not include in logframe

Include as an assumption

Almost certainly

Likely

Unlikely

Stop the programme or project, it
is not feasible

Redesign the programme/project by
adding activities or results. Reformulate
the programme/project purpose if
necessary

Will it be realised?

Is the external factor important?

No

Yes

Yes

No

Is it possible to redesign the
programme/project in order to
influence the external factor?

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 29

Once done, the intervention logic and assumptions, beginning from the preconditions
must be checked to see if the intervention logic is in fact logical and coherent and to
ensure that nothing has been overlooked.

Ensuring Programme/Project Sustainability
Once the intervention logic has been established, and prior to completing the PDM it is
important to ascertain that the sustainability of the intended programme/project benefits
are analyzed. Sustainability means the degree to which the benefits or long term impact
of a programme or project are carried beyond the lifecycle and after all the input
processes or the major part of donor assistance have been completed. The PCM
approach ensures that the sustainability factor is in-built in the design process rather than
being hastily considered as an add-on concern at programme or project completion.

A timely sustainability analysis will allow for additional outputs or activities to be included
in the programme or project during the planning phase in order to increase the chances
of sustaining the benefits. To assess programme or project sustainability the following
factors need to be considered:

 Ownership by beneficiaries:
 Policy framework
 Appropriate technology
 Environmental issues
 Socio-cultural issues
 Gender balance
 Institutional and management capacity

Logframe Objectives Hierarchy Evaluation Criteria

Fig. 13 – Programme or project sustainability factor as defined by the PDM (Adapted from PCM &
Evaluation in Rural & Regional Development Projects, Doctoral School Kajaani 2006)

Relevance

Efficiency
Effectiveness
Impact
Impact or long term benefits

Outset Problematic Situation

Overall Goal
benefits

Project Purpose
benefits

Outputs
benefits

Activities
benefits

Input
benefits

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 30

To ensure programme or project sustainability, factors affecting sustainability are
addressed as part of the planning process and evaluation results are used to build
lessons learnt into the design of future programmes or projects.

Integrated Approach Using Standardised Documentation
Programme or Project Cycle Management links activities both at the level of the
intervention framework (programming, planning and implementation) as well as at the
level of sectoral and development partnership framework. This ensures proper vertical
integration. This also helps to standardize terminology and set of procedures,
assessment and evaluation criteria and documentation to ensure full transparency and
mutually reinforcing good management practices throughout the programme or project
cycle.

It is worth noting that standardize does not mean rigid. This means that if PCM is
considered a learning cycle, then what is regarded as standardized is therefore also
subject to change based on the evaluating of activities at every stage. Lessons learnt
would therefore be incorporated into the programme or project cycle.

Completing the PDM

Objectively Verifiable Indicators
Objectively verifiable indicators define targets, which form the basis for performance
measurement and the monitoring and evaluation system. They describe the programme
or project in operationally measurable terms.

Once indicators have been identified they should be defined in terms of quantity, quality,
time, target group and location to ensure that they are specific. For example, formulating
indicator for an objective that seeks to improve the quality of life will go as follows:

Objective: Standard of life improved

 Set Quality (how better): Incidence of poverty reduced
 Set target group (who): Incidence of poverty reduced among the youths
 Set location (where): Incidence of poverty reduced among the youths in rural and
sub-urban communities
 Set quantity (how many or how much): Incidence of poverty reduced among the
youths in rural and sub-urban communities by 30%
 Set timeframe (when): ): Incidence of poverty reduced among the youths in rural
and sub-urban communities by 30% within three years

Indicator 1: Incidence of poverty reduced among the youths in rural and sub-urban
communities by 30% within three years.

Indicator 2: Increase the rate of self-employment and the creation of income generating
activities by the youths in rural and sub-urban communities by 50% within three years.

Indicator 3: Reduce the rate of HIV/AIDS infection among the youths in rural and sub-
urban communities from 40% to 20% by 2013.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 31

According to this logic, different persons using the indicator to measure the set objective
should be able to obtain the same results. For the sake of clarity of the expected change
and for effective monitoring it is useful to have more that one indicator, which can
reasonably and cost effectively be collected.

Means of Verification
How will you know you have achieved what your programme or project set out to
achieve? There must be a means by which to show evidence that your work has been
done. The means of verification define the sources of information for verifying progress in
achieving set targets. This entails defining the process of data collection throughout the
programme/project cycle. The column describes how information will be collected, when
it will be collected and by whom.

Means of verification are the instruments providing information that makes it possible for
indicators to be monitored and verified. When indicators are formulated, the source of
information and means of collection should be specified. To ensure reliability the source
of verification should carry the following specifications:

 Collection tools by which information will be collected, e.g. interview
questionnaires, registers, attendance records, activity reports, etc.
 Who will be involved in the information collection?
 When or how regularly should the information be collected – monthly, quarterly or
yearly?
 Format in which the information will be made available, e.g. programme or project
reports, records, official statistics, etc.

These specifications help to determine the cost effectiveness of the process. Indicators
that are found to be too expensive and complicated to collect should be left out.

How to Identify means and Costs
Means and costs refer to the human, material and financial resources needed to execute
the programme or project.

In order to provide an accurate estimate of the inputs for the programme or project,
planned activities and management support activities must be specified in sufficient
details. The cost for collecting data on the indicators should be given high consideration.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the PDM

Strengths

 The LFA encourages people to consider expectations and how to achieve
objectives
 Checks the internal logic of the plan ensuring activities, outcomes and objectives
are linked.
 It forces planners to identify critical assumptions and risks affecting project
success
 Planners think about how to monitor and evaluate process and impact indicators

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 32

Weaknesses

 A powerful but not a comprehensive tool for planning or management
 It is time consuming and requires a thorough understanding of the logic and of the
concept of the logical framework analysis.
 Problems can be compounded by too rigid application of the LF (changing
environment)
 LFA should be supported by technical, economic, social and environmental
analysis

Application of the Logical Framework Approach

Using the Logframe to Develop Operational Plans

After the logframe is completed planning can then take place to include more operational
details to the summarised plan as contained in the PDM. The manner in which
programme or project activities will be operationalized is demonstrated through the
preparation of work plans and activity schedules. The PDM constitutes the main planning
framework of a programme or project and therefore a very important document. It defines
the main features of the intervention but does not contain all elements of a
comprehensive plan and so does not in itself guarantee an appropriate implementation of
programme or project activities. It however provides the basis for the elaboration of the
technical and operational aspects. The concept of operational planning is therefore
aimed at an efficient implementation of the planned programme or project activities and
takes into account the following issues:

 A detailed activity plan covering content and management activities, and
 A detailed resource schedule

Activity Planning

The activity plan is a method of presenting the activities of a programme or project, which
identifies their logical sequence and any dependencies that exist between them and
provides a basis for allocating management responsibilities for completing each activity.
The schedule is therefore a detailed month by month breakdown of the main activities
listed in the PDM into sub-activities and manageable tasks. Usually, activities may
depend on each other, that is, the commencement of one may depend on the completion
of the previous. It is therefore ideal to present the activities in the sequence in which they
will occur over time so that it becomes easy to see the flow of events and the means and
cost necessary in undertaking them.

The activity schedule offers an opportunity to build on the main tasks and develop the
level of detail necessary to manage and monitor implementation of the intervention and
the development partnership at a practical level. The detail schedule is developed from
the main activities contained in the PDM in order that the link between the problem, the
objectives and the activities are maintained.

The essential components to be considered when doing activity planning include:

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 33

 Timing of activities
 Allocation of tasks and responsibilities
 Appropriate estimation of means and costs calculation

The procedure for preparing the activity plan follows these steps listed below:

Step 1 - List the main activities: The main activities as contained in the PDM are a
summary of what the programme or project plans to do in order to achieve its objectives.
They form the basis for the preparation of the activity plan.

Step 2 - Break activities down into sub-activities and manageable tasks: The technique is
to break each activity down into sub-activities and to further break each sub-activity down
into manageable tasks. Tasks can then be allocated to individual programme or project
team members, which they are responsible for delivering on as their short term goals.
The rationale for doing this is to get the level of details right and to ensure that the
activities become significantly simple to carry out and managed easily.

The level of details, however should become enough when you have had sufficient
information to enable you estimate time frames for execution and the resources needed
and also for defining job descriptions for the persons responsible for executing the
activities.

Step 3 - Determine sequence and dependency of activities: It is important to clarify the
order in which activities should be carried out from start up to completion. Some activities
may run concurrently while the start up of some may depend on the completion of others.

Step 4 - Determine start up, duration and completion of activities: Timing involves making
a realistic estimate of the duration of each activity and then carrying it into the activity
plan to determine possible start up and completion dates. Timing might not be very
accurate but it is worth while doing the estimate. At least it sets guidance for the
programme or project to be executed within time constraints.

Step 5 - Identify process indicators and milestones: There must be a way by which to
track the work that you do and to measure progress in carrying out activities. This is done
by setting indicators and important milestones by which performance will be measured.
Milestones are key events that indicate levels of progress and targets for the programme
or project team to aim at.

Step 6 - Define expertise and allocate responsibilities: When tasks have been defined it
becomes easy to determine what expertise is required. This provides the opportunity to
check the feasibility of the activity plan with regards to the human resources available.
Task allocation carries with it the responsibility and accountability for achieving
milestones and assigned tasks. Task allocation must therefore take into consideration the
competences, skills and experiences of each of the team members.

The activity plan, when it is done and completed can be presented in a summarized
graphical format called the Gantt chart. The Gantt chart as illustrated in Fig. 14 is the
most appropriate technique for doing activity planning and if properly done can serve as
a valuable monitoring tool.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 34

Activities
Break down main activities
into manageable tasks

S

F

Duration - Months

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Allocate
tasks among
Staff
sw co sw

1. Establish office

2. Put logistics in place,
build public relations, etc

3. Prepare training material

4. Plan, schedule workshop

5. Seek accreditation for
training programmes

6. Provide consultancy
services to other NGOs

Etc, etc.

LR

SR

LR

LR

LR

LR

LR

SR

LR
S = Start date, F = Finish date, SW = Support worker, Co = Coordinator, LR = Lead role, SR = Support role
= Milestone

Fig. 14 – Gantt chart template illustrating activity schedule and milestones

Resource Scheduling

Resources are the inputs that are required in order to carry out the planned activities and
manage the programme or project. Once all the activities have been entered into the
schedule the means necessary to carry out the activities must be specified. The means
include human and material resources and should be allocated to established cost
categories. All the identified resources are then translated into monetary terms to get the
costs for executing the programme or project activities over time.

This requires breakdown of planned activities and specified management support
activities into sufficient details to enable appropriate estimation of the inputs for the
programme or project.

In the case of a development partnership where the programme or project has different
funding sources, programme or project costing should allow for allocation of costs
between the different partners so that each party is clear about their respective
contributions. The simple logic for obtaining costs per activity or per cost category of
activities is by multiplying quantity within a specified timeframe by unit cost.

The procedure for doing the resource schedule is to:

 Work out the human, material and financial inputs necessary for carrying out the
planned activities
 Work out the human, material and financial means needed to carry out
management and support activities, which are not included in the logframe.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 35

 Calculate the estimated costs of all the resources that have been identified. Cost
estimates must be based on careful and thorough budgeting
 Generate a resource schedule table like the one indicated in Fig.15. List all the
activities into cost categories and calculate the corresponding cost for each
category.
 The summary of this can then be transposed into the logframe to make it complete
and comprehensive. The activities that need to be undertaken are normally listed
in the first column, the inputs in the second column as they have been identified
and in the third column a summary of the costs as per the budget origin.

Activities and Resources

Unit

Quantity

Unit
Cost

Funding
Source

Total Cost
Variable Invariable
Activities
(Copy activities from activity plan)
1. Organise capacity building workshops
1.1 Prepare manuals & training materials
1.2 Invite leading experts to facilitate
2. Organise conferences

GTZ

DSD
R1,280,000

R 820,000

R 460,000
Material Resources

1. Equipment

2. Office Supplies

IP R 120,000

R 86,000

R 34,000
Human Resources

1. Salaries and Allowances

2. Staff Training

Etc, Etc

6

4

12 mths

3 mths

R2,600

GTZ R 460,000

R 428,800

R 31,200

Fig. 15 – Example of how to prepare a Resource Schedule

The PDM when it is completed provides a concise summary of the programme or project
objectives, indicators for measuring progress, sources by which information collected will
be verified and the main risks and assumptions that may affect the achievement of
objectives. Together with the detailed activity plan the PDM provides a comprehensive
explanation of how the programme or project will be implemented, monitored and
evaluated.

Role of the Logframe in Monitoring, Evaluation & Reporting

The obvious sequence of events after programme or project planning and funding is
implementation. In the ideal six-phase programme or project cycle implementation
occupies the fifth position. It is during this phase that the actual work of the programme or
project takes place. Programmes and projects if they are implemented without sufficient
controls will hardly go according to plan. It is the duty of management to establish
control systems to ensure that it stays on course towards the achievement of its
objectives. Without such systems of control it will be hard to determine what progress or
impact has been made through the implementation of activities.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 36

Differentiating between Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring
Monitoring is defined as the systematic and continuous collection, analysis and use of
information for management control and decision making. Programme or project
monitoring is an integral part of day-to-day
management and a tool by which information is
provided for management to identify and solve
implementation problems and to assess progress
in relation to established plans. It measures the
gap between what was intended and what is
actually happening. Internal evaluation on the
other hand diagnoses the reasons for the gaps
and provides options for how to respond. Without
monitoring, it is difficult to manage or evaluate a
programme or project.

Designing a Monitoring System: To ensure that
the programme or project maintains a focus on
activities the design of a programme or project
level monitoring system follows five steps:

 Analyze objectives in order to clarify
programme or project design. Proper
monitoring depends on clearly stated
objectives. The logical framework helps to
ensure that objectives are correctly defined
and that actions are result oriented. This
logical sequence simplifies the choice of
monitoring indicators.

Programme or project implementation usually does not take place immediately
after its design. Some time might have elapsed from the moment it was designed
to the moment of actual implementation and the programme or project
environment or the actors involved might have changed. It is therefore wise and
sensible in such a situation to organize a start up workshop bringing together all
the stakeholders to review programme or project documents and key
assumptions. Activities should be revised as well to ensure that they are clearly
formulated and that they remain realistic, specific and measurable. These will form
the basis for the monitoring and evaluation system.

 Review Implementation Procedures to determine what information is needed at
the different levels of the programme or project management structure. This step
involves matching information needs to decision making roles in accordance with
the level of detail of information required by each level of management and the
frequency of reporting. The logframe provides the framework for identification of
information needs as a whole. Spelling out clearly who needs what information
and for what purpose helps to determine the kind of information to be collected.

Monitoring

What is monitoring?
 A systematic management activity
 Analyses efficiency & effectiveness
– measures actual against planned
activities to identify remedial action

How is it done?
 Rapid & continuous analysis,
useful to improve on-going actions
 Focuses on resources, activities &
results in the logframe
 Important in improving
performance

Who does the monitoring?
 Internally by staff but can also be
done by external monitors

When is it done?
 Regularly – on a day-to-day basis
 Takes place at all levels of
management

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 37

A review of implementation procedures involves a review of what activities will be
undertaken and by whom. This should be done with reference to the activity plan.
By so doing, various roles, functions and responsibilities are clarified.

 Review indicators that will be used for measuring progress and achievement of
objectives. Within the implementation team the focus will be on the physical and
financial monitoring of activities and results. This will require tools for proper and
efficient record keeping, which will be used to compare actual expenditure against
budget and track progress against the established activity schedule.

The reason for major weaknesses in the design of monitoring and evaluation
systems is because indicators are poorly specified. Some common problems
associated with the selection of indicators include:

Selecting too many indicators – The temptation for most programme and project
managers is to over estimate the amount of information that they actually need for
decision making. Programme and project managers should be able to make a
trade off between the amount of information they need and the amount of
information the programme or project can produce. Selection of indicators should
specify the minimum set of information and the management levels where the
information is required. More detail is needed at the day-to-day operational level
while aggregated and summarized data is used at higher levels.

Selecting complex indicators – Complex indicators present major problems for
data collection either in terms of the skills or resources required.

Over concentration on progress indicators - A programme or project that focuses
principally on collecting progress indicators runs the risk of not providing sufficient
information on the performance of the programme or project. Using leading
indicators, on the other hand makes it possible to gain a clear indication of the
likelihood of achieving the objectives. Selection of impact indicators along side
progress indicators is a critical part of programme or project design and in fact
sharpens the definition of objectives and identification of target clients.

 Design report formats to provide managers at different levels within the
programme or project with access to relevant and timely information for analysis
and decision making.

 Prepare implementation plan for the monitoring system, which specifies the
necessary staff, skills and training required and clearly allocates information and
reporting responsibilities.

Evaluation
Evaluation is a systematic and objective assessment of an on-going or completed
programme or project, its design, implementation and results. It involves understanding
the gaps between what was intended and what is actually happening and looking at the
operational and strategic options to make adaptations, if necessary.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 38

An evaluation should provide information that is credible and useful, enabling the
incorporation of lessons learnt into decision making processes. While evaluations are
therefore meant to improve decision making, resource allocation and accountability,
learning is actually the core agenda. Thus evaluation can better be understood not as an
intervention to judge the actors or to please the stakeholders but rather as an opportunity
for learning.

The evaluation phase in the programme or project cycle is a moment of assessment to
identify and widely disseminate any lessons
learnt. The following evaluation types can be
distinguished based on the timing of the exercise:

 Mid-term Evaluation: This is an interim
evaluation that is usually undertaken in the
course of the programme or project to
review progress and propose changes to
programme or project design during the
remaining period of implementation.
 Final or end -of-programme/project
Evaluation: This kind of evaluation is
undertaken to document the resources
used, results obtained and progress made
towards objectives. The objective is to
generate both positive (what went well and
why) and negative (what did not go well
and why) lessons which can be used to
improve future designs.
 Impact Evaluation: This type of evaluation
is conducted several years after
programme or project completion to
measure the impact of the intervention on
society. Such an impact or the lack of it
will also indicate to what extent the
programme or project results have proven to be sustainable.

What to Evaluate: Evaluation should be concerned here with two issues: the programme
or project performance as well as the development partnership.

Programme or project performance: The evaluation exercise should aim to establish how
well or how badly the programme or project has performed in achieving its purpose and
reaching its overall goal, to document any lessons learnt for decision making and
adaptation where necessary. Evaluating a programme or project’s performance helps to
test the programme or project for is mainstream potential – if the intervention can be
replicated elsewhere or incorporated in the different partners’ mainstream services.

Development Partnership: Evaluating the development partnership provides the
opportunity to test to what extent the different partners involved in a programme or
project lived up to and respected their commitments. Programme or project failure at
times might be due to gaps and shortfalls of the development partnership. The roles and

Evaluation

What is Evaluation?
 Systematic & objective assessment
of a programme or project
 Assesses the relevance, efficiency,
effectiveness, impact &
sustainability in relation to
objectives
 Focuses more on results-to-
purpose & purpose-to-overall
objectives

How is it done?
 In-depth analysis,
 Identify lessons learnt

Who does the monitoring?
 Specialist external evaluators.

When is it done?
 Periodic - once or twice during the
programme or project cycle.
 Mid-term, to re-orientate
implementation
 End-of-programme/project, to draw
lessons from the past to orientate
future policies & actions

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 39

responsibility framework of the development partnership should serve as a useful source
of information for evaluating the development partnership.

Evaluation Criteria and their link to the Logframe: It is evident that in the absence of a
proper design, applying evaluation criteria becomes very difficult. The five principal
evaluation criteria that are normally applied during evaluations are indeed closely linked
to the logframe matrix (PDM). Being a summary of the project design, a poor logframe
will therefore not guarantee an effective evaluation. The evaluation criteria can be
defined as follows:

Relevance: The appropriateness of programme or project objectives to the problems that
it was supposed to address and to the environment within which it operates, and
including an assessment of the quality of programme or project preparation and design,
that is the logic and completeness of the programme or project planning process and the
internal logic and coherence of the programme or project design.

Efficiency: How well inputs/means have been converted into results in terms of quality,
quantity and time and the quality of the results achieved. This generally requires
comparing alternative approaches to achieving the same outputs, to see whether the
most efficient process has been adopted. Efficiency involves ensuring that the results
have been achieved at reasonable cost.

Effectiveness: An assessment of the contribution made by outputs to the achievement of
the purpose and how assumptions have affected programme or project achievements.

Change

Utilization

Action

Allocation

Fig. 16 – Linking evaluation criteria to the logframe

Overall Goal

Efficiency
Impact
Relevance
Effectiveness
Sustainabilit
y
Have and will products and
benefits be maintained?

What are the benefits to
society?

How well did outputs
contribute to achievement of
the project purpose?

How were inputs and activities
converted into outputs?

Quality planning & adaptation,
relevance of problems,
indicators, means, costs,
assumptions and risks

Project Purpose
_+ Assumption

Outputs
+Assumptions

Activities
+ Assumptions

Mean
+ Pre-conditions

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 40

Impact: The effect of the programme or project on its broader environment and its
contribution to the wider development objectives as summarized in the overall goal and
also in the achievement of overarching policy objectives.

Sustainability: An assessment of the likelihood of continuation of benefits produced by
the programme or project after external funding has ended and with particular reference
to factors of ownership by beneficiaries, policy support, economic and financial factors,
socio-cultural aspects, gender equality, appropriate technology, environmental aspects
and institutional and management capacity.

The steps involved in an evaluation exercise closely follow the hierarchical objective
structure of the programme or project design. By following this systematic approach all
aspects of the programme or project achievements are evaluated.

Costs: The actual input costs are compared with plan. This forms the basis of variance
analysis. Was there a budget revision? Was the nature and timing of inputs in
accordance with the plan? Did the various donors and partner agencies fulfill their
financial obligations?

Activities: Actual schedule and achieved compared with plan. Were they any delays in
implementation of time savings? What were the causes for delays, if any? How did
deviations from plans affect the programme or project?

Results: Indicators of how activities were transformed into outputs. These indicators are
usually process indicators that report successful completion of tasks; others will be
quantified targets, while some will aim to measure efficiency of programme or project
activities. Efficiency indicators compare actual input as a ratio of actual outputs.
Calculation of these ratios will permit comparisons to be made over the life of the
programme or project to see if performance has improved, and also comparison with
other programmes or projects.

Programme/Project Purpose: Indicators of achievement of sustainable benefits for the
target group. These effectiveness indicators show whether or not the programme or
project has achieved its purpose and whether services are sustainable, i.e. will the
services to the beneficiaries continue after external assistance has ended?

In the case where the programme or project actual performance does not compare well
with the plan, the evaluator must investigate to know if the poor performance is due to
problems arising from the initial problem analysis, from the programme or project design
or from implementation. Aspects of sustainability must be evaluated thus, was the
institutional and managerial capacity of the programme or project accurately assessed?
To what extent was programme or project support implemented? Was the financial
viability of the programme or project adequately appraised?

The evaluation should also examine the standard and quality of goods and services
generated by the programme or project in the opinion of the final beneficiaries.
Evaluation of effectiveness and sustainability requires the evaluator to gather information

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 41

not only from within the programme or project environment but also through meetings
and field visits to beneficiaries and other organisations.

Overall Goal: The programme or project contribution to sectoral objectives and the wider
society. Programmes and projects are usually just individual contributions to a broader
thematic or sectoral policy framework and should be evaluated from within that context.
The advantage of this is that several programmes or projects can be evaluated at once
and their results related to wider policy objectives.

Reporting

Programme and Project Managers will want to review progress very frequently, say
monthly against contracted budgets and planned activities. Much of the data will be of an
operational nature for programme or project team’s internal use. A few selected items
plus aggregated data on equipment and materials are considered key indicators for
reporting on progress recorded.

For monitoring to be described as complete and successful, information collected must
be communicated – in the right form, to the right person and at the right time. This
enables timely and appropriate management decision making to address problems and
to ensure that the programme or project is maintained on course. To communicate
information requires appropriate mechanisms to ensure that the necessary information is
generated and utilized in a timely and effective manner. Two types of mechanisms
include:

Progress Reports: Progress reports are periodic summaries of progress made in the
implementation of programme or project activities, incorporating key information from the
physical and financial indicators included in the logframe, activity and resource
schedules. Progress reports must also provide evidence of how the programme or
project is fairing in relation to the plans.

Progress reports should be designed in a standard format – the contents matching
closely the logframe and its related outputs so that comparison between reports over
time becomes easy. The purpose of progress reports is to provide updates on
achievements against indicators and milestones using the following framework:

Data about intended achievements is compared with

 Data on actual achievements, to identify…

 Significant variations from plans, as a basis for…

 Identification of problems and opportunities, to identify…

 Corrective action and alternatives.

Within this framework, the report should cover the following areas:

 Summary of the current status of the programme or project against indicators for
programme or project purpose and outputs

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 42

 Major activities undertaken during the reporting period as compared to the activity
schedule
 Programme or project expenditure for the reporting period as compared to the
budget and cost schedule
 Estimates of the number of clients and beneficiaries reached out to during the
period
 Current and anticipated problems and constraints encountered during the period
and how they have been handled or planned to be handled
 Planned major activities and schedules for the next period

Progress Review: This involves a rapid oral assessment by the programme or project
team of current issues and problems. This can be advantageous because direct
feedback is easily obtained from the programme or project implementers. However it
poses a big problem if it becomes too frequent or to rigorous. The temptation is usually to
adjust established plans at the suggestion of ideas that seem bright. If this becomes the
practice then you may end up spending more time planning and re-planning rather than
actually doing the work, and the consequence will certainly be serious delays in meeting
targets and milestones.

It is advisable to strive to build on achievements rather than continually adjusting plans.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 43

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Activities These are the actions and inputs that have to be undertaken
to produce the results. Activities summarise what will be
undertaken by the programme or project.

Activity Plan (Schedule) A tabular representation describing tasks and their processes,
allocating responsibilities and resources and expected
outcomes and setting out timeframes and indicators for
measuring progress.

Assumptions These are external factors to the programme or project which
have the potential to affect the progress or success of
programme or project implementation but which the
programme or project manager has no direct control over.

Beneficiaries These are the ultimate users of the product or output of the
services provided by a programme or project. They are
usually the principal stakeholders of every development
programme or project.

Development Development is described as a structured process of an
intervention to change or improve a current undesirable
situation to a future situation that is considered satisfactory.

Development Partnership (DP) Describes the situation where different actors in pursuit
of a common development goal come together and pool their
expertise, financial and material resources to facilitate a
development initiative and to ensure that self-help initiatives
are properly coordinated to run successfully.

Evaluation: This is a periodic assessment of the relevance, performance,
efficiency and impact of an intervention against its stated
objectives. It is carried out as an independent objective
examination with a view to drawing lessons that may be
replicated more widely.

Feasibility Study This is a study that is conducted during the life time of a
programme or project to verify if the intended intervention is
well founded and is likely to meet the needs of the intended
beneficiaries. The results of the study are used to inform
programme/project design and justification for funding.

Gantt Chart A graphical presentation of activities, timelines and milestones
for completion of activities and allocation of responsibilities.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 44

Good Governance A set of principles and procedures to guide the management
of a development partnership.

Indicators These are the informants that help to determine if what was
planned has been achieved. Indicators provide the basis for
designing an appropriate monitoring system.

Integrated Approach This is the consistent examination of the development
partnership as well as the implementation process throughout
the programme or project cycle to ensure that the relevance,
feasibility and sustainability of activities remain in focus.

Intervention Logic This is a description of the strategy underlying a programme
or project. It is a narrative description of the programme or
project at each of the four levels of the hierarchy of objectives
used in the logframe.

Logical Framework Approach This is a methodology for thinking through a
programme or project and for planning, implementing
strategies and evaluating results. It involves analyzing
problems and objectives and designing the implementation of
identified strategies.

Monitoring This refers to the systematic and continuous collection,
analysis and use of information for management control and
decision making

Objectives Analysis A projection of the desired positive situation derived from
assessment of the identified causes and effects of a problem.

Outputs Outputs are the results or what a programme or project would
have achieved by the completion date of certain activities.
Outputs are produced by carrying out a series of activities.

Pre-Conditions These are the conditions that must be met before a
programme or project can commence.

Problem Analysis A structured assessment of a negative situation in order to
establish their causes and effects

Programme/Project A Project is a series of activities with set objectives, designed
to produce a specific outcome within a limited time frame and
budget. A programme is a series of projects with a common
overall objective.

Programme/Project Cycle Describes the life of a programme or project from
conception of the initial idea through to its completion. It is
usually divided into phases and provides a structure to ensure
that stakeholders are consulted, defines the key decisions,

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 45

information needs and responsibilities at each stage so that
informed decisions can be made at the different phases of the
cycle. It draws on evaluation to build on lessons learnt from
experience into the design of future interventions.

Project Cycle Management A methodology for preparing, implementing and
evaluating programmes and projects based on the integrated
approach and the logical framework approach.

Project Design Matrix (PDM) This is a summarized format of a programme or project
design. It presents the objectives, assumptions, indicators and
sources of verification for a programme or project. It is also
referred to as the logframe.

Replication: This is the process of transferring best practices and lessons
learnt from an intervention for implementation in other
situations experiencing similar problems.

Resource Schedule A breakdown of a programme or project budget where means
and costs are linked to activities, detailed duration and
funding sources.

Sources of Verification This is an indication of where and in what form information on
the achievement of overall goal, specific objectives and
outputs (described by the OVIs) can be found.

Stakeholders These are individuals, groups or institutions with an interest or
relationship with a programme or project. They may directly or
indirectly, positively or negatively affect or be affected by the
process or outcomes of a programme or project.

Strategy Options Strategies are the results of a critical assessment of the
alternative ways of achieving objectives and selecting one or
more ways of implementing set objectives.

Sustainability Sustainability refers to the ability to generate a continuous
stream of benefit for a target group and the wider community
after external support has ended. While a programme or
project is limited by the constraints of time and budget, the
benefits should be able to continue and the activities should
be developed long after the programme or project has ended.

Terms of Reference Terms of Reference define the tasks required of a
development partnership and its individual partners. They
indicate the development partnership background and
objectives, planned activities, expected inputs and outputs,
budget, timetables and job descriptions.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 46

RESOURCES

We acknowledge the resourcefulness of the following sources and material, which we
used extensively in developing this practical guide.

1. Flemish Interuniversity Council, Project Cycle Management, General VLIR
Manual, July 2002

2. John Twigg, Project Cycle Management - Tools for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk
Reduction. Guidance Note 5. ProVention Consortium, Geneva 2007

3. Clare Bishop, Project Cycle Management Technical Guide. SEAGA Programme,
FAO 2001

4. Susie Prince and Catherine Squire, Project Management Course Toolkit. Cyprus,
March 2007

5. GTZ, Project Cycle Management and Objectives-Oriented Project Planning,
Guidelines, 1996

6. Freer Spreckley, A Project Cycle Management and Logical Framework Toolkit – A
Practical Guide for Equal Development Partnership, UK

7. Project Cycle Management Training Handbook, ITAD UK, May 1999

8. Introduction of PCM and Identification of Problems and Possible Solutions –
UNEP “ESTs for Drinking Water Provision Training.” FASID

9. Ton Farla, An Introduction to Project Cycle Management. ERI – SEE Workshop

10. Andrea Aldea-Partenen, Project Cycle Management and Evaluation in Rural and
Regional Development Projects. Doctoral School, Kajaani, October 2006

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 47

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING

Here is a list of websites where you can find out more about Programme/Project Cycle
Management and how different organisations and development agencies use the
concept in their programmes or projects.

www.bond.org.uk BOND is a network of UK based voluntary organisations working in
the area of international development and development education

www.dfid.gov.uk The UK Government Department of for International Development
(DFID)

www.europa.eu.in/comm./europaid/evaluationmethods Provides information on using
PCM within programmes and projects funded by the European Union

www.gtz.de/english The German Technical Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur
Technische Zusammenarbeit – GTZ) is an international cooperation
agency for sustainable development worldwide (Search PCM)

www.ifad.org The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is a
specialized agency of the United Nations (Search PCM)

www.livelihoods.org Livelihood is an organ of DFID providing information resources and
lessons and experiences learnt from the use of sustainable livelihood
approaches

www.mande.co.uk Mande is a news service focusing on developments in monitoring
and evaluation methods relevant to development projects and
programmes with social development objectives

www.pcm-group.com/pcm The PCM Group is a training and consultancy company based
in Belgium

www.undp.org The United Nations Development Programme is an organ of the
United Nations specialized in international development (Search
PCM)

www.worldbank.org The World Bank is an international financial institute. The website
provides information about how the PCM is used in the programmes
and projects funded by the World Bank.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 48

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 49

About SASDA

Southern Africa Social Development Agency (SA SDA) is a
development aid agency that focuses on value added and sustainable
livelihood, the attainment of quality of life and improves standards of
living among marginalized populations in disadvantaged communities.
The organisation establishes programmes and projects that promote
the development of local communities by mobilizing, organising and
empowering community members and vulnerable groups to improve
their livelihood It also provides mentoring and capacity building to
grassroots and emerging community based organisations as a
measure for sustained social growth.

SASDA was founded in 2009 and registered in South Africa as a
Section 21 Company, Reg. No: 2009/008569/08. It is also registered
with the South African Department of Social Development as a Non
Profit Organisation, NPO Reg. No: 068 – 915. The Head Office is
situated in Pretoria, South Aica.

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management 50

Practical Guide to Programme/Project Cycle Management

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