"Global Warming: A Critical Threat to Earth's Future, Driven by Human Activities and Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions"

GLOBAL WARMING

•“Global warming” came to international
public attention in the late 1980s.
•Al Gore
documentary
An Inconvenient Truth 2006

INTRODUCTION
There is a clear evidence for a 0.6 C rise in
global temperature and 20 cm rise in sea during
20th century.
 Temp. could rise by 2- 6 C
 and sea level could rise by between 20 cm
and 88 cm by the year 2100.
 In addition, weather patterns are becoming less
predictable
•Increased occurrences of extreme climate
events, such as storms, floods, and droughts….

1. Carbon dioxide
2.Methane
3.Nitrous oxide.
4.Chlorofluorocarbons are also very
potent greenhouse gases

…by releasing heat-trapping
gases—commonly referred to as
greenhouse gases—

.
Climate change refers to changes in
weather patterns and growing seasons
around the world.
It also refers to sea level rise caused by the
expansion of warmer seas and melting ice
sheets and glaciers.
Global warming causes climate change,
which poses a serious threat to life on earth
in the forms of widespread flooding and
extreme weather

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
Chloro-Flouro-Carbons (CFCs)

What are HFCs and how are they different from
CFCs? 
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are greenhouse gases
containing carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine. They are
entirely human-made and do not occur in the natural
environment.
 
HFCs are used as refrigerant to
promote cooling in appliances such as refrigerators
and air conditioners. Decades ago, appliances used
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as refrigerants, which
wreaked havoc on the ozone layer and were phased
out after the 1987 Montreal Protocol. They were
replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do
not deplete the ozone, but they do have
 up to 9,000
times
 greater warming capacity than carbon dioxide. 
 
 

Which is more harmful HFC or CFC?
Under the auspices of the Montreal Protocol treaty
signed in 1987,

CFCs
were officially phased out of
production worldwide in 2010. While HCFCs contain
chlorine atoms, they are less

damaging
to the ozone
layer because they also contain hydrogen atoms,
which causes them to break down in the atmosphere
faster
What replaces HFC?
Ammonia
disadvantage to using HCFCs or HFCs as a CFC
substitute?
However, there is a downside to

the use
of
HFCs
--
they are also very potent greenhouse gases.

.
CO
2
1.Industrialization
2.Burning of fossil fuel – Oil, gas &
coal. (Main drivers)
3. Deforestation
4. Over-population

•CO2

emissions primarily come from burning

fossil fuels
.

Additional CO2 emissions come from
deforestation

and
industrial processes, which include
the
CO2 released by the chemical reactions for
making cement,

steel,

aluminum, and

fertilizer
•Methane emissions

come from livestock, manure,

rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater,

coal mining, as
well as

oil and gas extraction
•Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial
decomposition of inorganic and organic

fertilizer

IMPLICATIONS – (Graph 7)
(Image 8)

1. OZONE DEPLETION
Slow, steady decline of about 4 percent per
decade in the total volume of ozone in
Earth's stratosphere since the late 1970s
Reductions of up to 70% in the ozone
column observed in the southern
hemispheric ( Antarctica) and first reported in
1985
CFCs and other contributory substances-
ozone-depleting substances (ODS)

.
Copper released into the environment from fungicides,
brake pads, antifouling paints on boats and other
sources may be contributing significantly to stratospheric
ozone depletion, according to a new study(2022)
copper in soil and seawater acts as a catalyst to turn
organic matter into both methyl bromide and methyl
chloride, two potent halocarbon compounds that destroy
ozone
Iodine in Desert Dust Destroys Ozone.(2021)
The Antarctic ozone hole is finally showing signs of
disappearing, nearly 30 years after the Montreal
Protocol came into effect

Melting of glaciers
Antarctica
Arctic a
Alps
Tibet/ Himalaya
Hindu Kush
Kilimanjaro
Andes
Patagonia
Basically,

glaciers
originate
on land, and

ice
floes form in
open water and are a form of
sea

ice. ...

Glaciers
that
extend in
continuous

sheets
and cover
a large landmass, such as
Antarctica or Greenland, are
called

ice sheets. If they are
similar but smaller, they are
termed

ice
caps.

.
The 3
rd
pole, encomassing the tibet
plateau, the himalayas, the
karakorum, the hindukush, and the
pamirs, is vital for almost 2bn
people’s water supply

Melting of glaciers in the
Antarctic and Arctic Regions
(Image 11)

a. ANTARCTICA
Antarctica harbors 90% of the world’
glaciers. Average temp. of the region is
-70c.
Thwaites is 80 miles long & the biggest
glacier in Antartica. Glacier is roughly the
size of Florida, and holds enough ice to
raise sea levels over two feet. …. its rapid
deterioration….

b. ARCTIC REGION
The area includes North pole region i.e. Alaska, Siberia,
Greenland, Iceland and Scandinavian countries.
Average winter temp. is -60
o
C.
Ice retreating @ 10% per decade.
Right now Greenland ice sheet is disappearing 4 times faster than in 2003 n already
contributes 20% of current sea level rise.
The North Pole has warmed much faster than the
South Pole
(Image 15)

.
Effects of glacier melting
Rise in sea level
Coastal erosion
Loss of beaches
As sea ice and glaciers melt and oceans warm,
ocean currents will continue to disrupt weather
patterns worldwide. Category 4 to 5…
Higher storms/ increased intensity of hurricanes,
typhoons & cyclones….will effect coastal
communities, infrastructure, industries & the
environment.

.
Effects of Melting Ice Glaciers
Tonnes of bacteria
Extreme flooding, inundation ...
Biodiversity loss
Coral Reefs
Reduction of agricultural production.
Scarcity of fresh water
Increased global warming

.
Change in weather pattern- heat wave,drought,
rain, storms
Extreme heat waves… deaths
Wildfires
Heavy rains
Floods (Bangladesh, India & Indonesia..);
Drought & water shortage (Africa); Intense
droughts can lead to an increase in malnutrition. fresh water
will become scarcer, especially during the summer, as
mountain glaciers disappear,

.
Internally displaced persons
Deaths

.
•High temp/ water scarcity
• Extinction of Animals
1. Nature- As many as 30 percent of
plant and animal species alive today risk
extinction by 2050
(Image 9)

.
Crops/ agriculture
Droughts in Africa …live stock
(Image 10)
1.Stress on water resources
2.Dehydration
3.Decreased photosynthesis
4.Co2 acts as fertilizer
5.Increased pest and diseases

•Low land areas will be inundated. Bangladesh,
Maldives, Egypt (Nile delta population), Mauritius, Siberia &
Alaska.
•Marshal Island’s concerns.
•Millions ll migrate
•Tourism
•Economies

.
Cities that could be underwater by
2030;
Kolkata
Venice
Bangkok
New Orleans
Basra
Ho chi minh

.
Health problems. Skin cancer,
allergy, asthms
Spread of pathogens leading to
infectious diseases

Zika, Dengue
Wild fire air
pollution

.
• Coral reef/ grass meadows, marine life etc. (Reefs-
massive barrier against storms. Can absorb 97% of a
wind energy before it hits the shore)
•(When
carbon dioxide dissolves in this ocean, carbonic
acid is formed. This
leads to higher acidity,)
•Great barrier Reef; Australia foils Unesco attempt to
downgrade it. Reef 2050 plan by Australia (2021)

.
•2017
•Harvey hurricane (Grade-5)
•Irma/ Harvey/ Maria
•Fire in California forests
•Monsoons in South Asia
•Heaviest snow fall in Moscow
•EXTREME BRITAIN (June): UK faces 3-
MONTH heat wave

Drought in Africa
Somalia
Failed rains across eastern Africa, southern
Africa…

2023- draught
Zimbabwe, years of successive drought has also
left it vulnerable to food insecurity. At the
beginning of 2021, the WFP predicted that at least
7.7 million people out of the country's 15 million
strong population would require food aid in the
first half of the year.
Neighboring Angola is also struggling with its
worst drought in at least four decades. While
Zimbabwe's agriculture woes are at least partly
linked to its chaoticland reform program

beginning in the 1980s, Angola's experience
proves that drought-related issues go deeper than
land ownership.
In Angola, too, the WFP is warning of an
impending hunger crisis, including chronic food
insecurity and malnutrition in the worst-affected
areas. As water supplies continue to dwindle, up
to 40% of crops have been lost and livestock are at
risk.

.
Gigantic wildfires

California
Canada
Australia
Greece

.
2023
Mercury touches 45.5C in Spain; 16
Italian cities on red alert
Morocco - 50 degrees

.
Record shattering heat waves
July’23
Record-breaking heat bakes US, Eur
ope, China, world

.
Sept ‘23 hottest on record by
‘extraordinary’ margin

Wild fire

.
2023- Rampant Heatwaves Are A Gro
wing Threat To Caribbean Food Secu
rity (Forbes)

Dubai storm- Apr 2024

.
Apr’24- “Once a century” floods hit
Southern China
Apr’24- Searing heat forced 33
millions children out of schools-
Schools/colleges’s closures in
B/Desh, Philippines & India

.
South Asia & ME will be unlivable

.
Rivers In The Sky": What You Need To
Know About California's Current Weather
Atmospheric rivers, often referred to as "rivers in
the sky,“ (nicknamed the Pineapple Express) are
long streams of moisture in the atmosphere….
also lead to destructive floods and intense storms

.
Earth to warm up to 2.9C even with
current climate pledges: UN
By
AFP
November 21, 2023

.
The first Global Stocktake
of the implementation of
the Paris Agreement will conclude at COP 28.
Each stocktake is a two-year process that
happens every five years, with the aim of
assessing the world’s collective progress towards
achieving its climate goals. The first Global
Stocktake takes place at the mid-point in the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development and its SDGs, including
Goal 13 (climate action)

.
In a

letter to parties
dated July 2023, the Incoming
Presidency announced that COP 28 will focus on
four paradigm shifts:
Fast-tracking the energy transition and slashing
emissions before 2030;
Transforming climate finance, by delivering on old
promises and
setting the framework for a new deal
on finance;
Putting nature, people, lives, and livelihoods at the
heart of climate action; and
Mobilizing for the most inclusive COP ever.

Implementing fiscal policy- Nov
16’23
THE federal government has rectified what successive governments in
Pakistan had overlooked for many years: announcing a National Climate
Finance Strategy to help mainstream climate change in national
policymaking processes.
The NCFS has raised the bar of Pakistan’s ambition and committed to reorient
the portfolios of key national institutions for climate finance, enable innovative
instruments, secure carbon credits and accreditation with global climate funds.
Building resilience to climate disasters for reducing economic costs for the
economy is one of four objectives of the ongoing $3 billion Stand-by
Arrangement with the IMF. The NCFS is expected to create some badly
needed fiscal space while bu
ilding resilience.
The World Bank and IMF had earlier indicated that development and climate
financing may not flow to Pakistan in future un
less national investments were
aligned with Climate-Public Investment Management Assess
ment. The C-PIMA
is derived from the IMF’s time-tested PMIA used as a yardstick or conditionality
for disbursements. This will hopefully help the government identify potential
improvements in public investment institutions and processes to build a low-
carbon and climate-resilient economy.

.
Pakistan has just committed to IMF that C-PMIA will be presented to the cabinet for approval and that Pakistan’s
future investments will be climate resilient.
The process will begin with three key institutions:
Special Investment Facilitation Council (SIFC),
Public Sector Development Plans (PSDP), and
Public Private Partnership Authority (3PA), all housed and managed by the Planning Commission. CPEC was not
mentioned in the blueprint.
The C-PMIA will be accomplished through a newly minted Sustainable Finance Bureau, again at the Planning
Commission, to ‘revolutionise’ climate finance. It is expected that the SFB will reorient 20 per cent of the new
PSDP schemes during FY 2023-24, amounting to Rs925bn.
These proj
ects will qualify Pakistan, it is hoped, for concessional finances and help it
meet targets set in the
National Adaptation Plan (NAP) and the Nation
ally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Both NAP and NDCs reflect Pakistan’s sovereign commitm
ents, as part of the Paris Agreement
, submitted to the
secretariat of the climate change convention.
Has Pakistan revised its construction standards to reduce climate risks and costs?
The government plans to invest in resilience though 4RF (Resilient Recovery, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction
Framework that was developed after the 2022 floods), recently updated 4th NFPP (National Flood Protection
Plan), and by developing sectoral priorities.
The blueprint of NCFS has not furnished details, but the sectoral priorities will be derived from the National Clim
a
te Change Policy and NAP. These will presumably be developed by the sectoral ministries and departments.
In order to meet the IMF conditionalities, the policymakers have packaged many ongoing endeavours and
cobbled them together to meet the IMF demands. If successful, it will reflect the ‘whole-of-government’ approach
that is mentioned in several national and provincial policies but seldom translated into action. The progress on
NCFS will be reviewed early next year under five heads already given in the C-PIMA: climate-smart planning,
inter-ministerial coordination, appraisal and selection of projects, budgeting and portfolio management, and risk
management.

Nov 15’23
Pakistan among seven states to get cl
imate disaster funding
ISLAMABAD: Pakistan and six other nations facing
climate risks — called ‘path
finder countries’
— will be
the first recipients of ‘Global Shield’ funding, it was
announced at the COP27 summit in Egypt on Monday.
Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Fiji, Ghana, the Philippines and
Senegal were identified as the other recipients of the
package by the Vulnerable 20 Group of Finance Minis
ters
(V20) of 58 climate-vulnerable economies and the Group of
Seven (G7).
The ‘Global Shield’ initiative for pre-arranged financial
support has been desi
gned to be quickly deployed in times
of climate disasters.

Climate finance gap 23 nov’23
THE upcoming UN Climate Change Conference in Dubai
will be tackling tough questions on
how to curb rising temperatures,
control carbon emission spikes,
develop efficient technological solutions,
learn from the first Global Stock-take, and
agree on a new roadmap to realise the Paris Agreement
aims.
Climate finance will be one of the toughest questions.

.
Globally, efforts to address climate change face a lack of
financial resources to support developing nations reach the
Climate Convention goals.
The efforts are constrained by the absence of sufficient
means of implementation, ie, financial resources.
Already under debt distress, many developing countries are
forced to spend most of their lean budgets on debt servicing,
leaving little for sectors such as health and education, and
diverting investment from climate action and environmental
protection. Constricted fiscal space in these countries
relegates the issue of global warming to the back-burner.
So, they face serious challenges in combating climate
change and expect injections of climate finance from
multilateral funding avenues and bilateral donors.

.
While there’s no clear definition of what constitutes climate
finance, it is accepted as a concept accommodating different
types of financial contributions from a variety of sources and
mechanisms.
The Green Climate
Green climate adaptation Fund 2001,
the Global Environmental Facility 1991,
Green climate fund 2014,
the Adaptation Fund, and other regional and
international financial institutions are set to mobilise and disburse
funds. Bilateral arrangements from donors, public and private,
supplement these funds. The Loss and Damage Fund, once
operationalised, will be the latest addition.
Developing countries lack the funds to address climate change.

.
The focus will be almost entirely on
increasing revenue n reducing
subsidies on oil n gas.
Loss n damage fund will have
resourcesany where close to meeting
the climate investment needed in pak
estimated by world bank to be $20 bn
annually. It is an intimidating figure

.
The key to increasing fiscal space of
provincial finance commission awards
for increased spending on district
levels

.
Some of these funding mechanisms are
not well-endowed, while others are not
replenished in a timely manner to meet the
rising needs of climate finance in
vulnerable countries. At a time when
climate change threatens lives, the
inadequacy and inaccessibility of climate
finance hinders the Global South from
taking urgent action while climate costs rise
sharply.

.
A recent study published in the journal Nature Communications, found that the
climate crisis resulted in average global costs of $143 billion per year for the
last 20 years.
For the year 2022, which saw multiple climate-induced disasters across the
world, the direct cost estimate was $280bn due to storms, heatwaves, floods,
droughts, and wildfires. Pakistan alone suffered a loss of $40bn in the same
year due to heavy floods. The indirect costs of the long-term impact
associated with extreme weather events — not considered in the study —
would significantly push up these figures.
Vulnerable countries in Africa and Asia, in dire need of climate finance, are left
exposed to the disproportionate adve
rse impacts of global warming, with 2023
being the hottest year recorded. Last year, the United Nations Enviro
nment
Pro
gramme’s
estimates for adaptation costs were in the range of $160bn to
$340bn per year by 2030 and $315bn to $565bn by 2050 for developing
countries. But the financial needs of developing countries for adaptation have
now soared to $215bn to $387bn by 2030, and projected to rise significantly
by 2050, going by UNEP’s 2023 Adaptation Gap Report, released earlier this
month.

,
Meanwhile, the financial gap — the difference between allocations by
developed countries versus the actual requirement for adaptation — has
widened. UNEP’s adaptation report put the gap between $194bn and $366bn
per year. Clearly, the $100bn pledged by developed countries, and the doubling
of “collective provision of clim
ate finance for adaptation” agreed to at the
Glasgow Climate Pact in 2021, will be insufficient. To boost climate finan
ce,
UNEP’s report identifies several innovative ways, including through “increasing
and tailoring finance to small and medium enterprises”, and “a reform of the
global financial architecture, as proposed by the Bridgetown Initiative”.
The Global Stock-take report emphasises the scaled-up mobilisation of climate
finance for developing countries, while aligning the current financial flows with a
pathway towards low-carbon emissions. The Paris Agreement also calls for a
New Collective Quantified Goal for 2030 for climate finance. Controlling global
warming will be well-nigh impossible without a robust framework that unlocks
adequate, timely and accessible climate finance for effective climate action and
protection of vulnerable communities by developing nations. Policymakers at
COP28 must tackle the central question of climate finance to save the Paris
Agreement from falling further behind, and to save lives.

.
Nov’23
Canada-EU green alliance

.
Climate adaptation nov’23
This is practically impossible having
adequate resources n the technical
expertise required to make
infrastructure n livelihood resilient to
climate change

.
Share of resources allocated for climate
adaptation planning n implementation
are missing at local levels where the
vulnerable communities are located.
The stress will threaten fiscal stability
resulting in the undermining the
developing progress and worsening the
prevailing economic downturn.

]
Mitigation – limiting climate change –
•Consists of reducing greenhouse gas emissions
• Deployment of

low-carbon energy sources
• A

phase-out of coal,
• Reforestation, and

forest preservation.
Adaptation
consists of adjusting to actual or expected climate,

such as
through
• Improved

coastline protection,
• Better

disaster management,

• Development of more resistant crops.
• Adaptation alone cannot avert the risk of "severe,
widespread and irreversible" impacts

Important Protocols
1985 Vienna Convention
1987 Montreal Convention
(CFC)
Kyoto Protocol 2001-2012
Montreal Protocol (2004)
United Nation Commission on Environment Protection
Yearly Conference
U
N
F
C
C
C
The
United Nations
Framework Co
nvention on Cli
mate Change

Rio de Janeiro conference- 1992
1
st
Earth summit
The
United Nations Conference on
Sustainable
Development
(UNCSD
),
The

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(
UNFCCC) is
an
international environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro

in 1992, then entered into force in 1994.
UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015
The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in
Conferences of the
Parties
(COP) to assess progress.

1. Awareness
2. Nations to reduce their emission of

carbon dioxide,

methane,
and other

“greenhouse” gases
3.The

Declaration on Environment and Development, or Rio
Declaration, laid down 27 broad, nonbinding principles for
environmentally sound development.

4.

Agenda 21
outlined global strategies for cleaning
up the environment.
- agenda for the next 20 years.
Endorsed UN’s "green economy roadmap, to better
protect environment“
5.
preserving the world’s rapidly vanishing
tropical rainforests,

6. The

Convention on Biological Diversity
is a binding treaty
requiring
nations to take inventories of their

plants

and wild animals
and protect their

endangered species

.
7. Created

United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC
)

8. Conservation- atmospheric protection,
combating deforestation, protecting fragile
environments, control of pollution

.
Combating poverty

Kyoto protocol (UNFCCC)
1
st
imp. Agreement (Voluntry)
Adopted -1997

Kyoto,

Japan
and entered into force - 2005.
Extended up to 2020 ( Doha amendment)
192 states have signed and ratified
the protocol.
37 industrialized countries commit reduction of four
greenhouse gases (GHG)
(carbon dioxide,
methane,

nitrous oxide,
sulphur hexafluoride) and
two groups of gases
(hydrofluorocarbons
and
perfluorocarbons)
agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions
by 5.2% from the 1990 level
•USA hasn’t ratified yet
•Canada withdrew
•Doha amendment
requires acceptance by
144 countries
•Out of 37, only 7
nations have ratified
In Doha, again 37 nations have
binding targets. But 7 have
ratified
The new treaty—what
would become the Paris
Agreement—was to fully
replace the Kyoto Protocol
by 2020. However, the Paris
accord

ent into effect
earlier
than expected, in November
2016.
India, China not bound to sign it as they were
developing economies in 1990s

Copenhagen Accord- 2009
After 12 days of inconclusive negotiations, Obama joined heads of major developing
countries and in three hours in a closed room the leaders knocked out a draft
document that would become known as the Copenhagen accord.
It included commitments to
• keep global temperature rises below 2C and to
• raise $100bn (£60bn) per year by 2020 to help developing
countries cut emissions ( in building resilience to climate impacts,
•protecting nature,
• reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
•aligning their development pathways to net-zero carbon
futures).

(Insufficient funds)

But nothing on emissions reduction targets….. "a suicide pact, an
incineration pact in order to maintain the economic dominance of a few countries."
Meena Raman who represented Third World Network at the conference says: "It was absolutely
disastrous. It caused a decade of non-negotiations."

The 2009

Copenhagen Accord
has been widely portrayed
as disappointing because of its low goals, and was
rejected by poorer nations including the G77.

.
The Accord set the goal of sending $100 billion per year
to developing countries in assistance for mitigation and
adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the

Green Climate Fund.

.
•December, 2015-
•
•Paris Deal

.
•Dec 2015 Paris Deal
COP 21 (Conference of the parties)
(The agreement entered into force in
Nov 2016).
195 countries adopted the first-ever
universal,

1.Reduction in temp
2.100 bn -
The Paris Decision sets a floor of USD 100
billion per annum to be mobilized each year after 2025
3. Fin. support on voluntary basis
4. Commitment by developed nations
5. Reevaluation of targets every 5 yr;(Revising emissions
reduction targets every 5 years) (each party was asked to
update its NDC every five years).

6. Speeding up Renewables/ abandon fossil fuel
7. Achieving net zero
- between 2050 and 2100…The plan is to create a
"climate-neutral" world by the middle of the century. That means reducing
greenhouse gas emissions as much as possible
8. Addressing losses/ climate damages of vulnerable countries
9. Saving forests
10. Nations to set their own NDCs, rather than having targets imposed top
down.

Unlike its predecessor, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have
legal force, the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on

consensus building, allows for
voluntary and nationally determined targets.The specific climate goals are thus politically
encouraged, rather than legally bound. As of September 2021, 86 countries and the
EU27 submitted new or updated NDCs to the UNFCCC

.
Ambition
Commitment
Solidarity
Loss & damage

.
Inconsistent
Unrealistic target- World has already
warmed by 1.2 C so far…1.45 in 2023)
US withdrawal, 2017
Where’s money?
No binding on nations
No response from the major emitters so far
Rule book, stock?

.
Paris accord inconsistent with 2- C
temp target.
It has two structural defects;
1.It is uncoordinated
2.It is voluntary
•Global emissions need to decline by 3% annually
where as the actual emissions have grown by 2%
annually in last 2 decades…Even if the Paris
commitments are met the temp It would certainly
exceed temp target of 1.5- 2 % in this century.

…however, with pledges made
under the Agreement, global
warming would still reach about
2.8
°C (5.0 °F) by the end of the
century.

Limiting warming to 1.5
°C (2.7 °F)
would require halving emissions by
2030 and achieving near-zero
emissions by 2050

Oct 2016- Paris Agreement to enter into force as EU agrees ratification

Carbon markets
Another issue on the agenda in Bonn was Article 6 of the Paris
Agreement, which covers market mechanisms, and could
provide a route to the creation of global carbon markets.
However, despite devoting significant time to discussions,
progress was slow.
David Hone, chief climate adviser to Shell tells Carbon Brief:
“[Views] range from a reincarnation of the CDM [
UN Clean Development Mechanism, which supported carbon
offsets for use under the Kyoto Protocol] through to a large
scale mechanism to help countries develop carbon pricing. It
will likely have to incorporate a broad spectrum of approaches,
with perhaps more emphasis on projects in the near term and
operation on a much larger scale in the medium to longer term.
Jonathan Grant, a director at PWC tells Carbon Brief:
“Countries are still in brainstorming mode – the draft outputs
from the carbon markets discussions are simply long lists of
issues.”

.
Apr’21
Biden holds a big Climate summit to reestablish
U.S. leadership
40 countries invited.
Carbon cutting pledge for 2030- aggressive plan to cut
U.S. emissions — probably around 50 percent by the end
of the decade.
……on making the transition to the clean economy,
EU, China, India , Russia, Brazil….
Japan (46%) and Canada (40- 45%)
Putin and China did not offer new pledges

.
COP 26
Glasgow
100 countries agreed;
Stopping deforestation
30%cut in methane emissions by 2030…China, Russia India didn’t join
40 countries agreed to shift away from coal… Australia, India, China & US didn’t join
450 organizations controlling $130tn- around 40% of global private assets agreed
Area for Glasgow summit
National climate plan. Even none of
the G20 countries have presented
plans
Climate finance- 100 bn
Coal moratorium

.
Pledges at COP26

.
1. Ending deforestation
The Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use, signed by
more than 141 countries, aims to conserve and restore forests over the
next decade and facilitate policies to keep global temperature rise below
2C

.
2. Phasing out/down coal
More than 40 countries agreed to phase out their use of coal
power while 23 countries signed the COP26 Coal to Clean
Power Transition Agreement, committing for the first time to
stop constructing and issuing permits for new coal plants.
Major international banks also committed to ending international
public financing of new coal power by the end of 2021.
However, some of the largest coal producers and consumers
were absent from the agreement, including China, which was
responsible for 54 percent of global coal consumption last year.
Other notable absentees were India, the US, and Australia, who
along with China account for nearly three-quarters of coal
consumption.

.
3. Reducing methane
100 countries
The Global Methane Pledge, which covers
countries that are responsible for nearly half of all
emissions related to human activity, was proposed
by the US and the EU in September.
It aims to reduce global methane emissions by at
least 30 percent from 2020 levels by 2030. The
top three emitters of methane – China, Russia,
and India – did not sign.

.
4. New net-zero pledges- 130 countries
A main goal at COP26 was for nations to reach net-zero
emissions – the balance between greenhouse gases
released and removed from the atmosphere – a target they
are urged to achieve by 2050.
A surprise was Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s pledge for
India – the world’s third-largest contributor to CO2 emissions
– to reach net zero by 2070
A report by Climate Action Tracker says only 6 percent of
countries pledging net zero have robust national net-zero
targets and that more governments need to improve their
targets.

.
5. China-US climate cooperation
The US and China – the two largest emitters of
CO2 – signed an unexpected joint declaration
promising to boost climate cooperation over the
next decade. The agreement seeks a reduction in
methane emissions, tackling deforestation, and
regulating decarbonisation

.
COP26 failed to provide financial
support for vulnerable countries
including Pakistan

.
Cop 27- Egypt conference, 2022
Loss & damage fund

.
Sept’23
G20 summit
•Tripling (investment) renewable capacity by
2030 but made no progress on oil and gas
phaseout (Ambitious, yet achievable target
•Upheld the existing approach over phasing
out of coal.
•$4 trn would be needed to pay for green
energy transition. However, the communiqué
made no concrete plans to achieve theses
goals

.
covers controversial carbon capture and storage (CCS)
technologies, favoured by oil-producing countries like Saudi Arabia
and the UAE.
CCS remains expensive and unproven at large scale. Many climate
campaigners call it a “distraction” that gives fossil fuel companies a
licence to keep extracting more climate-harming coal, oil and gas.
Phase-out failure
G20 leaders also failed to move the needle on commitments to
phase out polluting fossil fuels.

language “just maintains the status quo” and “bolder action” is
needed
The G20 leaders also called for a steep increase in climate finance,
moving “from billions to trillions of dollars globally” to meet the goals
of the Paris Agreement.

.
UNITED NATIONS, Sept 2023 –
Guterres blames fossil fuels for ‘ opening gates to
hell’.
He evoked 2023’s “shattering heat & historic fires”.
“We can still limit the rise in global temp to 1.5 C.
We can still build a world of clean energy.
Many poor nations angry as promised finance has not
materialized.
Missing from the list of 34 speakers representing
countries at Guterres' Climate Ambition Summit were
the world's biggest emitters China and United States.

.
Sept’ 23- UN
“Pak seeks climate justice & financial
support. Pak asks for the fulfillment of
a $100 bn pledge & the urgent launch
of loss & damage fund”. (Kakar)

.
Developments at CoP28-
Dubai, Nov’23

.
First cash pledged for
Draft
resolution on a 'loss and damage
fund' has attracted

more than $700
million, but climate-vulnerable
countries say more cash is needed.

.
Loss & damage fund was launched to the first day.
Initial pledges to the fund total around $725m but some
studies have estimated that loss and damage in developing
countries is already greater than $400bn a year and is
expected to grow.
Climate experts and advocacy groups have also expressed
concern that contributions from high polluting countries will
be voluntary and question when the fund will pay out and
how it will be sustained over the long term. Another criticism
is that the fund will be administered, at least initially, by the
World Bank against the wishes of many developing
countries.
(30 years struggle)

.
COP28: Green Climate Fund reaches record funding
level
•US pledged $3 bn to Green Climate Fund.
With more than $20 bn in pledges, the fund is largest
of its kind dedicated for developing countries.
GCF has a portfolio of USD 13.5 billion (USD 51.9
billion including co-financing) delivering transformative
climate action in more than 120 countries.
•(The Green Climate Fund is a fund established within the framework of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
. The
Green Climate Fund (GCF) is the world’s largest
dedicated climate fund.

GCF at a glance
243
No. ofprojects
13.5b
GCF financingin USD
129
Developingcountries

.
120 states vow to triple renewable energy by
2030. China n India refrain….
Kakar urges immediate execution of $100 bn
committed for climate change
US pushed to increase nuclear capacity n slash
methane emissions. Plus 50 oil companies
representing nearly half of global production
pledged to reach near-zero methane by 2030
Global methane pledge- a voluntary agreement by
more than 150 countries to slash their methane
emissions by 30% by 2030.

.
Renewable crucial to efforts to
replace fossil fuels n achieve net-zero
by 2050. negotiations face tough talks
on fossil fuels

.
“Don’t ignore us”: poorer nations use
cop28 to press rich world on climate.

.
A declaration was also signed by
more than 20 countries aiming to
triple nuclear power capacity by
2050…..the world can not achieve net
zero emissions without building new
reactors.

.
CoP shifts gear with focus on global
health.
$777 mn pledged for eradication of
tropical diseases
123 of the nearly 200 countries
gathered signed a declaration
acknowledging to keep people safe.

.
At COP28, UN chief says ending fossi
l fuel use only way to ...
Antonio Guterres told world leaders
on Friday that the burning of

fossil
fuels
must be stopped outright…..
“Not reduce, not abate. Phase out,
with a clear timeframe.”
a phase-out by mid-century, which will
enhance the lives of all of humanity.”

.
•Countries at the COP28 climate conference are
considering calling for a formal phase-out of
fossil fuels as part of the UN summit’s final
deal to tackle global warming.
•The draft of what could be the final agreement
from COP28, released by the UN climate body on
Tuesday, proposed “an orderly and just phase-out
of fossil fuels” which if adopted would mark the
first global deal to end the oil age.

.
The draft text for a COP28 final deal includes three options for
dealing with fossil fuels.
The first is “an orderly and just phase-out”. In UN parlance, the
word “just” suggests wealthy nations with a long history of burning
fossil fuels would phase out fastest.
The second calls for “accelerating efforts towards phasing out
unabated fossil fuels”. And a third would be to avoid mentioning a
phase-out at all.
More than 100 African, European, Pacific and Caribbean countries

back a phase-out
of unabated fossil fuels. The US, the world’s
biggest oil and gas producer, also backs a phase-out. Others, such
as Russia, Saudi Arabia and China, reject the call.
Even so, none of the world’s major oil and gas-producing countries
have plans to eventually stop drilling for those fuels, according to
the Net Zero Tracker, an independent data consortium including
Oxford University.
Use weaker language

.
Cop28 president says there is ‘no science’
behind demands for phase-out of fossil fuels
Exclusive: UAE’s Sultan Al Jaber says
phase-out of coal, oil and gas would take
world ‘back into caves’
leaked documents showed that the

UAE had planned to use climate meetings

with governments to promote oil and gas
deals

.
Saudia led block resisted moves to
agree to a phase-out of fossil fuels,
akey demand at cop28.
Over 80 countries, including US, EU n
others have been most vocal in
calling for a phase-out.

.
The main obstacle to an agreement
has been entrenched stance of opec
members led by Saudia, who argue
that the focus of cop28 should be on
reducing emissions, not on targeting
the fuel sources that cause them

.
China did not say whether it would
back a phase-out deal.

.
COP28 pledges so far not enough to l
imit warming to 1.5C, warns IEA
A raft of new pledges announced at th
e COP28 climate summit will not be e
nough on their own to limit global war
ming to 1.5 degrees Celsius…

.
A spokesperson for Cop28 said: “The
IEA and IPCC 1.5C scenarios clearly
state that fossil fuels will have to play
a role in the future energy system,
albeit a smaller one.

.
The draft text also includes language
calling for the scaling up of carbon
capture technology, which is likely to
draw pushback from some countries
worried such nascent technologies
are being used to justify the continued
use of fossil fuels.

.
key outcomes

.
1.A disputed agreement on fossil fuels.
Dropping language to “phase down” or “phase
out” fossil fuels.
2.A historic result of COP28 was the adoption
of a fossil fuel phase-out agreement, which
commits the parties to transition away from
fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just,
orderly and equitable manner, so as to
achieve net-zero emissions by 2050
3.Failed to reach clear, time bound agreements
on phasing out coal & fossil fuels.

.
2. Loss-and-damage’ fund approved.
Developed nations have been criticised
over the amount of money they are willing
to extend.
Pak elected to the founding board of L&D
fund

.
3.Paris Agreement progress discussed
at COP28
The need for new climate plans and more
robust, multilateral climate change
mitigation projects

.
4. Global finance ‘unsupportive’ of
renewables
Goals are difficult given the

financial pressures
on developing nations.

.
5. 120 states vow to triple renewable
energy by 2030. China n India
refrain….

.
6. Nuclear renaissance- 20 countries
aiming to triple nuclear power capacity
by 2050
US took the initiative; Canada, Japan,
Korea, Sweden, UK, UAE……
…..the world can not achieve net zero
emissions without building new reactors.
Pak operates 6 npp, 21% of total energy production- 3530 mv. Pak working
on 7
th
npp n aims to increase its share to 8800 by 2030 n to 40,000 by
2050

.
7. 30% Methane reduction by 2030.

.
8. Food systems resilience….
Backed by 158 countries…for acquisition of low-
carbon agri-food commodities

.
1.Methane
2.Triple renewable energy capacity
3.GCF
4.(Update) new NDCs
5.Food
6.Cities
7.Forests
8.Deferred most FINANCE issues to COP29,
with the adoption of a new climate finance goal —
called the New Collective Qualitative Goal (NCQG) —
replacing developed countries’ current commitment of
providing $100 billion annually

.
Challenges & Criticism
(COP28)

.
Controversy over the remarks of the COP28
president, Sultan Al Jaber-
Phasing out, phasing down
lack of ambition and urgency shown by some of the
major emitters, such as China, India, and Russia
The pledge doesn’t cover a drop of the fuel oil and
gas companies sell, which accounts for up to 95%
of the industry’s contribution to the climate crisis.
Outcome did not tackle the lack of finance /deffered
Dissatisfaction and frustration expressed by many
groups

.
Agreement to triple the world’s renewable
energy capacity and double its energy
efficiency by 2030, goals also reflecting a

pledge made by 130 countries
at the start
of COP.

.
COP28 also brought an additional

$3.5 billion
in new pledges to the second
replenishment of the Green Climate Fund,
the largest international fund dedicated to
supporting developing countries in tackling
climate change. The second replenishment
now totals $12.8 billion, 28% more than the
first replenishment.

.
Strengthening National Climate Commitments
The Global Stocktake outcome calls on countries
to submit new NDCs well ahead of COP30 in
2025. With the next round, countries are expected
to update their 2030 targets and present new
targets for 2035. The COP28 decision
underscores that these new NDCs have to be
more ambitious

.
Food Finally Gets on the Menu
Outside of the negotiations, countries and others made major announcements
on food, a milestone since the issue has historically been left out of the COP.

One hundred and fifty nine nations, covering nearly 80% of the world's land,
signed the

COP28 UAE Declaration on Sustainable Agriculture, Resilient Food
Systems, and Climate Action, committing

to integrate food and food systems
into their NDCs by 2025. Signatories include major emitters and global players
in the food system, such as
Argentina, Brazil, China, the EU, Russia, Turkey,
Ukraine and the US.
The Alliance of Champions for Food Systems Transformation (ACF) also
launched. Member countries including Brazil, Cambodia, Norway, Sierra Leone
and Rwanda pledged a “whole of government” approach to drive faster action
towards the goals of the UAE declaration.
encourages the implementation of integrated, multi-sectoral solutions, including
"resilient food systems” specifically, while the new framework for the Global Goal
on Adaptation sets a target for “attaining climate-resilient food and agricultural
production

All countries must now incorporate food and food systems into their next round
of NDCs and arrive at COP29 and COP30

.
The final COP28 agreement reflects growing understanding of
CITIES as critical climate battlegrounds and partners for action—a
fitting recognition since 70% of carbon dioxide emissions come from
urban areas. There is enhanced language on

“multilevel” action, as well
as new language around zero-emission vehicles and reducing health
impacts in vulnerable communities, which is particularly relevant for
cities as hotbeds of

air pollution, flooding,

extreme heat
and
large numbers of vulnerable people.
New climate financing for urban infrastructure — carry through to NDC
development, city design and management, and improved living
conditions in rapidly growing cities will be key in the months ahead. More
ambitious urban targets in the next round of NDCs in 2025 are essential,
reflecting joined-up national and local action on transportation, energy
systems, housing, air quality, and more climate financing reaching the
urban poor.

.
COP28 saw an encouraging

slate of actions
to address
methane
pollution,

funding for projects focused on cutting
methane in the oil and gas, waste and
agriculture sectors, with the goal of
mobilizing billions more.

.
To halt and reverse forest loss and land
degradation
Brazil proposed a global

Tropical Forests Forever
fund,

.
Challenges & Criticism
(COP28)

.
Controversy over the remarks of the COP28
president, Sultan Al Jaber-
Phasing out, phasing down
lack of ambition and urgency shown by some of the
major emitters, such as China, India, and Russia
The pledge doesn’t cover a drop of the fuel oil and
gas companies sell, which accounts for up to 95%
of the industry’s contribution to the climate crisis.
Outcome did not tackle the lack of finance /deffered
Dissatisfaction and frustration expressed by many
groups

.
Controversy over the remarks of the COP28 president, Sultan Al Jaber
The pledge doesn’t cover a drop of the fuel oil and gas companies sell,
which accounts for up to 95% of the industry’s contribution to the climate
crisis.

Another challenge was the lack of ambition and urgency shown by some
of the major emitters, such as China, India, and Russia. They did not
submit new or updated nationally determined contributions (NDCs), the
voluntary pledges to reduce emissions under the Paris Agreement. The
current NDCs are not enough to close the gap
Additionally, a lot of dissatisfaction and frustration was expressed by
many civil society groups, indigenous peoples, youth activists, and
scientists, who staged protests and demonstrations throughout the
summit, demanding more action and justice from the leaders. They also
denounced the influence of the fossil fuel industry and the lack of
participation and representation of the most affected and marginalized
communities.

.And there was limited progress in other areas of
the negotiations. Adaptation targets lacked detail.
Finance got short shrift on many fronts; it remains
unclear how the world will pay for the massive
clean energy transition it’s now committed to.
•But not all outcomes were positive. While
renewables are the cheapest energy option for
most people, they require more investment at the
beginning of the project than other technologies,
The COP28 outcome does not tackle these
financial challenges
the outcome fails to recognize the limitations of

carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology

.
Framework for the Global Goal on Adaptation Established,
but Finance Lacking
While the 2015 Paris Agreement established a goal to enhance
adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience and reduce vulnerability
to climate change, negotiators had yet to define a framework for
understanding this

Global Goal on Adaptation, including clear
targets or how they would be measured. After two years of
discussions, negotiators agreed at COP28 to global time-bound
targets for specific themes and sectors (such as water and
health) and for the adaptation policy process. However, the
targets were not quantified, nor did they include financial and
other support for developing countries.
The Global Goal on Adaptation framework makes only a cursory
reference to the fact that the adaptation finance gap is widening.
But without a clear roadmap on increasing finance for
adaptation – especially the goal of doubling adaptation finance
by 2025 – there is lack of accountability in how the adaptation
finance gap will be filled.

.Finance Challenges Deferred to Next Year As New
Finance Goal Emerges
What happened?
The COP28 outcome punted most finance issues to COP29,
with the adoption of a new climate finance goal — called the
New Collective Qualitative Goal (NCQG) — being the big-
ticket item for next year. This new goal will replace
developed countries’ current commitment of providing $100
billion annually in climate finance to developing nations, first
agreed to in 2009. The new goal will need to take into
account developing countries’ needs and priorities,
estimated

at $5.8 trillion - $5.9 trillion
up until 2030

.
A disputed agreement on fossil fuels
One agreement tabled at the conference pushed it

into overtime
by a day as participants struggled to agree on
how quickly fossil fuel production should be ceased. The
final Global Stocktake agreement, adopted on Wednesday,
marked the first COP text that openly called on countries to
wean themselves off fossil fuels.
However, this was only an incremental improvement from a
draft on Monday that caused outrage for dropping language
to “phase down” or “phase out” fossil fuels, which more than
100 of the 200 attending countries

had expressed
support
for.

.
Phasing out” fossil fuels would mean putting a complete stop
to fossil-fuel burning through goals such as reaching net-
zero carbon emissions by a specific year. “Phasing down”
fossil fuels involves gradually cutting down on fossil fuel
burning without setting targets for the amount and deadline
to achieve net zero.
The final text was able to secure a majority consensus within
the 200 attending countries to include language to “transition
away” from fossil fuels, which are responsible for

nearly 90 percent
of global carbon dioxide emissions,
according to the UN.
It also calls to “phase down” the “unabated” use of coal
“The resolution is marred by loopholes that offer the fossil
fuel industry numerous escape routes, relying on unproven,
unsafe technologies,”

.
Loss-and-damage’ fund approved
The conference started on a positive note with the
approval of a climate disaster “loss and damage
fund” that was first tabled

at COP27
in Egypt last
year.
The fund is

meant to support
vulnerable
communities and developing nations which are
struggling to cope with the impact of climate
disasters such as the destruction of crops caused
by floods. However, developed nations have been
criticised over the amount of money they are willing
to extend.

.
Several countries have pledged a total of $700m,
which falls far short of the estimated $400bn
damage caused by climate change each year. In
September, a group of developing countries had
asked for at least $100bn to be committed to the
fund.
The United States and China, despite being the
world’s largest emitters, extended only $17.5m and
$10m, respectively.
Aside from gathering pledges, attendees at this
year’s summit discussed how to operate the fund in
a meaningful manner,

.
Paris Agreement progress discussed at COP28
The need for new climate plans and more robust, multilateral
climate change mitigation projects has become even more
pressing in light of growing gaps in meeting Paris Agreement
goals, said Bhandary. Some 196 countries have signed the
binding international agreement, which was adopted in 2015.
COP28 concluded the first assessment of progress each state
has made towards reducing emissions for the agreement’s central
tenet
– limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius

The next global assessment of Paris
Agreement targets is expected to take place at
COP33 in 2028.

.
Global finance ‘unsupportive’ of
renewables
Like some of the previous COPs, more
than 100 countries at this year’s summit
endorsed tripling reliance on renewable
energy sources to reduce the world’s
dependency on fossil fuels. However,
experts say such goals are difficult given
the

financial pressures
on developing
nations.

.
“Three degrees of global warming is
quite plausible & truly disastrous”.
“Rapid emission cuts can reduce the
risks but not eliminate them”.
“The extremes of floods & fires are not
going away, but adaptation can lessen
their impact”. Cutting emission, water management,
forestation, life style, invest in defences, warning system, solar….

.
COP28 pledges so far not enough to l
imit warming to 1.5C, warns IEA
A raft of new pledges announced at th
e COP28 climate summit will not be e
nough on their own to limit global war
ming to 1.5 degrees Celsius…

.
The Uninhabitable Earth: Life After
Warming
David Wallace-Wells 2019
predicted 2 to 8 degrees Celsius
•Humanity's negligence have put this world on a
course to soon be unlivable unless…
•…

if things continue at the present pace, large
parts of the planet will become uninhabitable
by 2100.

.Apr’24
Book- The price is wrong: Why
Capitalism won’t save the planet
by Brett Christopher
….he offers perspective why wind & solar are
unlikely to replace fossil fuels any time soon
unless radical changes are made….The
argument is simple: While the cost of renewables
is now lower than that of fossil fuels, renewables
are not profitable business.
The private companies will not cough up money
for renewables….

Critical Analysis
•Procedural work
Prospects look bleak
Voluntary
Earth has already warmed by 1.2c
•No penalty/sanctioning
• developing countries simply won't do it.
•National interests of the nations more imp.

,
The developed nations not taking the task
seriously. US, China & India not willing to cut the
CO2 emission.
The multinational firms like Adidas, Gucci, IKEA,
Toyota, Honda, Ford, Wal- mart, Carrefour are
silent partners to crime
.
Brazil, the largest cattle industry of the world,
Amazon and Mexico responsible for 1/5
th
of the
worlds annual deforestation.

,The third world countries are in a state of
flux
An uphill task. Poor nations need billions of
dollars a year .

Significantly reducing CO2 emissions would
require dramatically cutting back on the use
of coal, the source of 81% of China's
electricity and 71% of India's electricity. As
coal is -- by far -- the least expensive source
of electric power in most of the world,
reducing emissions by restricting coal use
would unquestionably interfere with
development priorities.

.
States have the obligation to mitigate
the harmful effects of climate change
by taking the most ambitious
measures possible to prevent or
reduce greenhouse emissions within
the shortest possible time-frame.
Corporations

.
Industrial, commercial, military
infrastructure must be built to withstand
weather extremes.
Stronger regulations about buildings
Even US has no national building code.
Codes are outdated.

.
Solutions

.
Fossil fuel/ stop throwing money in
oil and gas infrastructure.
Green technology- renewable energy
•Internationally binding agreement
•Forests preservation
Technology- capturing co2 directly
from atmosphere and store it
underground….costly.

.
White-roof (paint)/ lighter (reflective)
color surface lower temp by 4-5 C in
day time.
Light colored roads/side ways
Roof gardens
Early warning systems, emergency
preparedness and risk insurance.

.
Carbon tariffs on imports from
countries with inadequate climate
policies.
Clean energy alliance among nations.
Traditional life style
Public-private partnerships

CONCLUSION
Can we examine the whole basis of modern society?
It is not only scientific issue but also a moral
dilemma for the global society.
Can we pin all our hopes on clean technology? Can
we prepare, plan for the worst and adapt?
The nations and regions need to plan for the next 50
years. Long term planning would be difficult for most
societies because of the very short term nature of
the politics.
The time has come to change some of the basic
rules of our society to allow us to adopt a much more
global and long term approach.
“Climate is an ill-tempered beast, and we are poking
it with sticks”.

.
Explain the salient features of paris
deal. Do you think it ll be able to control
the rise in the global temp by 1.5 c.
What are the effects of global warming?
Discuss the remedies to control this
phenomenon.
What adaptive steps are needed to
reduce the threat of GW.

.
Pakistan & climate change

.
0.88%
8
th
most vulnerable country
Needs $348 bn between 2023-30
(World bank). This is huge money
that cannot be provided by the ailing
economy of Pak.

.
IMF advice- nov’23
Pak to use its resources…2024-25
budget should be turning point for
planning mechanism n investment
portfolios based on climate
adaptation.

.
The

adaptation
gap is more severe
in developing countries.

.
What are climate adaptation plans?
The two overarching objectives of NAPs
are to:
Reduce vulnerability to the impacts
of climate change by building adaptive
capacity and resilience; Integrate
adaptation into new and existing national,
sectoral and sub-national policies and
programmes, especially development
strategies, plans and budgets.

.
5 ways countries can adapt to the
climate crisis
Early warning systems.
Ecosystem restoration.
Climate-resilient infrastructure.
Water supplies and security.
Long-term planning.

.
What is an example of climate adaptation?
What Is Climate Adaptation? Climate adaptation
protects people and places by making them less
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. For
example,
to protect against sea level rise and
increased flooding, communities might build
seawalls or relocate buildings to higher ground.
Erecting buildings and infrastructure that is safer
and more sustainable. Replanting forests and
restoring damaged ecosystems.
…to lessen the impact of increased floods n heat
waves which are reducing farm yield, destroying
infrastructure & lowering labour productivity.

.
What is the national adaptation plan of
Pakistan 2023?
The ministry also laid out the country's
National Adaptation Plan (NAP) 2023,
which
focuses on
six pillars, namely
water resource management,
agriculture and food security,
forests and biodiversity,
disaster management,
infrastructure, and
public health.

.
What is the adaptation of the climate?
Adaptation refers to
adjustments in
ecological, social or economic systems in
response to actual or expected climatic
stimuli and their effects. It refers to
changes in processes, practices and
structures to moderate potential damages
or to benefit from opportunities
associated with climate change.

.
How can Pakistan adapt to climate change?
The proposed action plan suggest following
activities:
Design and adopt effective
economic and financial tools and instruments
to address domestic seed market needs and
demands; improve and strengthen local
policy and regulatory environment in the
country in order to promote hybrid crop
adoption; create and promote ...

.
What is the climate adaptation issue?
Climate change adaptation is
the
process of adjusting to the effects of
climate change. These can be both
current or expected impacts.
Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid
harm for people. It also aims to exploit
opportunities.

.
Making sand castles…..

.
Climate change has hugely impacted
the economic growth in Pak.
Pak’s annual GDP could diminish by
20% by 2050 (WB)

.
Flooding devastates every sector of
the country.
28 floods

.
Extreme heat waves
Droughts ( Pak has faced 3 times in
last 10 years)
Effecting crops yield due to a dearth
of water & heat sensitivity.
Food insecurity
Impact on live stock
Rise in the sea level

Pakistan Sept’2022
•Colossal crisis-
•186% & 400% higher rainfall
•Affected; 15% (33mn)
•1700 deaths
•7500 km
•I mn houses damaged
•750000 live stock perished
•Infrastructure- bridges, roads, Rail
•2mn acres of cropped area destroyed
•Epidemics
•IDPs
•Economic losses; $32 bn

.A NEW Schroders and Cornell University study on the
potential impact of extreme heat and flooding on the
apparel industry should serve as a wake-up call for
Pakistan’s textile industrialists and policymakers. The
authors of the study project that extreme heat and floods
induced by rapid climate change could result in huge job
losses and erase $65bn in apparel export earnings from
four Asian countries — Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan
and Vietnam — by 2030, as workers struggle under high
temperatures and factories shut down. The losses will
keep increasing if corrective actions are not taken.
In recent years, the country’s economy and exports have
received large shocks due to repeated climate-induced
flooding and heatwaves that have caused export losses
worth billions, and increased poverty and unemployment.
(Dawn editorial, Sept’23)

.
$9bn committed at Geneva
conference (Jan’23)

.
Pak a signatory of the;
Montreal protocol 1987
Kyoto protocol 1992
Vienna convention for the protection of
Ozone layer 1985
Stockholm convention on persistent organic
pollutants (Chemicals/2001)
A member of CoP
Paris climate conference
Ratified UNFCCC

.
Climate action plan- CAP
1. 50% emission cut by 2030
2. 60% renewables by 2030
30% electric vehicles by 2030

.
National climate policy 2012/2023
1.50% Emission cut by 2030
2.National forest policy 2012/2030
3.Water policy 2018/2022
4.Protective area initiative 2020 (Developing 15 model
protected areas & expanding it to 15% of Pak’s area, preserving
rangelands & pastures)
5.National electric policy 2020
6.Renewable energy policy 2021/2030
7.National energy efficiency conservation policy 2023
8.Agri- Green Pak Initiative & corporate agri; (Likely to
attract investment of $50 bn in 5 years, creating jobs &
addressing hunger & poverty)
9.Health
10.Transport

.
Absence of planning & coordination
Provinces- no decision making
No readiness, foresight
Procrastination

.
THE cost of climate change for
Pakistan is very high. But the cost
of inaction and growing
procrastination is even higher. It is
often made worse by the absence
of coordination among and within
federal ministries and between the
latter and the provincial
departments.

.
The absence of the provinces from
strategic-level climate decision-
making has further trapped the
country in climate passivity.

.
Pakistan has still not adopted a
national agenda for climate-

.
there are still no guidelines, timelines,
or budgetary allocations

.
Pakistan does not successfully attract
international climate finance

.
Pakistan’s NDC submitted in 2016 to the UNFCCC
(climate change) secretariat, instead of aligning with
the climate policy, went on a different tangent. As if
this wasn’t enough, a parallel structure was created
by the Climate Change Act in 2017 to establish a
climate change authority, a climate fund, and a
(governing) council
Mar’24- So Climate change authority yet not created.
Similarly Climate change fund not operationalised.
•Apr’24- Supreme court verdict… Climate change
authority to be created as envisioned in pak climate
change act & thereafter operationalize the climate
change fund (CCF)

.
federal grip has persisted, despite
the 18th Amendment. Provincial
efforts to develop their respective
climate policies were stunted, if not
stifled.

.
Pakistan has an alarming trend in
greenhouse gas emissions, recording
a 170 per cent increase from 1994 to
2018 and projected an unbelievable
230pc increase between 2018 and
2030.

.
2022- Living Indus program(2013/2022)
(in collaboration with UN)
Will cost $11-17 billion.
To develop a sustainable, climate resilient Indus basin
such as clean energy schemes, biodiversity conservation.
A Living Indus prospectus for the Basin’s ecological restoration (within the
boundaries of Pakistan) was developed jointly by the Ministry of Climate Change
and United Nations
25 high-impact interventions
By improving the current understanding of water resource , climate resilience and
related opportunities and challenges.

.
The 25 priority interventions, she explained, were nature-based resilience agriculture,
salinity control in lower Indus, Indus delta protection, Indus cleanup from industrial
effluent, green infrastructure, and ground recharge, groundwater governance,
100,000 community bonds, living Indus knowledge platform, Indus trust fund, climate
nature performance bonds, social entrepreneurship for green Indus, zero plastic
waste cities along the Indus, an urban forest along Indus, Indus protection act,
protection of Indus beds, build back biodiversity in Indus basin, community-based
tourism in Sindh, Indus heritage sites, promoting permaculture and others.
INITIATIVE TO RESTORE MORE THAN 30 PER CENT OF PAKISTAN’S INDUS RIVER BASIN BY 2030 NAME
D ONE OF SEVEN UN WORLD RESTORATION FLAGSHIPS.
UNEP, UN FAO to restore 25m acres of land by 2030 at the cost of $17 bn This holistic strategy
employs community-led, gender-responsive, and transparent nature-based solutions
for restoring the entire Indus Basin, safeguarding its resources for the people of
Pakistan.” The Basin is also home to 195 mammal species, at least 668 bird species,
and over 150 fish species, including 22 endemic ones and the endangered Indus
Blind Dolphin, one of the world’s rarest mammals.
The Living Indus Initiative advances the sustainable management of the Indus River
Basin, seeking to balance water resource use, ecosystem preservation, and socio-
economic development. By promoting responsible water management, reducing
pollution, preserving biodiversity, and enhancing community engagement, it helps
ensure a climate-resilient future for Pakistan.

.
2023- The Recharge Pakistan
Aims to transform water resource management in the
Indus basin river system through adaptation & green
infrastructure interventions (Economist Intelligence
Unit). Echobased system means adaptation
An initiative of the Government of Pakistan’s Ministry of Climate Change, Recharge
Pakistan is an unprecedented collaboration that aims to reduce climate vulnerability
through ecosystem-based adaptation and integrated flood risk management.
There has been a marked increase in the occurrence of floods, landslides and drought
events, which are surpassing the capacity of the country’s existing water infrastructure
to prevent large-scale economic damages and loss of human life. The Indus River is
experiencing floods with increasing intensity and frequency. The communities along
the Indus, including upstream watersheds and downstream wetlands and floodplains,
are disproportionately vulnerable as they depend on the river for food and water as
well as their agriculture, livestock and fishing-based livelihoods.
“The mighty Indus, Pakistan’s lifeline, supports its predominantly agrarian
economy and sustains ecosystems and communities.”

.
The superfloods , Pakistan’s worst humanitarian disasters, brought the country’s reliance on built
infrastructure to the forefront, baring its limited capacity to manage flood volumes and reinforcing the
need for a comprehensive and integrated programme to reduce flood risks and enhance water
recharge along the Indus Basin. In their aftermath, integrated flood risk management became a
national priority for the Government of Pakistan.
This project seeks to create a paradigm shift in the country’s flood and water resource management
efforts by establishing the cost effectiveness, benefits and sustainability of ecosystem-based
adaptation and green infrastructure interventions in the Indus Basin.
seven-year investment represents the largest investment to date in an ecosystem-based approach
to flood and water resources management at the national level.

The project envisions ecosystem-based adaptation contributing towards better climate resilience,
water and food security, and sustainable livelihoods in Pakistan.
collaboration of local communities in DI Khan, the Ramak Watershed, Manchar-Chakar
Lehri Watershed, the Green Climate Fund, the United States Agency for International
Development, The Coca-Cola Foundation and WWF.

The actions proposed under Recharge Pakistan are primarily designed to keep more
floodwater from reaching agricultural and community lands by slowing run-off and making
use of wetlands to hold and absorb it.
Recharge Pakistan will increase water storage and recharge through
wetlands, floodplains, and hill-torrents management; promote climate-
adapted community-based natural resource management and livelihoods,
and forge a paradigm shift to scale up this approach."

.
The project's core interventions include:
Demonstrate the effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation and green infrastructure:
By restoring degraded forests in DI Khan district, restoring flow paths in Ramak Watershed and Manchar Lake
(Qambar Shahdadkot District), and building green infrastructure projects in DI Khan, Ramak, Manchar,
and Chakar Lehri; Recharge Pakistan will maximize flood reduction benefits to vulnerable communities.
Create an enabling environment for climate action in Pakistan:
Recharge Pakistan will promote integrated strategies, planning, and policymaking that make ecosystem-based
adaptation and green infrastructure a vital part of Pakistan’s National Water Policy, National Adaptation
Plan, and Provincial Adaptation Plans. With well-documented procedures backed by a rigorous scientific
base in place, the Government of Pakistan can channel future investments into ecosystem-based
adaptation and green infrastructure interventions to complement its existing grey infrastructure network.
Enhance community resilience in Pakistan's Indus Basin:
Recharge Pakistan will introduce farmers to agricultural practices that can better withstand future climate
scenarios and support small businesses in providing alternative revenue generating opportunities. The
project will also reduce ecosystem degradation from the traditional livelihoods directly dependent upon
natural resources
Recharge Pakistan
will: increase water storage and
recharge
through wetlands, floodplains, and hill-torrents
management…..
.
Recharge Pakistan has unlocked $77.8 million in grants – with $66 million from the Global Climate Fund
(GFC); $5 million from USAID; $5 million from The Coca-Cola Foundation, and $1.8 million from
WWF…..to transform the country's approach to flood and water resource management in local watershed
sites
....

.
Climate finance- Issues
Pak unable to secure fin help from multiple international financing
sources like carbon markets, climate insurance n green alliances.
While many other grants, loans like loss n damage funds are
mere pledges
Issues impeding climate finance in pak.
1. black of institutional capacity/ technical expertise n weak
institutional frameworks
2. Weak governance, mismanagement, hampering trust
3. Pol n eco stability- investors/ financiers reluctant
4. Global competition… pol influence n alliances. Priority of major
powers
5. Lack of awareness n public management….we are uniformed
how to cope, no individual or community level involvement.

.
Anticipate/Prevent
Prepare
Respond/ Rescue, recovery, rehabilitation, capacity building
Commitment
Persistence
Implementation
funds

.
The forest department official said

Sindh's Indus
Delta mangrove plantation is currently Pakistan's
only carbon credits seller project. These projects
are designed to reduce or remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere, and the resulting credits can
be bought and sold on the carbon market.
As per official figures, Sindh has sold 3.1 million
carbon credits as of now, worth $40 million. By
2075, Sindh is expected to create 140 million
carbon credits in the Voluntary Carbon Market
(VCM) — a global system to trade carbon offsets.

.
A

carbon credit
is a permit that allows the company that holds it to emit
a certain amount of

carbon
dioxide or other greenhouse gases.
One

credit
permits the emission of a mass equal to one ton of
carbon
dioxide
•Carbon credits are measurable, verifiable emission reductions from certified
climate action projects. These projects reduce, avoid or remove greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. Moreover, they also bring a whole host of other positive
benefits, for example, they empower communities, protect ecosystems,
restore forests, or reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
Projects must adhere to a rigorous set of criteria to pass verification by third-
party agencies

Carbon credits are a transparent, measurable and results-based way for
companies to support activities, such as protecting and restoring irrecoverable
natural carbon sinks, like forests or marine ecosystems and scaling nascent
carbon removal technology, that keep global climate goals within reach.
Catalyses faster climate action on the way to net zero, attracts funding to
eligible and deserving projects that dramatically reduce emissions and
facilitate sustainable development.
companies are called to invest in climate projects

.
What is South Pole's role in the carbon market
For 17 years, South Pole has been engaged in carbon markets. Our expertise
spans advising on emission reduction activities, preparing technical
documentation for a project to generate carbon credits under the leading global
carbon standards and stakeholder management.
Through our global network, we connect certified projects run by our local
partners with climate conscious organisations looking to tackle their carbon
footprint.
Our project implementation partners include NGOs, Indigenous community
groups, landowners and private organisations who need carbon finance to fund
their planet-saving activities.
What impact has South Pole created through climate action projects?
As one of the largest global project developers, South Pole has channelled finance to
over 850 climate action projects in renewables, forestry, agriculture, industry,
households and public institutions, spanning the globe.
With our clients' and partners' support, we have supported millions of people around the
globe, saved over 200 million tonnes of CO2 or around 5x the annual emissions of
Switzerland, enabled the production of more than 21 million MWh of renewable energy,
protected or restored over 3 million hectares of land and helped create more than
120,000 jobs!

.Purchase carbon credits and finance
climate action
Choose from one of the world's largest portfolio of
high-integrity climate action projects to drive
credible climate action and sustainable
development around the world.
Companies must compensate for remaining
emissions by urgently financing action outside
their value chain,

alongside reducing their footprint according to scie
nce
, to ensure we reach global net zero.

.
A carbon credit is a generic term for
any tradable certificate or permit
representing the right to emit one
tonne of carbon dioxide or the
equivalent amount of a different
greenhouse gas

.
Who introduced carbon credits?
Kyoto Protocol(1992) introduced the concept of carbon
credits as per which a country gets credits to reduce carbon
emissions in the atmosphere. It was signed in 1997 in Kyoto,
Japan. A carbon credit is a certificate that allows its holder to
emit greenhouse gases.
The carbon market is a system for buying
and selling carbon credits, which are
instruments that allow companies,
governments, and other organizations to
address their greenhouse gas emissions
by funding projects that reduce or remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

.
The Green climate fund (2010) receives funding
from countries worldwide and then distributes
funds to developing countries for mitigation and
adaptation projects.

A loss and damage fund
would theoretically function in the same way, but
would instead disburse funds in the aftermath of
environmental disasters
July 2023: The Green Climate Fund (GCF) has
announced

USD 66 million
in funding to support
the Government of Pakistan's efforts to reduce the
twin climate impacts of flooding and drought.

.
Responding to the climate challenge requires collective action
from all countries, cities, businesses, and private citizens.
Among
these concerted efforts, advanced economies have
formally agreed to
jointly mobilise
USD 100 billion per year
by 2020, from a variety of sources, to address the pressing
mitigation and adaptation needs of developing countries.
Green climate fund's Governing Instrument enables the Fund
to accept contributions from developed countries party to the
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as
well as public, non-public, and alternative sources. Such
sources include, among others, countries not party to the
UNFCCC, entities, and foundations. Contributions from parties
to the UNFCCC and other sovereign entities may be made in
the form of grants, capital or loans.
The Fund has set itself a goal of raising $100 billion a year by
2020

..
Water Vapor
. Water vapor is a strong greenhouse gas. In fact, because of its abundance in the
atmosphere, water vapor causes about two-thirds of greenhouse warming, a key
factor in keeping temperatures in the habitable range on Earth. But as temperatures
warm, more water vapor evaporates from the surface into the atmosphere, where it
can cause temperatures to climb further.
The atmosphere currently has an average equilibrium or balance between water
vapor concentration and temperature. As temperatures warm, the atmosphere
becomes capable of containing more water vapor, and so water vapor concentrations
go up to regain equilibrium.
The amount of water vapor that enters the atmosphere ultimately determines how
much additional warming will occur due to the water vapor feedback. The
atmosphere responds quickly to the water vapor feedback. So far, most of the
atmosphere has maintained a near constant balance between temperature and water
vapor concentration as temperatures have gone up in recent decades. If this trend
continues, and many models say that it will,

water vapor has the capacity to
double the warming caused by carbon dioxide alone.

.
Clouds
Closely related to the water vapor feedback is the
cloud feedback. Clouds cause cooling by reflecting
solar energy, but they also cause warming by
absorbing infrared energy (like greenhouse gases)
from the surface when they are over areas that are
warmer than they are.

In our current climate,
clouds have a cooling effect overall,
but that
could change in a warmer environment.

.
Carbon cycle
Warmer ocean waters will hold less dissolved carbon,
leaving more in the atmosphere.
Under a warmer climate, soils, especially thawing Arctic
tundra, could release trapped carbon dioxide or methane to
the atmosphere. Increased fire frequency and insect
infestations also release more carbon as trees burn or die
and decay.
On the other hand, extra carbon dioxide can stimulate plant
growth in some ecosystems, allowing these plants to take
additional carbon out of the atmosphere

Economic impact:
Economies of low land countries would become
vulnerable.
New tussle among nations for capturing economic
resources.

Study Pak flood as a study case- 2010
Worst flood in 80 years
UN says, it’s a major humanitarian crisis.
More losses than 2005 earth quake

.
Study Pak flood as a study case-
2010
Worst flood in 80 years
UN – it was a major humanitarian
crisis.
More destruction than 2004 tsunami
More losses than 2005 earth quake

.
Nationwide, there were 1,985
deaths.
[1]

According
to

Pakistani government
data, the floods directly
affected about 20 million people
Total economic impact may have been as much
as US$43 billion

.
Bridges
Rivers burst
Dykes…
Highways
Houses, property losses
Deaths
Houses
Livestock
Diseases
Food
Crops
Electricity-Power units under
water… Shortfall 5000 mw
Oil refineries submerged- petrol
shortage
UN special session for fund
raising… (Aug)
UK concerned about wheat
crises as 22% was imported from
Pak.
Diversion of funds
MDGs
WOT effected- PakTaliban
regrouping…All bridges gone-
communication breask up 10
years effort may go waste. .
Refugees- 20 mn. If not
rehaibilitaed, may become
terrorists
Infrastructure
Funds
Tax
Pak unity in danger…due to eco
crises…growth of lawless areas
areas. food scarcity
Militant organisation leading the
relief operations
24% land destroyed
Management beyond the
capacity of govt.

.
.

.
2015 floods- Loss of $20 bn .
Pakistan suffering a loss of Rs 1 bn
per day due to climate change
(Report-2016)

.
June 2010- Hottest Month Ever
– Last
month was the hottest June ever
recorded on Earth, the US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration said Thursday, amid
global climate warming worries.

.
July-2010 Floods in Pak
Dec-2010 Floods in Australia

.
Dec 2010
Record snow fall in Europe

.
Pakistan's anti-climactic response
2013

.At a time when developing and developed
countries across the globe are investing heavily in
adaptation to and countering climate change,
Pakistan has not only dissolved it’s climate change
ministry but also slashed its development budget
by more than 60 percent.
The government allocated a total of Rs58.8 million
to combat climate change in the Public Sector
Development Program for 2013-14 as compared
to Rs168.1 million allocated to the climate change
ministry in 2012-13. The ministry has now been
transformed into a division.

.
Environmentalists and officials say the move may have
serious repercussions on different fields in the country
including agriculture, water and forestation besides losing
representation at international forums. International donors
and organisations working on climate change are also
unlikely to support Pakistan in dealing with the relatively
recent, but highly dangerous threat.
Dr Qamaruz Zaman Chaudhry, a lead author of the National
Climate Change Policy and an expert on climate change,
says Pakistan may face isolation in the international
community if it doesn't take effective measures to cope with
changing weather patterns.
“We need to link all our development activities like dams,
roads, canals and bridges with climate change; otherwise all
the development may go waste,” he observes.

.
At the moment, Pakistan receives
around $3 million for a climate
adaptation fund and $3.5 million in
Glacier Lake Outburst Funding
through international aid. “This aid is
peanuts,”

.
According to the 2006 Pakistan Strategic Country
Environmental Assessment Report, the annual cost of
environmental degradation in Pakistan has been estimated at
Rs365 billion ($4.2 billion). Inadequate water supply,
sanitation and hygiene account for Rs112 billion ($1.3 billion),
agriculture soil degradation for Rs70 billion ($807 million) and
range land degradation and deforestation Rs6 billion ($69
million).
Environmental experts believe the annual cost of
environmental degradation has now reached around Rs450
billion ($5.2 billion) in financial losses.
The data available to Dawn.com reveals the annual rate of
deforestation ranges from 4-6 percent while carbon
dioxide emissions are increasing annually at the rate of 8-
10 percent. Moreover, an estimated 250 million gallons of
untreated water out of Karachi is dumped into the Arabian Sea
every day, causing great harm to both humans and the
ecosystem.

.
Recent data indicates that over one million acres of fertile,
arable land in the Indus delta has become saline and
unusable, largely due to the retention of freshwater flows by
large dams across the Indus River.
Dr Pervaiz Amir, an environmental expert and member of the
Prime Minister’s Task Force on Climate Change, says Pakistan
falls in the most vulnerable categories of climate change but
“we are doing nothing to cope with the challenge.”
He says that India and Bangladesh have been spending a lot
on addressing evolving weather patterns, and are also
receiving millions of dollars from developed countries in climate
change aid. India is spending over 2.6 percent of its GDP to
cope with such challenges. It is also one of the biggest
recipients of climate change aid.
Pakistan’s allocation for climate change, meanwhile, is stuck at
just 0.02 percent of the total Rs295.5 billion of development
funds.

Why did the Kyoto Protocol fail?
Many argue that

Kyoto's failure
is due to
deficiencies in the structure of the agreement, such
as the exemption of developing countries from
reductions requirements, or the lack of an effective
emissions trading scheme. ... Because of this,
most Annex I countries have chosen to not comply
with

Kyoto
commitments
.
Is Kyoto Protocol a failure?
In 2001, the U.S. formally rejected the

Kyoto
Protocol and looking back on

Kyoto's
track
record that is a very good thing. Ultimately, 36
developed countries were legally bound to its
GHG targets and 17 – nearly half – of
them
failed

to meet their GHG targets.

.
How successful was the Kyoto Protocol?
The headline results tell us that between 1990 and 2012
the original

Kyoto Protocol
parties reduced their CO2
emissions by 12.5%, which is well beyond the 2012 target
of 4.7% (CO2 only, rather than greenhouse gases, and
including Canada*). The

Kyoto Protocol
was therefore a
huge

success.
the United States, China and India are notable exceptions
from that list.
The first commitment period of the Protocol started in 2008
and ended in 2012. The Doha Amendment to the protocol –
which is the second commitment – was agreed on in 2012.
As of July 2015, 36 states have accepted the Doha
Amendment – entry into force requires the acceptance of
144 states.

.
What replaced the Kyoto Protocol?
Paris Climate Agreement
The Doha Amendment
This was short-lived; in 2015, all UNFCCC
participants signed another pact, the Paris Climate
Agreement, which effectively

replaced the Kyoto
Protocol.M
Is Kyoto Protocol legally binding?
The 1997

Kyoto Protocol
– an agreement under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) – is the world's only

legally
binding treaty
to reduce greenhouse emissions.
Kyoto 1st commitment period (2008–12) | Climate Ac
tion

.
How is Kyoto Protocol enforced?
One of the failures of the

Kyoto Protocol
is its lack
of any real

enforcement
mechanism. ... Parties
may appeal decisions of the

Enforcement
Branch
to the full meeting of the parties of the

Protocol,
which can override a decision with a three-fourths
vote.F
List of Cons of the Kyoto Protocol
It only requires wealthy nations to cut

emissions.
Interestingly, developing nations such as China and
India refused to be included in the Kyoto Protocol. ...
None of the limits imposed on participating countries
resulted in a reduction of greenhouse
gas

emissions.

The
Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex
ratification process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
by committing industrialized
countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce
greenhouse gases
(GHG)
emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself
only asks those countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report
periodically.
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principles and provisions of the Convention and
follows its annex-based structure. It only binds developed countries, and places a
heavier burden on them under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility
and respective capabilities”, because it recognizes that they are largely responsible for
the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
In its

Annex B, the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for
37
industrialized countries and
economies in transition and the European Union.
Overall,

these targets
add up to an average 5 per cent emission reduction compared to
1990 levels over the five year period 2008–2012 (the first commitment period).

Doha amendment
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized
countries and economies in transition and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an
average of five percent against 1990 levels. During the
second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce
GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in
the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the
composition of Parties in the second commitment period is
different from the first.

The Kyoto mechanisms

One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market
mechanisms, which
are based on the trade of emissions permits. Under the Protocol, countries must meet their
targets
primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an additional
means to
meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:
•International Emissions Trading
•Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
•Joint implementation (JI)

These mechanisms ideally encourage GHG abatement to start
where it is most cost-effective, for example, in the developing world. It does not matter where
emissions are
reduced, as long as they are removed from the atmosphere. This has the parallel benefits of
stimulating g
reen investment in developing countries and including the private sector in this endeavour to
cut and hold steady
GHG emissions at a safe level. It also makes leap-frogging—that is, the possibility of skipping
the use of older,
dirtier technology for newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems, with obvious longer-term
benefits—more
economical.

Monitoring emission targets
The Kyoto Protocol also established a rigorous
monitoring, review and verification
system, as well as a
compliance system to ensure transparency and hold Parties to
account.
Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and
precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems
track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The
UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an

international transaction log
to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the
Protocol.
Reporting
is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and national
reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A

compliance
system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps
them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.
Adaptation
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting
to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment
of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The

Adaptation Fund
was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in
developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment
period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project
activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period,
international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the
Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.

The
United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development
(UNCSD
), also known as
Rio
2012,
Rio+20
or
Earth Summit 2012

was
the third
international conference on
sustainable development
aimed at reconciling the economic and
environmental goals of the global community.
Hosted by
Brazil in Rio de Janeiro June 2012,
Rio+20 was a 20-year follow-up to the 1992
Earth
Summit
/ United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development(UNCED) held in the
same city,
and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit
on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
inJohannesburg.T

.
The
United Nations Framework Convention on Clim
ate Change
(UNFCCC).
The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent "dangerous" human
interference of the climate system. As is stated in the Convention, this
requires that GHGs are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where
ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not
threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable
fashion.
The UNFCCC recognizes differences among countries in their responsibility
to act on climate change.
In the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, most developed countries
took on legally binding commitments to reduce their emissions
The Conference of Parties (COP) is the apex decision-making body of the
United Nations Climate Change Framework Convention (UNFCCC). The
UNFCCC was formed in 1994 to stabilize the greenhouse gas emissions and to protect
the earth from the threat of climate change. COP members have been meeting every
year since the year 1995. As of 2019, the number of member countries in the UNFCCC
has reached 197. The first conference (COP1) was held in 1995 in Berlin. The 3rd
conference of parties (COP3) was held in Kyoto and then after Kyoto protocol was
adopted. CoP25 ; Madrid, Dec 2019

.
1997

Kyoto Protocol
extended the UNFCCC and included
legally binding
commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions
During Kyoto Protocol negotiations, the

G77
(representing
developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring

developed countries

to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions, since developed countries
contributed most to the

accumulation of greenhouse gases
in the
atmosphere, and since

per-capita emissions
were still relatively low in
developing countries and emissions of developing countries would grow to
meet their development needs
The 2009

Copenhagen Accord
has been widely portrayed as
disappointing because of its low goals, and was rejected by poorer nations
including the G77.
Associated parties aimed to limit the increase in global
mean temperature to below 2.0
°C (3.6 °F). The Accord set the goal of
sending $100 billion per year to developing countries in assistance for
mitigation and adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the

Green Climate Fund.
[287]

As of 2020, the fund has failed to reach its
expected target, and risks a shrinkage in its funding.

.
In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the

Paris Agreement, which aims to
keep global warming well below 1.5
°C (2.7 °F) and contains an
aspirational goal of keeping warming under
1.5 °C. The agreement
replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Unlike Kyoto, no binding emission targets
were set in the Paris Agreement. Instead, the procedure of regularly
setting

ever more ambitious goals
and reevaluating these goals every
five years has been made binding.
The Paris Agreement reiterated that
developing countries must be financially supported.

As of December
2020, 193 states and the

European Union
have signed the treaty and
188 states and the EU have

ratified
or acceded to the agreement
.
[292]
The 1987

Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to stop emitting
ozone-depleting gases, may have been more effective at curbing
greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol specifically
designed to do so.

The 2016
Kigali Amendment
to the Montreal
Protocol aims to reduce the emissions of

hydrofluorocarbons, a group of
powerful greenhouse gases which served as a replacement for banned
ozone-depleting gases. This strengthened the makes the Montreal
Protocol a stronger agreement against climate change.

.
Pakistan launched its first National Climate Change Policy in February this year to cope with
the threats of climate change through adaptation and mitigation measures but has not
achieved even a single target so far. After the 18th Amendment, the environment ministry has
been devolved to the provinces. Now there is no cooperation between the centre and the
provinces to deal with the menace.
“The provinces are only dealing with environment-related issues while climate change is a vast
subject and needs the attention of the federal government. The responsibility of drawing
international funding and investment in different sectors mainly lies with the federal
government,” Dr Amir clarifies.
According to the National Economy and Environment Development Study 2011, Pakistan
needs around $6 billion to $14 billion for climate change adaptation measures while mitigation
efforts will cost around $7 billion to $18 billion dollars from now to 2050. For this, the country
needs to develop climate change related projects to get its monetary share from the Green
Climate Fund, since it cannot cope with these challenges from its own resources.
Muhammad Khalid Siddiq, a joint secretary at the climate change division, told Dawn.com that
the Planning Commission initially approved their new projects for the next fiscal year but later
dropped them without explanation. The agreed-upon projects with the commission were
related to water sanitation, solid waste management and curbing rapid deforestation in the
country.
“We will take up the issue of new projects with the government and seek funding for them,” he
says, adding the dissolution of the ministry has also not sent a good signal to the international
community.
“Numerous international donors and organisations working on climate change have conveyed
their annoyance over the decision and we hope the government will revive the ministry for
effective adaptation and mitigation measures on climate change.”
Siddiq says the economic meltdown may have forced the government to dissolve the ministry
and slash funding but, “they should have exempted the climate change ministry because of its
importance on the global level.”

.Feb 2013
The National Climate Change policy was launched today by
the Government of Pakistan. The policy provides a
framework to address the issues Pakistan faces vis-à-vis the
phenomenon of climate change. It lays down policy
measures for mitigation as well as adaptation for sectors
including energy, transport, agriculture and livestock,
industries, forestry, water resources, biodiversity,
ecosystems with cross cutting themes of disaster risk
reduction, human security and gender. It was developed by
the Ministry of Climate Change with a wide range of
stakeholders and the support of the One UN Joint
Programme on Environment supported by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

.“The National Climate Change policy takes into account risks and
vulnerabilities of various development sectors with specific
emphasis on water, food, energy, national security issues and
provides strategic guidance in the form of appropriate mitigation
and adaptation interventions.” He further added that in order to
implement the policy at the provincial level, his ministry would make
utmost effort to strengthen the provincial environment departments
in carrying out additional functions devolved to them under the 18th
Constitutional Amendment.
Mr. Marc-André Franche, Country Director UNDP in Pakistan,
congratulated the Government of Pakistan on the launch of the
policy and said, “Pakistan is among the most vulnerable countries
facing climate risks and mechanisms need to be devised for
greener, more resilient options for growth and sustainable
development. UNDP is pleased to have been part of the process
which culminated in the approval of this very important policy by the
Federal Cabinet last year. I hope the policy will help key
stakeholders in identifying capacities and skills for the successful
implementation of the policy.”

.
.

.
Australian floods causing long-term damage

Saturday, January 08, 2011

GLADSTONE, Australia: Australia’s flood-stricken coal industry may be
disrupted for months after key rail and road links were washed away, while
some infrastructure could take years to repair, authorities said on Friday.

The floods have swamped mines in Queensland state, paralysing operations
that produce 35 percent of Australia’s estimated 259 million tonnes of
exportable coal. Australia accounts for two-thirds of global exports of coking-
coal, needed to make steel.

“There are some aspects of the rebuilding of infrastructure that will take,
potentially, years,” Major-General Mick Slater, chief of the flood recovery
operation in Queensland, told a news conference in flood-hit Rockhampton
town.

“We still don’t know what it looks like underwater. I know that major roads, rail
lines and bridges are all damaged.”

A snap survey by Reuters showed the median expectation among analysts
was that recovery in coal output to pre-flood levels would take about three
months.

Commodities form a large part of Australia’s $1 trillion economy and coal is the
top export earner, forecast before the floods to earn nearly $50 billion in
revenue in fiscal 2011.

.
The floods have affected an area the size of France and Germany
combined. Three people have been killed and at least 40 towns are
isolated or partially under water after the state’s worst floods in 50
years. Damage has been estimated at $5 billion.

A muddy inland sea has stranded some of Australia’s best beef
cattle on tiny islands of high ground, destroyed wheat and sugar
crops, and the wet season has only just begun.

Floodwaters were receding on Friday in some areas only to
inundate new ones. Authorities said even once floods reached a
peak, water would not significantly recede for almost a week,
leaving the Capricorn highway, which runs through the main coal
region, cut off.

The biggest coal port, Dalrymple, is running at near-normal export
levels of around 200,000 tonnes a day despite the floods, but
authorities are concerned they are simply drawing down inventories
to meet shipments that may soon run out.

Latest
Up to 700bn US$ a year, according to a report released on
behalf of the World Economic Forum. This is the sum
required to be invested in clean technologies. This sum is
needed in addition to the $5 trillion a year countries must
spend on infrastructure for agriculture, transport, power and
water through 2020. “The G20 governments must accelerate
the phasing-out of fossil-fuel subsidies, enact long-term
carbon price signals, enable greater free trade in green
technologies, and expand investment in climate adaptation,”
the report said. (Jan 2013)
READ THE ARTICLE: BLOOMBERG.COM

Latest
According to the Energy Research Institute of the University of
Melbourne, Australia could, energy wise, be self-sufficient within ten
years. About 40 percent of Australian renewables could come from
wind farms, but key to the success of the project is the empty
landscape and the almost constant solar power of the interior. Solar
power would be produced by many buildings, but most power would
come from vast towers containing energy storage systems
(Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology) According to the
study and taking into account the assumption that electricity
demand will be 40 percent higher than today, in 2020 it would still
be possible to achieve 100 percent renewable generation. A total
switch to renewable electricity would cost 3 percent of Australian
GDP annually, about A$37 billion (US$39 billion), for 10 years, and
an added 6.5 cents per kilowatt hour on the electricity price. (Jan
2013)
READ THE ARTICLE: DAILYCLIMATE.ORG

Latest
A large majority of Europeans (79%) think that the EU should
propose additional measures to address air quality-related
problems in Europe. A major survey carried out for the European
Commission has fetched data suggesting that European citizens
don’t feel fully represented by ‘EU-air-policies’. Against the
backdrop of the rapid development of shale gas in the United
States and the discussions in some EU-Member-Countries the
findings highlight the trust European citizens have in the further
rollout of renewable energies. Seven out of ten Europeans, for
example, think renewable energy sources should be prioritized now
and in all 27 countries, renewable energy is the most mentioned
energy option to be prioritized now with a view to the next 30 years.
(Jan 2013)

Latest 2013
UK have decreased in comparison to 2011 but still remain
on a very high level. According to a report released on
Monday overall investment was $269 billion; down from
$302 billion in 2011 but still the second highest level ever.
The sum is split up into various parts; the largest of these
was asset finance of utility-scale renewable energy projects,
such as wind farms, solar parks and biofuel plants.
Considering the political headwinds the industry has
experienced in the past year the industry has, once again,
proven its future viability.
READ THE ARTICLE ON: THEHILL.COM

.
2013—
After several years of development, the DESERTEC Foundation today
releases a set of criteria that ensure the social and environmental
responsibility of large solar projects in desert regions. With this step, the
foundation offers practical measures to achieve one of the cornerstones of the
In the United Arab Emirates, the world’s largest CSP plant begins operations.
WIND POWER- 3
RD LARGEST SOURCE: EADT.CO.UK
The Chinese wind energy sector has been continuously growing and steadily
increasing its share in the national grid. Wind power generation in China
totaled 100.4 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) in 2012, surpassing nuclear power
generation. China had 60.83 GW of installed wind power capacity online as of
year-end 2012, according to the Chinese Wind Energy Association (CWEA). A
national target calls for 100 GW of installed capacity by the end of 2015.
READ THE ARTICLE: CLEANTECHNICA.COM
The German Minister for Economy and Technology, Phillip Rösler and his
Tunisian counterpart, Ridha Saidi, have agreed to collaborate in energy issues.
Focal points of the partnership include among others close cooperation on
efficiency, further bilateral scientific research and the political collaboration on
renewable projects included in the DESERTEC Vision.

.
National Geographic Report
Rising Seas- By Tim Folger

National Geographic- 1
A profoundly altered planet
is what our fossil-fuel-driven civilization is creating, a planet where Sandy-scale
flooding will become more common and more destructive for the world’s coastal cities. By releasing carbon
dioxide and other heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere, we have warmed the Earth by more than a full degree
Fahrenheit over the past century and raised sea level by about eight inches. Even if we stopped burning all fossil
fuels tomorrow, the existing greenhouse gases would continue to warm the Earth for centuries. We have
irreversibly committed future generations to a hotter world and rising seas.
In May the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reached 400 parts per million, the highest since
three million years ago. Sea levels then may have been as much as 65 feet above today’s; the Northern
Hemisphere was largely ice free year-round. It would take centuries for the oceans to reach such catastrophic
heights again, and much depends on whether we manage to limit future greenhouse gas emissions. In the short
term scientists are still uncertain about how fast and how high seas will rise. Estimates have repeatedly been too
conservative.
Global warming affects sea level in two ways. About a third of its current rise comes from thermal expansion—
from the fact that water grows in volume as it warms. The rest comes from the melting of ice on land. So far it’s
been mostly mountain glaciers, but the big concern for the future is the giant ice sheets in Greenland and
Antarctica. Six years ago the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued a report predicting a
maximum of 23 inches of sea-level rise by the end of this century. But that report intentionally omitted the
possibility that the ice sheets might flow more rapidly into the sea, on the grounds that the physics of that process
was poorly understood.
As the IPCC prepares to issue a new report this fall, in which the sea-level forecast is expected to be slightly
higher, gaps in ice-sheet science remain. But climate scientists now estimate that Greenland and Antarctica
combined have lost on average about 50 cubic miles of ice each year since 1992—roughly 200 billion metric tons
of ice annually. Many think sea level will be at least three feet higher than today by 2100. Even that figure might
be too low.

.2
As the IPCC( The highest authority
on global warming) prepares to issue a
new report this fall, in which the sea-level
forecast is expected to be slightly higher,
gaps in ice-sheet science remain. But climate
scientists now estimate that Greenland and
Antarctica combined have lost on average
about 50 cubic miles of ice each year since
1992—roughly 200 billion metric tons of ice
annually. Many think sea level will be at
least three feet higher than today by 2100.

3
In June, Mayor Michael Bloomberg outlined a $19.5 billion plan to
defend New York City against rising seas. “Sandy was a temporary
setback that can ultimately propel us forward,” he said. The mayor’s
proposal calls for the construction of levees, local storm-surge
barriers, sand dunes, oyster reefs, and more than 200 other
measures. It goes far beyond anything planned by any other
American city. But the mayor dismissed the idea of a harbor barrier.
“A giant barrier across our harbor is neither practical nor affordable,”
Bloomberg said. The plan notes that since a barrier would remain
open most of the time, it would not protect the city from the inch-by-
inch creep of sea-level rise.
Meanwhile, development in the city’s flood zones continues. Klaus
Jacob, a geophysicist at Columbia University, says the entire New
York metropolitan region urgently needs a master plan to ensure that
future construction will at least not exacerbate the hazards from
rising seas.

4
. Compared with some other leading ports, New
York is essentially defenseless in the face of
hurricanes and floods. London, Rotterdam, St.
Petersburg, New Orleans, and Shanghai have all
built levees and storm barriers in the past few
decades. New York paid a high price for its
vulnerability last October. Sandy left 43 dead in
the city, of whom 35 drowned; it cost the city some
$19 billion. And it was all unnecessary, says
Bowman.

.5
Unless we change course
dramatically in the coming years,
our carbon emissions will create a world utterly different in its
very geography from the one in which our species evolved.
“With business as usual, the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere will reach around a thousand parts per million
by the end of the century,” says Gavin Foster, a geochemist at
the University of Southampton in England. Such
concentrations, he says, haven’t been seen on Earth since the
early Eocene epoch, 50 million years ago, when the planet was
completely ice free. According to the U.S. Geological Survey,
sea level on an iceless Earth would be as much as 216 feet
higher than it is today. It might take thousands of years and
more than a thousand parts per million to create such a world—
but if we burn all the fossil fuels, we will get there.

.6
By the next century, if not sooner, large numbers of
people will have to abandon coastal areas in Florida
and other parts of the world. Some researchers fear a
flood tide of climate-change refugees. “From the
Bahamas to Bangladesh and a major amount of
Florida, we’ll all have to move, and we may have to
move at the same time,” says Wanless. “We’re going to
see civil unrest, war. You just wonder how—or if—
civilization will function. How thin are the threads that
hold it all together? We can’t comprehend this. We
think Miami has always been here and will always be
here. How do you get people to realize that Miami—or
London—will not always be there?”

7
Sea-level rise has already begun to threaten Florida’s
freshwater supply. About a quarter of the state’s 19 million
residents depend on wells sunk into the enormous Biscayne
aquifer. Salt water is now seeping into it from dozens of
canals that were built to drain the Everglades. For decades
the state has tried to control the saltwater influx by building
dams and pumping stations on the drainage canals. These
“salinity-control structures” maintain a wall of fresh water
behind them to block the underground intrusion of salt water.
To offset the greater density of salt water, the freshwater
level in the control structures is generally kept about two feet
higher than the encroaching sea.

8
With the threats of climate change
and sea-
level rise looming over us all, cities around the
world, from New York to Ho Chi Minh City, have
turned to the Netherlands for guidance. One Dutch
firm, Arcadis, has prepared a conceptual design
for a storm-surge barrier in the Verrazano Narrows
to protect New York City. The same company
helped design a $1.1 billion, two-mile-long barrier
that protected New Orleans from a 13.6-foot storm
surge last summer, when Hurricane Isaac hit. The
Lower Ninth Ward, which suffered so greatly
during Hurricane Katrina, was unscathed.

SOLUTIONS
Development of Alternatives
as CFC were phased out like PHOSTR – EX
phasing out HFCs
Forestry (Image)
Construction of dykes (Image)
Energy Alternatives (Image)
Green Technology like green cars, green
planes, green industry (low- carb industry) etc.
(Image)
Obama’s Plan regarding green jobs, technology
and environment.
EU – environment protection program.

/

.

Wind Energy

Solar Energy

Solar car

/

.
Solar Impulse- 2016

Tidal Energy

Economies of low land countries would become
vulnerable.
New tussle among nations for capturing
economic resources.
countries with limited economic resources, low
levels of technology, poor information and skills,
poor infrastructure, unstable or weak institutions,
and inequitable empowerment and access to
resources have little adaptive capacity and are
highly vulnerable to climate change
Increased disparity bet DCs & LDCs

.
Nuclear implications
Japan tsunami (Mar.2011)… Bursting of
nuclear reactors….An eye opener..
Concerns over India’s coastal nuclear
plants. India’s proposed Jaitapur (Maharashtra)
plant is going to be one of the biggest nuclear
plant in world with a total of 6 reactors providing
almost 10000 mw.
Nuclear stations are often built by the sea due to
their water consumption
Japan’s preparedness
Yet tremendous impact

. Economic Consequences
The costs associated with climate change rise along with the
temperatures. Severe storms and floods combined with
agricultural losses cause billions of dollars in damages, and
money is needed to treat and control the spread of disease.
Extreme weather can create extreme financial setbacks. For
example, during the record-breaking hurricane year of 2005,
Louisiana saw a 15 percent drop in income during the
months following the storms, while property damage was
estimated at $135 billion [source: Global Development and
Environment Institute, Tufts University].
Rising food and energy costs along with increased
insurance premiums for health and home. Governments
suffer the consequences of diminished tourism and industrial
profits, soaring energy, food and water demands, disaster
cleanup and border tensions.

.
2. Loss of Biodiversity
Species loss and endangerment is rising along with global
temperatures. As many as 30 percent of plant and animal species
alive today risk extinction by 2050 if average temperatures rise
more than 2 to 11.5 degrees F (1.1 to 6.4 degrees C) [sources: EPA,
Scientific American]. Such extinctions will be due to loss of habitat
through desertification, deforestation and ocean warming, as well as
the inability to adapt to climate warming. Wildlife researchers have
noted some of the more resilient species migrating to the poles, far
north and far south to maintain their needed habitat; the red fox, for
example, normally an inhabitant of North America, is now seen living
in the Arctic.
Humans also aren't immune to the threat. Desertification and rising
sea levels threaten human habitats. And when plants and animals are
lost to climate change, human food, fuel and income are lost as well

.
3. Conflicts and War
Declining amounts of quality food, water and land
may be leading to an increase in global security
threats, conflict and war.
National security experts analyzing the current
conflict in Sudan's Darfur region suggest that while
global warming is not the sole cause of the crisis,
its roots may be traced to the impact of climate
change, specifically the reduction of available
natural resources

.
1. Destruction of Ecosystems
Changing climatic conditions and
dramatic increases in carbon dioxide
will put our ecosystems to the test,
threatening supplies of fresh water,
clean air, fuel and energy resources,
food, medicine and other matters we
depend upon not just for our lifestyles
but for our survival.

/
Drought
While some parts of the world may find themselves deluged by
increasing storms and rising waters, other areas may find
themselves suffering from drought. As the climate warms, experts
estimate drought conditions may increase by at least 66 percent
[source: Scientific American]. An increase in drought conditions
leads quickly to a shrinking water supply and a decrease in quality
agricultural conditions. This puts global food production and supply
in danger and leaves populations at risk for starvation.
Today, India, Pakistan and sub-Saharan Africa already
experience droughts, and experts predict precipitation could
continue to dwindle in the coming decades. Estimates paint a dire
picture. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change suggests
that by 2020, 75 to 250 million Africans may experience water
shortages, and the continent's agricultural output will decrease
by 50 percent [source: BBC].

. Storms and Floods
Experts use climate models to project the impact rising global
temperatures will have on precipitation. However, no modeling is
needed to see that severe storms are happening more frequently:
In just 30 years the occurrence of the strongest hurricanes --
categories 4 and 5 -- has nearly doubled [source: An
Inconvenient Truth].
Warm waters give hurricanes their strength, and scientists are
correlating the increase in ocean and atmospheric temperatures to
the rate of violent storms. During the last few years, both the United
States and Britain have experienced extreme storms and flooding,
costing lives and billions of dollars in damages. Between 1905 and
2005 the frequency of hurricanes has been on a steady ascent.
From 1905 to 1930, there were an average of 3.5 hurricanes per
year; 5.1 between 1931 and 1994; and 8.4 between 1995 and 2005
[source: USA Today

.
Heat Waves
The deadly heat wave that swept across…
Extreme heat waves are happening two to four times
more often now, steadily rising over the last 50 to 100
years, and are projected to be 100 times more likely over the
next 40 years [source: Global Development and
Environment Institute, Tufts University]. Experts suggest
continued heat waves may mean future increases in
wildfires, heat-related illness and a general rise in the
planet's mean temperature.

.
Conflicts :
 E.g. In arctic region, the monopoly game has
already started among 5 nations. Russia holds
the trump card while America seems to be
sidelined.
Fight over water & natural resources

.
The Arctic Circle holds an estimated 90 billion
barrels of recoverable oil, enough supply to
meet current world demand for almost three
years,.
The forecast comes as Russia is competing
with Canada, Denmark, Norway and the United
States to grab a chunk of the huge energy
resources in the Arctic, an area growing more
accessible due to global warming melting the
ice.
The government agency also said the area
could contain 1,670 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of
natural gas.

MCQ’s
1) The largest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the world is
________, followed by ________.
A) agriculture; transportation
B) electricity generation; agriculture
C) electricity generation; industry
D) electricity generation; transportation
E) agriculture; electricity generation
Answer: D
2) The atmosphere around Earth is warmed because ________.
A) warm air cannot escape, as in a greenhouse
B) molecules in the atmosphere are warmed by radiation from Earth and
retain that heat
C) fossil fuels release heat
D) plants absorb CO2
E) plants release CO2
Answer: B

3) Earth's climate ________.
A) has been stable over the history of the planet
B) is changing as a result of natural and human processes
C) will stabilize over the next century, according to the predictions of most scientists
D) has been documented to have changed once due to the evolution of green
photosynthesizing plants
E) history is undeterminable because there is no method of studying climatic history
of the planet
Answer: B
4) Of the following greenhouse gases, ________ concentrations have increased the
most since 1750.
A) water vapor
B) carbon dioxide
C) nitrous oxide
D) ozone
E) methane
Answer: E
5) Carbon dioxide is ________.
A) the most potent (per molecule of gas) of the greenhouse gases
B) the most abundant greenhouse gas
C) more potent (per molecule of gas) than methane
D) the main anthropogenic greenhouse gas produced in the United States
E) the only greenhouse gas presently increasing in the atmosphere
Answer: D

6) Milankovitch cycles ________.
A) refer to shifts in the temperature of surface water in the middle latitudes of the
Pacific Ocean
B) are changes in Earth's rotation and orbit around the sun that may trigger climate
variation
C) describe the timing of the northern lights in the thermosphere
D) describe the transpiration, evaporation, and precipitation of Earth's water
E) describe upwelling and downwelling in the ocean
Answer: B
7) The exceptionally strong warming of the eastern Pacific is referred to as
________.
A) the Coriolis effect
B) La Niña
C) El Niño
D) Eastern Pacific Shallow Water Warming
E) Eastern Pacific Deep Water Warming
Answer: C
8) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ________.
A) constructed the Kyoto Protocol
B) performed the research included in the climate change findings
C) is an international panel that concluded that climate change has influenced
biomes and economies
D) fines companies that pollute
E) could not achieve its objectives because of lack of popular support
Answer: C

9) Carbon-based fuels from lithospheric reservoirs ________.
A) have formed slowly over many millions of years
B) is readily lost from Earth's surface in the absence of humans
C) is formed from the deposition, partial decay, and compression of inorganic matter
D) cannot be lost to the atmosphere by human processes once stabilized on Earth's
surface
E) will be lost before the end of the decade
Answer: A
10) The Kyoto Protocol ________.
A) increased federal funding for controlling greenhouse gas emissions from U.S.
power plants
B) required concessions from all countries involved equally in greenhouse gas
emission
C) required increases in nuclear power generation
D) would have resulted in overall increases in greenhouse emissions
E) was intended to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels lower than
those of 1990
Answer: E
11) Hydrogen fuel cells, biodiesel, hydrogen fuel cells and long-term electric batteries
are potential solutions to
A) reducing carbon emissions from cars and trucks
B) carbon sequestration
C) cap-and-trade emission control
D) replacing coal as a major fuel for generating electricity
E) cutting back the carbon emissions from hydroelectric plants
Answer: A

12) Growing rice results in the release of ________ into the atmosphere.
A) methane
B) nitrous oxides
C) ozone
D) carbon dioxide
E) sulfate aerosols
Answer: A
13) El Niño and La Niña ________.
A) both decrease water temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean
B) both increase water temperatures in the eastern Pacific Ocean
C) both increase water temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico
D) occur in precise patterns every 10 years
E) produce changes of opposite direction in global temperature and precipitation patterns
Answer: E
14) The greenhouse effect involves warming of Earth's surface and the ________.
A) troposphere
B) mesosphere
C) stratosphere
D) thermosphere
E) ionosphere
Answer: A
15) As water warms, it ________.
A) increases in density
B) expands
C) sinks
D) dissolves increased amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
E) is irreversibly altered
Answer: B

16) Hydroelectric power generation ________.
A) produces high quantities of greenhouse gases
B) has no undesirable environmental effects
C) produces pollutants that contribute significantly to acid precipitation
D) uses fuel cells to generate electricity
E) is an alternative to fossil fuels and produces fewer greenhouse gases
Answer: E
17) Close to ________% of the fuel you pump into your automobile does not move
your vehicle down the road.
A) 45
B) 55
C) 65
D) 75
E) 85
Answer: E
18) Kyoto is to carbon dioxide as Montreal is to ________.
A) nitrous oxide
B) ozone
C) methane
D) chlorofluorocarbons
E) carbon monoxide
Answer: D

19)Which gas is responsible for the global warming?
Nitrogen
Noble gases
Carbon dioxide
Sulphates
20) The 2009 UN climate summit is organized at ……………..
Dubai
Copenhagen
New York
London
21) The depletion of which of the following can contribute
to stronger UV rays reaching earth?
Ozone layer
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Clouds

22) Which country has organized its cabinet meeting under the sea to drag attention
of the world towards the Global Warming and its threats?
Maldives
Sri Lanka
Fiji
Jamaica
23) Which is the only country who has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol yet?
Australia
United States
Japan
India
24) When was the first United Nations Climate Change Conference held?
1992
1993
1994
1995
25) How many countries are participating in UN climate summit 2009?
191
192
193
194
26) Which of the following effect is responsible for Global Warming?
White House effect
Blue House effect
Green House Effect
Red House Effect

27) On 4 December 2009, Nepal held the historic cabinet meeting at which mountain?
K2
Kangchenjunga
Nanda Devi
Mt. Everest
28) Which of these depletes the ozone layer and causes global warming?
Nitrogen Dioxide
CFCs
Ammonia
All of the above
29) Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about _______
0.8 °C (1.4
°F)
0.9 °C (1.6
°F)
0.7 °C (1.2
°F)
0.3 °C (1
°F)
30) Naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases have a mean
warming effect of about _______.
30 °C (56
°F)
31 °C (57
°F)
32 °C (58
°F)
33 °C (59
°F)

,
Pakistan
Although the Minister of State for environment Malik Min Aslam was at first not very receptive, he subsequently convinced the Shoukat Aziz cabinet to ratify the Protocol.[citation needed]
The decision was taken in 2001 but due to international circumstances, it was announced in Argentina in 2004 and accepted in 2005, opening the way for the creation of a policy framework.
On 11 January 2005, Pakistan submitted its instruments of accession to the Kyoto Protocol. The Ministry of Environment assigned the task to work as designated national authority (DNA).
According to a news story by Khan (2009), it was expected that the Protocol would help Pakistan lower dependence on fossil fuels through renewable energy projects.[89]
Pakistan had a per capita income of US$ 492 in 2002–2003, and is a low-income country (Pakistan government, 2003, p. 15).[90] The Pakistan government is concentrating on reducing the
vulnerability of the country to current climatic events (p. 17).
CDM
In February, 2006, the national CDM operational strategy was approved, and on 27 April 2006, the first CDM project was approved by DNA.[citation needed] It was reduction of large N2O
from nitric acid production (investor: Mitsubishi, Japan), with an estimated annual production of 1 million CERs. Finally, in November, 2006, the first CDM project was registered with the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Pakistan has specified preferences for the CDM projects, including (Pakistan government, 2006, pp. 3–4):[91]
alternative and renewable energy
energy efficiency
fossil fuel co-generation (co-generation is the use of waste heat from thermal electricity-generation plants (Verbruggen, 2007))[92]
Land use, land use change, and forestry, e.g., biodiversity protection
waste management, e.g., reducing GHG emissions from latrines and animal waste (EcoSecurities, 2007, p. 72)[93]
So far, 23 CDM so far have been approved by the Pakistan government (n.d.).[94]
Emissions
Over the period from July 1993 to June 1994, Pakistan's energy sector was by far the highest contributor to CO2 emissions, with a share of 81% of total CO2 emissions (Pakistan
government, 2003, pp. 16).[90] Pakistan's energy-related CO2 emissions rose by 94.1% between 1990 and 2005 (World Bank, 2010, p. 362).[62]
Pakistan's per capita emissions in 2005 were 0.8 tCO2 per head (p. 362). In 2005, Pakistan contributed 0.45% of the global total in energy-related CO2 emissions. Pakistan's cumulative
emissions over the period 1850–2005 was 2.4 billion metric tons. Cumulative emissions before 1971 are based on data for East and West Pakistan.

.
Geoengineering
Another policy response is engineering of the climate (
geoengineering). This policy response is sometimes
grouped together with mitigation.[106] Geoengineering
is largely unproven, and reliable cost estimates for it
have not yet been published.[107] Geoengineering
encompasses a range of techniques to
remove CO2 from the atmosphere or to
block incoming sunlight. As most geoengineering
techniques would affect the entire globe, the use of
effective techniques, if they can be developed, would
require global public acceptance and an adequate global
legal and regulatory framework.[

The Myth Of Global Warming
A brief list of arguments that each refute the notion that the
community should be scared by the idea of global warming.
The Swindle (cheat) The Great Global Warming Swindle
Sea Levels Not Rising Except In The Lies of the IPCC
Solar Cycles, Not CO2
Determine ClimateGlobal Climate Explained
(If you Want To Worry)
Suspend Disaster The Myth Of Global Warming
A Load Of Hot Air Climate Change Hysteria is Costing Us
The Ice Age Cometh The Real Danger Of An Ice Age
Global Warming Messy Models, Decent Data, and Pointless
Policy
Hot Politics Doctoring Of Reports By UN Experts
Cool Climate The Absurdity Of Trying To Control Climate
A Pagan Fantasy The Effect Of Accepting Popular Paranoia
As Truth

.
There is no proof that the current warming is caused by the rise of
greenhouse gases from human activity. Ice core records from the past
650,000 years show that temperature increases have preceded—not resulted
from—increases in CO2 by hundreds of years, suggesting that the warming
of the oceans is an important source of the rise in atmospheric CO2. As the
dominant greenhouse gas, water vapour is far, far more important than CO2.
Dire predictions of future warming are based almost entirely on computer
climate models, yet these models do not accurately understand the role or
water vapor—and, in any case, water vapor is not within our control. Plus,
computer models cannot account for the observed cooling of much of the
past century (1940–75), nor for the observed patterns of warming—what we
call the “fingerprints.” For example, the Antarctic is cooling while models
predict warming. And where the models call for the middle atmosphere to
warm faster than the surface, the observations show the exact opposite.
The best evidence supporting natural causes of temperature fluctuations are
the changes in cloudiness, which correspond strongly with regular variations
in solar activity. The current warming is likely part of a natural cycle of
climate warming and cooling that’s been traced back almost a million years. It
accounts for the Medieval Warm Period around 1100 A.D., when the Vikings
settled Greenland and grew crops, and the Little Ice Age, from about 1400 to
1850 A.D., which brought severe winters and cold summers to Europe, with
failed harvests, starvation, disease, and general misery. Attempts have been
made to claim that the current warming is “unusual” using spurious analysis
of tree rings and other proxy data. Advocates have tried to deny the existence
of these historic climate swings and claim that the current warming is
"unusual" by using spurious analysis of tree rings and other proxy data,
resulting in the famous “hockey–stick” temperature graph. The hockey-stick
graph has now been thoroughly discredited

.
The much–feared rise in sea levels does not seem to
depend on short–term temperature changes, as the rate of
sea–level increases has been steady since the last ice age,
10,000 years ago. In fact, many economists argue that the
opposite is more likely—that warming produces a net
benefit, that it increases incomes and standards of living.
Why do we assume that the present climate is the optimum?
Surely, the chance of this must be vanishingly small, and the
economic history of past climate warmings bear this out.
But the main message of The Great Global Warming
Swindle is much broader. Why should we devote our scarce
resources to what is essentially a non–problem, and ignore
the real problems the world faces:

.
January 2011, U.S. coldest
In 26 Years
Posted on

January 9, 2011
by
Hot News
NewsSecond – Currently, the winter snow
blanketing the middle of the countries

in
the region
north of the equator. According to

weather
forecasts
of various institutions, a severe winter
will continue to hit until mid or late January.
Based on these predictions, AccuWeather,
weather monitoring institutions from the United
States that was established

in
1962
states,

in
January 2011 will be the coldest January
since 1985, past or over a period of 26
years,

in
the United …

Climate change can stir Indo-Pak
conflict
Posted on

January 7, 2011
by
Climate Himalaya Initiative|

Leave a comment
A public policy research arm of the US Congress has raised
doubts that climate change could act as a ‘threat multiplier’
and has potential to stoke conflict between nuclear-armed
states of Pakistan and India. Congressional Research
Service (CRS) in its 2010 Report on ‘Security and the
Environment in Pakistan’ prepared for members and
committees of the Congress stated that climate change has
been projected to increase the variability of monsoons,
decrease the predictability of precipitation, exacerbate
water-stress in arid and semi-arid regions, and further salt-
water intrusion of coastal freshwater supplies.

he report said under climate change predictions, the eventual loss
of glacier storage may significantly alter water available in the Indus
River for use in Pakistan. It said the combination of environmental
degradation; anticipated future impacts of climate change and
increasing demographic pressure are likely to place significant
stress on many developing nations across the globe in the years
ahead. Western Himalayan glaciers are projected to continue their
retreat from the next half century, increasing Indus River flows and
flooding. These initial increases in river flows would likely to be
followed by decreased river flows as the glacial melt decreases as
the glaciers disappear,” it said. A 2010 Dutch study found that melt
water from the Himalaya accounts for 60% of the water in the Indus
River. The study also found that projected temperature, rainfall and
snow projections would lead to 8.4% decrease in upstream water
flow into the Indus by 2050 that would threaten the food security of
those dependent on the river for irrigation.
The report said environmental crises such as water scarcity; soil
depletion and natural disasters can intensify conflict or stress and
potentially contribute to national security issues. It said, “Drought
can stress water supplies along the Indus River and potentially
exacerbate tensions between Pakistan and India and can further
lead to reduced hydropower supplies and catalyse protests in areas
experiencing rolling blackouts, and out course contribute to
economic stresses in Pakistan ‘s agricultural regions, where the
majority of Pakistanis live.”

.
The report also referred to a statement by President Asif Ali Zardari
in which he said, “The water crisis in Pakistan is directly linked to
relations with India. Resolution could prevent an environmental
catastrophe in South Asia, but failure to do so could fuel the fires of
discontent that lead to extremism and terrorism.” As the potential
effects of environmental degradation and climate change on
Pakistan’s and many other nations’ security become better
understood, there may be greater impetus for the United States to
assess international climate change mitigation and adaptation
frameworks.
It pointed out, “Pakistan has one of the highest deforestation
rates in the world and currently has approximately 4% of its original
forested area intact. Loss of forests has led to soil erosion and
altered ecosystems in the region.” The projected effects of climate
change in Pakistan range from increased periods of drought and
low water supplies to sea level rise and associated saltwater
intrusion. Many of these environmental stresses have potential
socio-economic and political consequences for Pakistan. The report
examined the potentially destabilising effect that, when combined
with Pakistan’s demographic trends and limited economic
development, water scarcity, limited arable land, and food security
may have on an already radicalised internal and destabilised
international political-security environment.

.
It stated environmental factors could expand the ranks of the
dispossessed in Pakistan, which could lead to greater
recruitment for radical Islamist groups operating in Pakistan
or Afghanistan. Larger numbers of dispossessed people in
Pakistani political system and possibly add impetus to a
return to military rule or more bellicose posture towards
India. It further said Pakistan is subject to both demand-
induced scarcity and structural scarcity. Demand-induced
scarcity stems from Pakistan’s growing population and per
capita use of resource. Structural scarcity stems from the
inequitable distribution and use of natural resources in
Pakistan, stemming from social inequality.

.
The

Kyoto Protocol
is a
protocol
to the
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change

(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting
global warming. The UNFCCC is an
international

environmental treaty
with the
goal of achieving "stabilization of

greenhouse gas
concentrations in the
atmosphere
at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference
with
the climate system."[1]
The Protocol was initially adopted on 11
December 1997 in

Kyoto,

Japan
and
entered into force on 16 February 2005. As
of November 2009,

187 states have signed and ratified
the
protocol.[2]

.
Under the Protocol, 37 industrialized countries (called "
Annex I countries") commit themselves to a reduction
of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide,

methane,

nitrous oxide,

sulphur hexafluoride) and two
groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons
and
perfluorocarbons) produced by them, and all member
countries give general commitments. Annex I countries
agreed to reduce their collective greenhouse gas
emissions by 5.2% from the 1990 level. Emission limits
do not include emissions by international aviation and
shipping, but are in addition to the industrial gases,
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with
under the 1987

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozo
ne Layer
.
The benchmark 1990 emission levels were accepted
by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC (decision
2/CP.3) were the values of "global warming potential"
calculated for the

IPCC Second

Assessment Report.[3]
These figures are used for
converting the various greenhouse gas emissions
into comparable

CO2
equivalents

(CO2-eq) when
computing overall sources and sinks.
The Protocol allows for several "
flexible mechanisms", such as

emissions trading,
the

clean development mechanism
(CDM) and
joint implementation
to allow
Annex I countries
to
meet their GHG emission limitations by purchasing
GHG emission reductions credits from elsewhere,
through financial exchanges, projects that reduce
emissions in non-Annex I countries, from other
Annex I countries, or from annex I countries with
excess allowances.

Each Annex I country is required to submit an
annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions from sources and
removals from sinks under UNFCCC and the
Kyoto Protocol. These countries nominate a
person (called a "designated national authority") to
create and manage its

greenhouse gas inventory.
Virtually all of the non-Annex I countries have also
established a designated national authority to
manage its Kyoto obligations, specifically the
"CDM process" that determines which GHG
projects they wish to propose for accreditation by
the CDM Executive Board.

.
Objectives

Kyoto is intended to cut

global
emissions of
greenhouse gases.
The objective is the "stabilization and reconstruction of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system."[1]
The objective of the Kyoto climate change conference was to establish a legally
binding international agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit
themselves to tackling the issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions.
The target agreed upon was an average reduction of 5.2% from 1990 levels by the
year 2012. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I countries must have fulfilled
their obligations of reduction of greenhouse gases emissions established for the
first commitment period (2008–2012) (see Annex B of the Protocol).
The five principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
Commitments. The heart of the Protocol lies in establishing commitments for the
reduction of greenhouse gases that are legally binding for Annex I countries, as
well as general commitments for all member countries.
Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries
are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse
gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the
absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint
implementation, the clean development mechanism and emissions trading, in order
to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at
home.
Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for
climate change.
Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the
commitments under the Protocol.

ssss
Emissions
See also:

Greenhouse gas#Greenhouse gas emissions
Per-capita emissions are a country's total emissions divided by its population (Banuri

et al.., 1996, p.
95).[18] Per-capita emissions in the
industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries (Grubb, 2003, p.
144).[19] This is one of
the reasons why industrialized countries accepted responsibility for leading climate change efforts in the Kyoto negotiations. In Kyoto, the
countries that took on quantified commitments for the first period (2008–12) corresponded roughly to those with per-capita emissions in
1990 of two tonnes of carbon or higher. In 2005, the top-20 emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions (PBL, 2010. See also the
notes in the following section on the top-ten emitters in 2005).[20]
Countries with a Kyoto target made up 20% of total GHG emissions.
Another way of measuring GHG emissions is to measure the total emissions that have accumulated in the atmosphere over time (IEA,
2007, p.
199).[21] Over a long time period, cumulative emissions provide an indication of a country's total contribution to GHG
concentrations in the atmosphere. Over the 1900-2005 period, the US was the world's largest cumulative emitter of energy-related
CO2
emissions, and accounted for 30% of total cumulative emissions (IEA, 2007, p. 201). The second largest emitter was the EU, at
23%; the third largest was China, at 8%; fourth was Japan, at 4%; fifth was India, at 2%. The rest of the world accounted for 33% of
global, cumulative, energy-related CO2
emissions.
Top-ten emitters
What follows is a ranking of the world's top ten emitters of GHGs for 2005 (MNP, 2007).The
first figure is the country's or region's emissions as a percentage of the global total. The
second figure is the country's/region's per-capita emissions, in units of tons of GHG per-
capita:
China1
– 17%, 5.8
United States3
– 16%, 24.1
European Union-273
– 11%, 10.6
Indonesia2
- 6%, 12.9
India – 5%, 2.1
Russia3
– 5%, 14.9
Brazil – 4%, 10.0
Japan3
– 3%, 10.6
Canada3
– 2%, 23.2
Mexico – 2%, 6.4

The total area of Greenland is 2,166,086
km² (836,109 sq mi), of
which the Greenland ice sheet covers 1,755,637
km²
(677,676
sq mi) (81%) and has a volume of approximately
2,850,000
cubic kilometres (680,000 cu mi).[28] The coastline of
Greenland is 39,330
km (24,430 miles) long, about the same
length as the Earth's circumference at the Equator. The highest
point on Greenland is at 3,859 metres (12,119
ft). However, the
majority of Greenland is under 1,500 metres (5,000
ft) elevation.
The weight of the massive Greenland ice sheet has depressed
the central land area to form a basin lying more than 300
m
(1,000
ft) below sea level
If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the
world's sea level would rise by more than 7
m (23 ft)[30] and
Greenland would most likely become an archipelago.

Worldwide, the proportion of hurricanes reaching
categories 4 or 5 – with wind speeds above 56
metres per second – has risen from 20% in the
1970s to 35% in the 1990s.[17] Precipitation hitting
the US from hurricanes has increased by 7% over
the twentieth century
2009- hurricane in florida
Energy traders watch for storms that could enter
the Gulf of Mexico and threaten U.S. oil and natural
gas platforms and refineries along the coast.
Commodities traders watch storms that could hit
crops such as citrus and cotton in Florida and other
states along the coast to Texas

Increasing water vapor at Boulder, Colorado.
Over the course of the 20th century, evaporation rates have reduced
worldwide [31]; this is thought by many to be explained by global dimming.
As the climate grows warmer and the causes of global dimming are
reduced, evaporation will increase due to warmer oceans. Because the
world is a closed system this will cause heavier rainfall, with more erosion.
This erosion, in turn, can in vulnerable tropical areas (especially in Africa)
lead to desertification. On the other hand, in other areas, increased rainfall
lead to growth of forests in dry desert areas.
Scientists have found evidence that increased evaporation could result in
more extreme weather as global warming progresses. The IPCC Third
Annual Report says: "...global average water vapor concentration and
precipitation are projected to increase during the 21st century. By the
second half of the 21st century, it is likely that precipitation will have
increased over northern mid- to high latitudes and Antarctica in winter. At
low latitudes there are both regional increases and decreases over land
areas. Larger year to year variations in precipitation are very likely over
most areas where an increase in mean precipitation is projected."[10][32]
Cost of more extreme weather

“catastrophe losses should be expected to double roughly every 10 years because of
increases in construction costs, increases in the number of structures and changes in
their characteristics.”[33] The Association of British Insurers has stated that limiting
carbon emissions would avoid 80% of the projected additional annual cost of tropical
cyclones by the 2080s. The cost is also increasing partly because of building in
exposed areas such as coasts and floodplains. The ABI claims that reduction of the
vulnerability to some inevitable effects of climate change, for example through more
resilient buildings and improved flood defences, could also result in considerable cost-
savings in the longterm.[34]
Local climate change
Main article: Regional effects of global warming

The first recorded South Atlantic hurricane, "Catarina", which hit Brazil in March 2004
In the northern hemisphere, the southern part of the Arctic region (home to 4,000,000
people) has experienced a temperature rise of 1
°C to 3 °C (1.8 °F to 5.4 °F) over the
last 50 years.[citation needed] Canada, Alaska and Russia are experiencing initial
melting of permafrost. This may disrupt ecosystems and by increasing bacterial activity
in the soil lead to these areas becoming carbon sources instead of carbon sinks.[35] A
study (published in Science) of changes to eastern Siberia's permafrost suggests that
it is gradually disappearing in the southern regions, leading to the loss of nearly 11%
of Siberia's nearly 11,000 lakes since 1971.[36] At the same time, western Siberia is at
the initial stage where melting permafrost is creating new lakes, which will eventually
start disappearing as in the east. Furthermore, permafrost melting will eventually
cause methane release from melting permafrost peat bogs

Since 1980, glacier retreat has become increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, and has threatened the
existence of many of the glaciers of the world. This process has increased markedly since 1995.[41]
Excluding the ice caps and ice sheets of the Arctic and Antarctic, the total surface area of glaciers
worldwide has decreased by 50% since the end of the 19th century.[42] Currently glacier retreat
rates and mass balance losses have been increasing in the Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, Himalayas,
Rocky Mountains and North Cascades.
The loss of glaciers not only directly causes landslides, flash floods and glacial lake overflow,[43] but
also increases annual variation in water flows in rivers. Glacier runoff declines in the summer as
glaciers decrease in size, this decline is already observable in several regions.[44] Glaciers retain
water on mountains in high precipitation years, since the snow cover accumulating on glaciers
protects the ice from melting. In warmer and drier years, glaciers offset the lower precipitation
amounts with a higher meltwater input.[42]
Of particular importance are the Hindu Kush and Himalayan glacial melts that comprise the principal
dry-season water source of many of the major rivers of the Central, South, East and Southeast Asian
mainland. Increased melting would cause greater flow for several decades, after which "some areas
of the most populated regions on Earth are likely to 'run out of water'" as source glaciers are
depleted.[45] The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Temperatures there
are rising four times faster than in the rest of China, and glacial retreat is at a high speed compared
to elsewhere in the world.[46]
According to a Reuters report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the sources of Asia's biggest rivers—
Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellow—could diminish as
temperatures rise.[47] Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan
rivers.[48] India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed
by droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming
for more than 500 million people.[49][50][51] It has to be acknowledged, however, that increased
seasonal runoff of Himalayan glaciers led to increased agricultural production in northern India
throughout the 20th century

The recession of mountain glaciers, notably in Western North America, Franz-Josef Land, Asia, the
Alps, the Pyrenees, Indonesia and Africa, and tropical and sub-tropical regions of South America,
has been used to provide qualitative support to the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th
century. Many glaciers are being lost to melting further raising concerns about future local water
resources in these glaciated areas. In Western North America the 47 North Cascade glaciers
observed all are retreating.[53]

Retreat of the Helheim Glacier, Greenland
Despite their proximity and importance to human populations, the mountain and valley glaciers of
temperate latitudes amount to a small fraction of glacial ice on the earth. About 99% is in the great
ice sheets of polar and subpolar Antarctica and Greenland. These continuous continental-scale ice
sheets, 3
kilometres (1.9 mi) or more in thickness, cap the polar and subpolar land masses. Like
rivers flowing from an enormous lake, numerous outlet glaciers transport ice from the margins of the
ice sheet to the ocean.
Glacier retreat has been observed in these outlet glaciers, resulting in an increase of the ice flow
rate. In Greenland the period since the year 2000 has brought retreat to several very large glaciers
that had long been stable. Three glaciers that have been researched, Helheim, Jakobshavn Isbræ
and Kangerdlugssuaq Glaciers, jointly drain more than 16% of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Satellite
images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had
remained in the same place for decades. But in 2001 it began retreating rapidly, retreating 7.2
km
(4.5
mi) between 2001 and 2005. It has also accelerated from 20 m (66 ft)/day to 32 m (100 ft)/day.
[54] Jakobshavn Isbræ in western Greenland had been moving at speeds of over 24
m (79 ft)/day
with a stable terminus since at least 1950. The glacier's ice tongue began to break apart in 2000,
leading to almost complete disintegration in 2003, while the retreat rate doubled to over 30
m
(98
ft)/day

Transport
Roads, airport runways, railway lines and
pipelines, (including oil pipelines, sewers,
water mains etc) may require increased
maintenance and renewal as they become
subject to greater temperature variation.
Regions already adversely affected include
areas of permafrost, which are subject to
high levels of subsidence, resulting in
buckling roads, sunken foundations, and
severely cracked runways

Climate change is expected to have a mixed effect on
agriculture, with some regions benefitting from moderate
temperature increases and others being negatively affected.
[113] Low-latitude areas are at most risk of suffering
decreased crop yields. Mid- and high-latitude areas could
see increased yields for temperature increases of up to 1-
3°C (relative to the period 1980-99). According to the IPCC
report, above 3°C of warming, global agricultural production
might decline, but this statement is made with low to medium
confidence. Most of the agricultural studies assessed in the
Report do not include changes in extreme weather events,
changes in the spread of pests and diseases, or potential
developments that may aid adaptation to climate change.
An article in the New Scientist describes how rice crops
might be strongly affected by rising temperatures

Forests

Pine forests in British Columbia have been devastated by a pine beetle infestation, which has
expanded unhindered since 1998 at least in part due to the lack of severe winters since that time; a
few days of extreme cold kill most mountain pine beetles and have kept outbreaks in the past
naturally contained. The infestation, which (by November 2008) has killed about half of the province's
lodgepole pines (33 million acres or 135,000
km²)[150][151] is an order of magnitude larger than any
previously recorded outbreak[152] and passed via unusually strong winds in 2007 over the
continental divide to Alberta. An epidemic also started, be it at a lower rate, in 1999 in Colorado,
Wyoming, and Montana. The United States forest service predicts that between 2011 and 2013
virtually all 5 million acres (20,000
km2) of Colorado’s lodgepole pine trees over five inches (127 mm)
in diameter will be lost[151].
As the northern forests are a carbon sink, while dead forests are a major carbon source, the loss of
such large areas of forest has a positive feedback on global warming. In the worst years, the carbon
emission due to beetle infestation of forests in British Columbia alone approaches that of an average
year of forest fires in all of Canada or five years worth of emissions from that country's transportation
sources [152][153].
Besides the immediate ecological and economic impact, the huge dead forests provide a fire risk.
Even many healthy forests appear to face an increased risk of forest fires because of warming
climates. The 10-year average of boreal forest burned in North America, after several decades of
around 10,000
km² (2.5 million acres), has increased steadily since 1970 to more than 28,000 km² (7
million acres) annually.[154]. Though this change may be due in part to changes in forest
management practices, in the western U.S., since 1986, longer, warmer summers have resulted in a
fourfold increase of major wildfires and a sixfold increase in the area of forest burned, compared to
the period from 1970 to 1986. A similar increase in wildfire activity has been reported in Canada from
1920 to 1999.[155]
Forest fires in Indonesia have dramatically increased since 1997 as well. These fires are often
actively started to clear forest for agriculture. They can set fire to the large peat bogs in the region
and the CO released by these peat bog fires has been estimated, in an average year, to be 15% of
₂
the quantity of CO produced by fossil fuel combustion
₂

Sea level rise is projected to increase salt-water intrusion into groundwater in some
regions, affecting drinking water and agriculture in coastal zones.[161] Increased
evaporation will reduce the effectiveness of reservoirs. Increased extreme weather
means more water falls on hardened ground unable to absorb it, leading to flash floods
instead of a replenishment of soil moisture or groundwater levels. In some areas,
shrinking glaciers threaten the water supply.[162] The continued retreat of glaciers will
have a number of different effects. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff
from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the
current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or
eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will
reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished.
This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America, where numerous
artificial lakes are filled almost exclusively by glacial melt.(BBC) Central Asian
countries have also been historically dependent on the seasonal glacier melt water for
irrigation and drinking supplies. In Norway, the Alps, and the Pacific Northwest of
North America, glacier runoff is important for hydropower. Higher temperatures will
also increase the demand for water for the purposes of cooling and hydration.
In the Sahel, there has been an unusually wet period from 1950 until 1970, followed by
extremely dry years from 1970 to 1990. From 1990 until 2004 rainfall returned to levels
slightly below the 1898–1993 average, but year-to-year variability was high

Health
Climate change currently contributes to the burden of disease and
premature deaths. Economic development will affect how effective
adaptation to climate change will be. According to the IPCC report, it is likely
that:
climate change will bring some benefits, such as reduced cold deaths.
the balance of positive and negative health impacts will vary from one
location to another.
adverse health impacts will be greatest in low-income countries.
the negative health impacts of climate change will outweigh the benefits,
especially in developing countries. Some examples of negative health
impacts include increased malnutrition, increased deaths, disease and injury
due to heat waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts, and increased
frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases.[165]
According to a 2009 study by UCL academics, climate change and global
warming pose the biggest threat to human health in the 21st century

Direct effects of temperature rise
The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter
temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people
who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable
because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during
hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global
warming could mean more cardiovascular diseases, doctors warn.[168] Higher air
temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower
atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes
problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.[169]
Rising temperatures have two opposing direct effects on mortality: higher temperatures
in winter reduce deaths from cold; higher temperatures in summer increase heat-
related deaths. The net local impact of these two direct effects depends on the current
climate in a particular area. Palutikof et al. (1996) calculate that in England and Wales
for a 1 °C temperature rise the reduced deaths from cold outweigh the increased
deaths from heat, resulting in a reduction in annual average mortality of 7000,[170]
while Keatinge et al. (2000) “suggest that any increases in mortality due to increased
temperatures would be outweighed by much larger short term declines in cold related
mortalities.”[171] Cold-related deaths are far more numerous than heat-related deaths
in the United States, Europe, and almost all countries outside the tropics.[172] During
1979–1999, a total of 3,829 deaths in the United States were associated with excessive
heat due to weather conditions,[173] while in that same period a total of 13,970 deaths
were attributed to hypothermia
vectors[178] conveying infectious disease such as dengue fever,[179] West Nile virus,
[180] and malaria

s
Antarctica's total area is 14 million km2 In summer, there is another 2.5
million km2 of sea ice, which increases to 19 million km2in winter, more
than doubling the size of Antarctica!
Only 2% of the land is not covered in ice.
Ice slowly builds up over millions of years at the rate of 50 to 900 mm/year.
There are about 24 000 000 km2 of ice altogether.
Antarctic ice which at its thickest reaches 5 km in depth, comprises almost
70% of the earth's fresh water. If it all melted, sea levels would rise between
50 and 60 m.
Antarctic glaciers are giant rivers of ice that flow slowly towards the sea.
Due to its ice cap Antarctica is the highest continent, averaging 2300 m
above sea level.
The highest peak is Vinson Massif at 4900 m.
Antarctica has the lowest recorded temperature; -90°C at Vostock in 1983.
Inland, temperatures range from -70°C in winter to -35°C in summer.
Corresponding figures for coastal regions are -30°C and 0°C.
Antarctica is so cold because up to 80% of incoming solar radiation is
reflected back into space by ice and snow. The other 20% is largely
absorbed by the atmosphere or reflected by clouds.

"Global Warming: A Critical Threat to Earth's Future, Driven by Human Activities and Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions"

About This Presentation

Slide Content

Tags

Categories

Download

Quick Actions

Statistics

Related Slideshows

&quot;Global Warming: A Critical Threat to Earth&#39;s Future, Driven by Human Activities and Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions&quot;

About This Presentation

Slide Content

Slide 1

Slide 2

Slide 3

Slide 4

Slide 5

Slide 6

Slide 7

Slide 8

Slide 9

Slide 10

Slide 11

Slide 14

Slide 15

Slide 16

Slide 19

Slide 21

Slide 22

Slide 23

Slide 25

Slide 28

Slide 29

Slide 31

Slide 32

Slide 33

Slide 34

Slide 35

Slide 36

Slide 37

Slide 38

Slide 39

Slide 40

Slide 44

Slide 45

Slide 47

Slide 48

Slide 49

Slide 50

Slide 51

Slide 53

Slide 55

Slide 56

Slide 57

Slide 58

Slide 59

Slide 60

Slide 61

Slide 62

Slide 63

Slide 64

Slide 65

Slide 66

Slide 67

Slide 68

Slide 69

Slide 70

Slide 71

Slide 72

Slide 73

Slide 74

Slide 75

Slide 76

Slide 77

Slide 78

Slide 79

Slide 80

Slide 81

Slide 82

Slide 83

Slide 84

Slide 85

Slide 86

Slide 87

Slide 88

Slide 89

Slide 90

Slide 91

Slide 93

"Global Warming: A Critical Threat to Earth's Future, Driven by Human Activities and Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions"