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1. WRITING MATERIALS Group 3

2. 7.1 Fundamentals of Writing Materials 7.2 Historical Development 7.3 Watermarks Examination

3. 7.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING MATERIALS Definition of Terms A. ANACHRONISM — It refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.

4. B. PAPER — These are sheets of interlaced fibers - usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.

5. C. WATERMARK — Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks impressed in them during the course of their manufacture.

6. D. WRITING MATERIALS — Any material used primarily for writing or recording such as papers, cardboard, board papers, Morocco paper, etc.

7. WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS — The common (probable) questioned on paper is its age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds w/ the alleged date of preparation of the questioned document.

8. 7.2 Historical Development A. PAPYRUS — This came into use about 3500 B.C. - people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.

9. B . PARCHMENT — Writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats - was probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2 nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.

10. C. VELLUM — Writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was often used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts. Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a writing material during the early period.

11. D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the first to succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7 th century A.D . In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the papermaking center of the Arab world .

12. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first European paper mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16 th century , paper was manufactured throughout most of Europe. The first paper mill in England was established in 1495 . The first such mill in America in 1690 .

13. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis Robert. The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in paper manufacture. Robert's machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier , who in 1803 produced the first of the machines that bear their name . The solution of the problem of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by the introduction of the ground wood process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the chemical pulp processes approximately ten years later .

14. CHLORINE – This was introduced in the 19 th century for bleaching and colored linen could already be manufactured for paper. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first introduced in England in 1861 . STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called SULPHITE (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT – Letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton paper dated A.D. 1890 .

15. TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT) — The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases were reported by Lucas where the age of the document was established from the compositor/composition of the paper. In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H . (A.D. 1798) was found to be written on paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this type of paper was not introduced not until about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake one.

16. 7.3 WATERMARKS EXAMINATION — It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its manufacture and appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in transmitted light. The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the WATERMARK - a brand put on the paper by the manufacturers . How Watermark is Made ? The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of cotton or other fibers) was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain (woof) wires. Fine wires forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and impressed into the pulp. This impression made the paper thinner, and therefore, more transparent, where it appeared .

17. Origin Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than 100 years after the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle East. Early in the 19 th century , papermakers began to solder the watermark wires to the grid frame, thus insuring uniformity of impression and aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. The first British postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the United States were not so marked until 1895. When paper began to be machine-made, the watermark wiring was simply transferred to the grid cover of the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.

18. Concept of Document's Age Detection thru Watermarks a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks. b. It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called "DANDY ROLL" that make the paper, and these designs are changed from time to time. c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.

19. d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper. However, the questioned documents examiner's finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture. e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of the watermark in question or its manufacturer. f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the manufacturer is determined, then consideration is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.

20. g. In recent years, Some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark design in order to date their products. h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark that was not in existence at the time the document purports to have been executed.

21. In case the Watermark did not change, the following is Applied: a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper. b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also known as caused by WEAR AND TEAR which becomes progressively more and more as time goes by.

22. c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermarks of the paper manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll. d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll’s damage surface, will coordinate w/ the paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on the dandy roll used.

23. DISCOLORATION - One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. in case of papers out of wood pulp, they start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While RUG-SHIP QUALITY papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.

24. CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION Due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means. Brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics both in appearance and distribution. Exposure to dust and dirt. Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease. Excrete of rats, mice and other insects. May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.

25. DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL 1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and compare. Consider the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard documents such as size, thickness, surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general texture of the paper. 2. Check w/ the issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing material used in the questioned document. 3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding test, bursting test, etc.

26. WRITING INSTRUMENTS

27. 8.1 Fundamentals of Writing Instruments 8.2 Historical Background 8.3 Composition and Characteristics of Inks 8.4 The Examination and Identification of Inks

28. 8.1 Fundamentals of Writing Instruments Definition of Terms A. Flexibility of Pen Point – One quality of the nib pen is its pliability. This quality varies w/ different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or a given degree of shading.

29. B. Fountain Pen – A modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages w/o refilling.

30. C. Ink – A fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.

31. D. Pen – Tool for writing or drawing w/ a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument use to apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came from Latin word “PENNA”, meaning feather.

32. E. Pen Nibs – The tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.

33. F. Quill Pens – A hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for writing on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia, and Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.

34. G. Writing Instruments (writing implements) – Writing implements, manual devices used to make alphanumeric marks on or in a surface.

35. 8.2 Historical Background A. Reed Pens/Swamp Reed 1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months. 2. It was the first writing tool that had the writing end slightly frayed like a bush. About 2000 years B.C., this reed pen was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.

36. Reed Pens/Swamp Reed

37. B. Quill Pens 1. Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of goose, swan, crow and (later) turkey, was preferred. The earliest reference (6 th century AD) to quill pens was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.

38. 2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by heating or letting it dry out gradually. The hardened quill is then cut to a broad edge w/ a special pen knife. 3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18 th century, the width of the edge had diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible point that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather than by the angle at which the broad edge was held.

39. Quill Pen

40. C. Steel Point Pens (brazen pens) 1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of “BRAZEN PENS” was in 1465. the 16 th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens did not become widespread until the early part of the 19 th century. 2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN in 1803. 3. The leading 19 th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.

41. Steel Point Pen

42. D. Fountain Pens 1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing. 2. By the 1920’s, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and remained so until the introduction of the ball point pen after WWII.

43. Fountain Pen

44. E. Ball Point Pen 1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its point a small rotating metal ball continually inks itself as it turns. 2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen.

45. 3. As early as 19 th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen w/ a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor brothers LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil-based ink that could be used w/ such a pen. Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen. 4. Early ballpoint pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil-based ink smudged easily. However, the ball-point pen had a several advantages over the fountain pen:

46. a. the ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable; b. t he ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces; c. could be hold in almost any position for writing; and d. the pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies. 5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point replaced the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.

47. Ball Point Pen

48. F. Fiber Tip Pens 1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since challenged the ball point as the principal writing implement. 2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done w/ a pointed ink brush.

49. 3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary mechanism.

50. Fiber Tip Pen

51. G. Felt-Tip Markers — Are made of dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated w/ a dye. These markers can be cut to a variety of s hapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

52. Felt-Tip Markers

53. 8.3 Composition and Characteristics of Inks 1. Indian Inks – The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes.

54. 2. Log Wood Inks – These inks which were used extensively about a century ago, we do not have now because it is obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate. These inks can be found only on old.

55. 3. Iron Gallotannate Inks – Has been used for writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was composed of suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate .

56. 4. Fountain Pen Inks – A re regarded as special fountain pen inks, and consisting of ordinary iron gallotannate inks w/ a lower iron content in most cases but w/ a higher dyestuff content than normal inks.

57. 5. Dyestuff Inks – Are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a preservative and a flux are added .

58. 6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks – These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate.

59. 7. Alkaline Writing Inks – These are quick drying inks which possess a pH of from 9 to about 11. T hey penetrate quickly through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes, sometimes combined w/ phthalo cyanide dyes. 8. Ballpoint Pen Inks – The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before 1945. The development of the present pen was accomplished during WWII because the Army and the Air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at high altitude and which supplied quick drying water resistant writing.

60. 9. Stamp Pad Inks – Made w/ the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl alcohol water. Aniline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol, etc. As a vehicle, dextrine , gum arabic , or tannin is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the stamp impression becomes water resistant after drying.

61. 10. Hectograph Inks – These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made w/ basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.

62. 11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks – Usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to blend and would cause the sharp division between the differently colored halves of the ribbon to merge.

63. 12. Printing Inks – Often consist of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black and a “base” which may consist of oil, resins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document w/ an aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface of the ink and the detergent facilitates the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients by the water.

64. 13. Canceling Inks – Often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it is required to decipher faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve the legibility of any marking affected by a carbon containing cancellation ink. Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that many canceling inks are manufactured w/ media which offer resistance to attack so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by infrared photography which will reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain on the stamp.

65. 14. Skrip Ink – These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The ink contain a substance that is colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.

66. 8.4 The Examination and Identification of Ink 1. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination centers on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is identical w/ the ink found in the possession of the suspect . 2. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative examination of certain properties of these inks. However the examination carries w/ it certain difficulties as the quantity of material available for examination is small and the examination can be done only one.

67. 3. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a partial destruction of writing, an exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out. 4 . These non-destruction methods include visual examination w/ the aid of a binocular microscope as well as photographic examination. They should be used first before any chemical examination is resorted to. 5 . It is necessary therefore to be acquainted w/ the composition and developmental history, method of manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by identifying a component of the ink, which was not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the document .

68. THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND SEPARATION OF THE DYESTUFFS IN THE INK 1 . This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also possible to identify one or more of the components of the dyes. 2 . Regarded as the principal method of ink examination. 3 . To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of the various dyes used in the manufacture of inks. 4. The chromatographic separation of the dyes maybe carried out by paper chromatography.

69. 5. Procedure: a . Collection of the ink material ( 1) Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke. Dyestuff inks as a rule can be extracted w/ water. Ball point ink can be extracted w/ organic solvent such as ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine is the best solvent for ball point inks. ( 2) It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the chromatographic paper into which the ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly pressed.

70. b . The vessel which is a beaker or a flask is filled w/ the solvent; then the filtered paper strip containing the ink material is lowered into the vessel w/ the ends just touching the surface of the solvent and let it hang on the side of the vessel for 15-20 minutes. c . The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.

71. B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK 1 . In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of different writings, the document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which changes in the course of time. This selection of properties will be determined by the composition of ink and the circumstances under which the writing ages.

72. 2. Procedure: a . Ball Point Pen Inks ( 1) If a document has been written w/ a ballpoint pen, the writing in question is bound to date in all probability from a point of time later than 1945 . ( 2) The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of the ink. ( 3) The first ballpoint inks were practically w/o exception based on oleic acid. These inks will flow out when a drop of benzene or petroleum ether is applied to them . ( 4) Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols, which are resistant to treatment w/ benzene or petroleum ether.

73. ( 5) However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in question is old for oleic acid is sometimes also used in modern ballpoint inks. ( 6) In the later case, however, the ink will as a rule not flow out w/ the petroleum ether because these inks, no water soluble coloring matter is worked out. Instead pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve in petroleum ether. ( 7) The presence of phthalocvanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink produced later than 1954-1956. ( 8) Thus it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ballpoint inks. Neither it is possible to determine the relative ages of two ballpoint ink writings, not even if they are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly because the base absorbed by the paper. ( 9) Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use the copying power tor age determination .

74. b . Dyestuff Inks (1) The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but the presence of an obsolete or modern dyestuff may indicate age of writing . ( 2) If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the document to be dated prior to 1953.

75. c. Iron Gallotannate Inks – These inks show a remarkable change of color in maturing. This based on the chemical change of ferrous to ferric in the course of time. The following are the methods used to show the gradual change of inks : ( 1) Method based on the change of the Color of the Ink – This method is useful in those cases where the ink writing received for examination is too recent that the process of maturing can be observed visually. The kind of ink must be known and one or more writings of known age must be available for comparison .

76. ( 2) Methods based on the Solubility of the Ink – The solubility of iron gallotannate ink decreases considerably as the ink matures. As w/ the color change, it can only be applied successfully to a very recent writing. This method can establish a difference in the age of writings on one and the same document. The solubility is determined by a visual estimate of the quantity of ink which can be withdrawn w/ a drop of water from a stroke. It is necessary however that the drop of water be applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.

77. ( 3) Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – In iron gallotannate ink, the iron is mainly present in the complex bound ferrous form. As the manufacturing process goes on, the ric gallotannate is formed. A drop of aa1-dipyridyl reagent [1 % of aa1-dipyridyl in 0.5N HCL (normal hydrochloric acid )] is applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left in contact w/ the ink for 1 minute and then recovered w/ a piece of filter paper. If ferrous iron is still present in the ink, the paper will show a red zone of ferrous aa1-dipyridyl around the stain of blue dyestuff. By repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the ferrous iron in the ink by the changes in the coloration of this red zone. However, this method is applicable when the questioned writing is not more than a few days old.

78. ( 4) Estimation of age based on the detection of the dyes – Iron gallotannate inks contain an organic dye, (soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least becomes insoluble complete or partially as the ink ages. It is claimed that the organic dye becomes completely insoluble in four to five years. However, the application of this method appears to yield results in practice .

79. That’s the End of Presentation TILL NEXT TIME….