Process of Research- Stages in Social Science Research

types of research, questionnaire, sampling,process of research, project work

1. Guest Lecture on Project work and Research Methodology Dr. J. Jayapradha Head, Department of Commerce MJPTBC Welfare Residential Degree College Wargal

2. Definitions A Search for knowledge Research is a “careful investigation on inquiry specially through search for new fact in any branch of knowledge”. - OXFORD UNIVERSITY “Social research is the investigation of the underlying process operative in the lives of the persons who are in association”. BOGARDUS “A systematic, controlled and critical investigation of hypothetical prepositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”. KERLINGER 2

3. Research “The process which included defining and re-defining problems, collecting data, organization of data, making deductions of the data and reaching conclusions and at last carefully critically evaluating the data to determine whether they (conclusions) fit for the formulation of hypotheses”. - Clifford Woddy 3

4. Objectives of the Social Science Research The main aim of the SS research is to discover new facts or verify and test the observations. It should understand the human behavior It should interact with Business Environment/policies/social institutions. The prime objective is to develop new scientific models/ theories/ It should facilitate reliable and valid study of HUMAN beings based on social life. 4

5. Characteristics of Research Systematic and critical investigation. Purposive investigation Scientific method Objective/Logical Observable experiences/ empirical evidences. Solution to Problem Generalization. 8) Test of criticism 9) Un-hurried activity 10) Statistical proved activity 11) Not against to natural phenomenon. 12) Research is a carefully recorded and reported activity. 5

6. Research Process 6

7. STEP1: Establishing the need for Research Information is not available. Decision is needed to be taken. Organization is needed. Government is interested/ entrusted. Universities/Research institutes are entrusted. Society is facing the problem. Scholarly interested. Inquisitiveness. 7

8. What is the purpose of the research? What are your units of analysis? What are your points of focus? What is the time dimension? Designing a research project: conceptualisation operationalisation. Reliability, replication and validity. 8

9. Step 2: Deciding general area of Subject. Marketing Finance Accounting Science Taxation Government policies Social science 9

10. Step 3: Define the research problem State your research problem. Are there any sub-problems? What is the background (literature review) on this problem? What is good about tackling this problem? Why should we be interested in answering the research question? Discuss your problem with peers, supervisor and experts. Have you looked at this problem from all sides to minimize unwanted surprises? Think through the process. Are you capable of addressing the issue? Can you foresee any pitfalls in data collection and analysis? What tools are available for you to use? What research procedure will you follow? 10

11. Step 4: Review of Literature 11

12. Step 5: Establishing Research Objectives To know the background of theory/fundamentals/concepts. To get the clarity on the research problem. To develop research priorities within the research problem. To study “if-then; if-else; if-not” conditions. To describe the measures of phenomenon. To test the hypothesis and develop inferences. To solve the research goal. To answer the research questions. 12

13. Methods of stating objectives While stating objectives of the study, the following guidelines must be taken care of: The objectives should be presented briefly & concisely. They cover the different aspects of the problem & its contributing factors in a coherent way & in a logical sequence. The objectives are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what researcher is going to do, where, & for what purpose. They are realistic considering local conditions. Use action verbs that are specify enough to be evaluated. 13

14. Count… Examples of action verbs are: to assess, to identify, to find out, to determine, to compare, to find, to verify, to calculate, to describe, to analyse, to establish, etc. 14

15. Step 6: Formulating Hypothesis Definition: a statement about the predicted or expected relationship between at least two variables. NOT simply a question, notion, or vague idea That is, a level of precision/specification is required 15

16. Characteristics of a good hypothesis Testable The means for manipulating the variables and/or measuring the outcome variable must potentially exist Falsifiable must be able to reject the hypothesis with data Parsimonious should be stated in simplest adequate form Precise Should be specific (operationalized) Useful Relate to existing theories and/or “ point ” toward new theories it should lead to studies beyond the present one (often hard to determine in advance) 16

17. Clear, Concise, Precise Vague words or indefinite words should be avoided. may - this may affect that somewhat - this will increase somewhat often - this often affects that likely - this will likely influence that enough - if there is enough of this, then … sometimes - this will sometimes affect that Be specific when using these: affect influence interact with related to 17

18. Statistical Hypotheses The Null Hypothesis (H ) What you are trying to falsify The Alternate Hypothesis (H a ) What you think is true Example (One-tailed): Students will remember more items from a word list if they learn the list in the quiet, rather than in the presence of intense (100 dB SPL) music (Rolling Stones, “Satisfaction”). H :  q ≤ m H a :  q > m Example (Two-tailed): Students will perform differently on word list recall if they learn the list in the quiet, rather than in the presence of intense (100 dB SPL) music (Rolling Stones, “Satisfaction”). H :  q = m H a :  q ≠  m Less Power 18

19. Step 7: Determining Research Design A) The Research Question B) The Theory C) The Model D) The Data E) The Use of the Data F) Analysis and Interpretations of the data G) Major findings and conclusions 19

20. Step 8: Research methodology Sample size Sample units. Sample location Method of selecting sample A) Random B) Non-random. Scope of the study Limitations of the study 20

21. Step 9: Collection of Data A) Direct method/ Primary method B) Indirect method/ Secondary Method 21

22. Step 10: Analysis of the Data Entering the data into computers Running the tables Making frequencies Cross-tabulation Calculating suitable tests 22

23. Step 11. Report Writing A research report has seven components: Abstract or Summary Introduction Review of Literature Methods (Research methodology) Results Conclusions and Discussion References 23

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25. TYPES OF RESEARCH Pure research: pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental Research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily a problem- oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. Ex: Newton’s contribution. 25

26. 2. Applied Research Applied research is carried out to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is problem-oriented and an action-oriented. It seeks an immediate and practical results. Ex: Marketing survey Post- purchase experiences of the customers. 26

27. 3.Exploratory research Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher as little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on objectives. It usually takes in the form of a pilot study. Ex: 1. to generate new idea (black money) 2. to explore unknown things (demanding for bill; VAT) 27

28. 4.Descriptive research Descriptive study is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It aims at answering the question of all “WH”. Ex.1. What are the level of job satisfaction 2. Why are they not satisfied……. 28

29. 5. Diagnostic study It is directed towards discovering what is happening. Why it is happening ans what can be done about it. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and possible solution about it. Ex: Fire accident in a factory. continuous losses to the company. 29

30. 6. Evaluation study Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented by the govt. Ex: 1. To study the impact of Free power Aarogyasri Scheme. 30

31. 6. Evaluation study Types A)Concurrent Evaluation ( Continuous evaluation)-science B) Periodic Evaluation ( One, Five Years) C) Terminal Evaluation (after completion of the Project) 31

32. 7. Experimental research It is designated to assess the effects of particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other variable constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each others. Ex: Profits/ expenditure 32

33. 8. Analytical study/statistical method Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of systematic mathematics or statistical models. It aims at TESTING OF HYPOTHESES and specifying and interpreting of the results. It concentrates on data in-depth analysis and examine the relationship between relevant variables. 33

34. 9. Historical research It is a study of past records. It helps us to know the ROOTS, HISTORICAL FACTS and TRENDS. 10. SURVEY METHOD Survey is FACT-FINDING study. Data is to be calculated from the population directly. 34

35. 11. Case study A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social-group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme and any other social events. 35

36. 12. Comparative study Comparison between variables/ attributes etc,. Ex: Profits/ Losses Rural/Urban Rich/Poor 36

37. Sample Survey Vs. Census Survey Method When data is to be collected from each member of the population, it is known as Census Survey When data is to be collected only from some members of the population, it is known as Sample Survey 37

38. Simple Random Sampling Accidental Sampling Systematic Sampling Convenience Sampling Stratified Sampling Judgment Sampling Cluster Sampling Purposive Sampling Area Sampling Quota Sampling Multistage and Multiphase Snow-Ball Sampling Sampling PROBABILITY METHOD NON PROBABILITY METHOD METHODS OF SAMPLING 38

39. Nominal Scales Ordinal Scales Interval Scales Ratio Scales Four Basic Scales of Measurement 39

40. Questionnaire Method This is the most popular and widely used method of data collection in survey research world wide. Used by individual social researchers, research organisations, firms, market research agencies, government organisations, non-governmental organisations etc. 40

41. What is Questionnaire? A questionnaire method is that method in which a number of printed questions is used for collecting data. This list of questions is sent by mail or personally administered to the respondents. A method used for collecting data; a set of written questions which calls for responses on the part of the client; may be self-administered or group-administered (Grinnell) 41

42. Purpose To collect information from the respondents who are scattered in vast area. To achieve success in collecting reliable and dependable data. To gather information about the people’s attitudes, thoughts, behaviors, and so forth. The researchers compile the answers of the people in the sample in order to know how the group as a whole thinks or behaves.  42

43. Types of Questionnaires Structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and preordained questions. This type of questionnaire is prepared in advance and not on the spot during the questioning period. The structured questionnaires are used in a wide range of projects. 43

44. Non-Structured Questionnaire is used as a guide at the time of interview. In this method, the interviewer is free to arrange the form and timing of enquiry. Flexibility is the main advantage of this method. This method is applied to studies of of personal experiences, beliefs, attitudes and the like. 44

45. Questionnaire is also divided into different types on the basis of nature of the questions Open Questionnaire is used in cases where new facts are to be searched out. This method is mainly used for intensive studies of a limited number of cases. In this type, a respondent is free to express his views and ideas. 45

46. Closed Questionnaire is used when categorised data are required. Here, the informant chooses the answer from a set of provided responses. He/She has no liberty to express his/her own judgement. 3. Mixed Questionnaire consists of both close and open type questionnaires. For social research, this method is very useful. 46

47. 4. In the Pictorial Questionnaire , pictures are used to promote interest in answering questions. It is used extensively in studies of social attitudes and prejudices in children. 47

48. Deciding on Content Decide what information is required. Draft some questions to gather that information. Put them into meaningful order and format (e.g. open ended, closed ended) Pretest the result on a sample of potential respondents. Make necessary changes to the final form of the questionnaire. 48

49. Wording matters The most important thing to consider in evaluating the findings of a survey is the wording of the questions asked. The answers a survey respondent gives are obviously affected by the questions he or she is asked. 49

50. Form of a Questionnaire Proper size and form of a questionnaire plays a vital role in social research. Hence, before preparing a questionnaire, certain points are to be considered. 50

51. Size of Questionnaire : The size of the questionnaire must be small and manageable. Appearance: Good quality paper, attractive printing and layout have great importance in the questionnaire method. Clarity: To obtain correct answers, the questions should be clear and precise. There should not be any ambiguity about the idea of the questions. Sequence: The questions should be in proper sequence, lucid and interesting to the respondent. Margin: A proper margin on one side gives a neat look to the questionnaire and it makes filling easy. Spacing: The lines should not be very closely printed. Sufficient space should be left out to demarcate one question from the other. Length of Questions: The questions must not be too lengthy. Technical Terms: Technical terms as well as abbreviations should not be used in a questionnaire. 51

52. Characteristics of the Good Questionnaire The preparation of a good questionnaire is a highly skilled art. The requisites of a good questionnaire are as follows. Analytical questions. Should be compatible to data processing software. 52

53. A lucid heading to the questionnaire, along with the indication on the objectives/purpose and nature of the enquiry. Clear and short questions. Necessary instructions regarding filling-up the form must be given. 53

54. Limited number of questions. Questions should be capable of being answered without prejudice. The questions must be well arranged. Answers to the question should be objective and capable of tabulation. Good presentation of schedule of questions 54

55. Types of Questions 1. Yes / No / Don’t know questions. 2. Multiple choice questions. 3. Rankings /Preferences 4. Periodicity / frequency 5. Open ended questions. 55

56. Thank You 56