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Railway engineering

1. Cinder

2. Indian Railways

= Indian Railways is the largest railways network to be
operated by a single government and is the world’s third
largest network with a total length of 127,760 kms.

= Indian Railways owned the longest railway platform in
the world at Kharagpur with a length of 2,733 feet. Now,
breaking the record, Gorakhpur station has recently
taken its place with a span of 4,430 feet.

3. History

= Railways were first introduced to India in 1853 from
Bombay to Thane

= The first passenger train ran between the two stations,
covering a distance of 34km on April 16 1853.

ㆍ ABritish engineer, Robert Maitland Brereton, was
responsible for the expansion of the railways from 1857
onwards.

4. Railway Engineering: Definition

= Railway Engineering is the branch of Civil Engineering which

deals with the design. construction & Maintenance of the
Railway Tracks for safe & efficient movements of trains is
called Railway Engineering.

5. Ballast Fastening

6. Railway Engineering: Importance

» Indian railways carry most of the long distances passengers
traffic & 80% of the total freight.

= Indian railways provide employment to a huge number of the
people in the country.

로 ‘OV ide 131! ser vices.

= They carry bia chunks of goods from place of production to
ports.

= Iron € steel industries based upon railways as they transport
raw materials & finished products from one place to another.

8. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN
RAILWAYS

ay

Based on routes Based on speed criteria

9. / WI

ET

10. Based on routes

(1)Trunk route.
(2) Main line.
(3) Branch line.

11. Trunk route

The following six routes in broad gauge and
three routes are classified in trunk route.

Broad gauge
Delhi-Howrah
Delhi-Mumbai
Delhi-Chennai
Howrah-Mumbai
Howrah-Chennai
Mumbai-Chennai

12. Meter gauge
Lucknow-Gorakpur-Gohati
Delhi-Jaipur-Ajmer-Ahmedabad
Chennai-Madhurai-Trivandrum

13. Main lines

All lines other than trunk routes carrying 10
G.M.T. or more per year for B.G. and max
permissible speed 100 kmph for B.G. comes
under main lines.

Track relaying period is 20 years for B.G. and
30 years for M.G.

All lines other than trunk routes carrying 2.5
G.M.T. or more per year for M.G. and max
permissible speed is 75 kmph for M.G. comes
under main lines.

14. Branch lines

All routes carrying less than 10 G.M.T. per year
for B.G. and max permissible speed is less than
100 kmph for B.G. comes under branch lines.

All routes carrying less than 2.5 G.M.T. per
year for M.G. and max permissible speed is less
than 75 kmph for M.G. comes under branch
lines.

All B.G, and the M.G. locomotive engines

would be permitted to operate on all branch
lines at reasonable speed.

15. Based on speed criteria

16. Group A

usually trunk routes on which the speed
of train should be kept at 160 kmph or
more are classified in this group.

Delhi to Howrah route.

Howrah to Mumbai (C.S.T.) via Nagpur.

17. Group B

Under this group those routes have been
classified on which the maximum
permissible speed is 130 kmph allowed.
At present 13 routes comes under the
group B

(1) kalyan-Raichur-Chennai

(2) kharagpur.

(3) Baroda-Ahemdabad

18. Group C

All surburban routes of mumbai and
kolkata comes under this group.

19. Group D

All routes where maximum sanctioned
speed is 100 kmph comes under this

group.

20. GROUP E

The branch lines where maximum speed
is less than 100 kmph.

21. The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers & resting on ballast and
subgrade is called the Railway Track.

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22. Permanent way: Requirements

* Guage should be correct & uniform.

* The Rails should be in proper level.

* The alignment should be correct.

* The gradient is as gentle as possible.

* The radii and super elevation on curves should be properly
designed & maintained.

* Joint should be properly designed & maintained.

* The track structure should have low initial as well as
maintenance cost.

23. A
Rail Gauges
Rail Gauge
Medium Medium
diameter diameter

24. Types of Rail Gauges

The different gauges prevalent in India are of the
following these types :-

* Broad gauge (1676),
。 Metre gauge (1000),
° Narrow gauge (762 mm & 610 mm).

25. Types of Rail Gauges

Meter Gauge
1000 mm

3 ft 34m
Standard Gauge
1435 mm m
4 fta% in

Narraw Gang:
< 1435 mm

Brosd Gauges
> 1435 mm

26. 1.Broad Gauge

e When the clear horizontal distance between the
inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is

1676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G)

e This gauge is also known as standard gauge of

India and is the broadest gauge of the world.

* The Other countries using the Broad Gauge are
Pakistan, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Brazil,
Argentine, etc.50% India’s railway tracks have
been laid to this gauge.

_ í—_————— À

27. Suitability :-
Broad gauge is suitable under the following
Conditions :-
(i) When sufficient funds are available for the
railway project.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are very
bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain
areas which are densely populated i.e. for routes

of maximum traffic, intensities and at places

which are centers of industry and commerce

ee |

28. 2.Metre Gauge

e When the clear horizontal distance between the

inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is

1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge
(M.G)

* The other countries using Metre gauge are
France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc. 40% of

India’s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.

29. Suitability :-

Metre Gauge is suitable under the following
conditions: -
(i) When the funds available for the railway
project are inadequate.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very
bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in under-
developed areas and in interior areas

ee |

30. 3.Narrow Gauge

e When the clear horizontal distance between the

inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is

either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as
Narrow gauge (N.G)

* The other countries using narrow gauge are
Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India’s railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge.

31. Suitability :-

Narrow gauge is suitable under the following conditions :-

(i) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is
prohibited due to the provision of sharp curves, steep
gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.

(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.

This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly and very thinly
populated areas. The feeder gauge is commonly used for
feeding raw materials to big government manufacturing
concerns as well as to private factories such as steel plants,
oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

ee |

32. ( Ballast à

e Itis a layer of broken stones, gravel or any other such gritty
material laid and packed below and around sleepers.

+ The material used as an elastic cushion between the sleeper

and the top of the formation, is called ‘Ballast’

33. Requirements of Good Ballast \

* Ideal ballast should possess the following characteristics:

+ (1) It should resist crushing under dynamic loads.

* (2) The designed depth of the ballast should be able to distribute
the weight of passing trains on the formation underneath
uniformly,

* (3) It should not make the track dusty due to powder formation
under dynamic wheel loads.

e (4) It should be reasonably elastic.

e (5) It should have resistance to abrasion and weathering

® (6) It should be non-porous to provide durability to the ballast.

+ (7) It should hold the sleepers laterally and longitudinally under
all conditions traffic, especially on the curves.

* (8) It should be able to facilitate easy drainage to rain water

34. Functions of Ballast N

* The main functions of ballast of a railway track are as under:

+ (1) It provides a hard and level bed for the sleepers.

* (2) It holds the sleepers in proper position during the passage
of moving trains.

* (3) It provides to some extent an elastic bed for the track.

© (4) It transmits and distributes the moving load of the trains
from the sleepers to the formation uniformly.

* (5) It protects the formation surface from direct exposure to
sun, rain and frost.

+ (6) It provides a proper drainage to the track, keeping the
sleepers in dry condition.

NS |

35. 三 Functions of Ballast

® (7) It obstructs the growth of vegetations at the track
formation.

e (8) It provides proper super elevation to the outer rail on
curves.

® (9) It provides an easy means for correcting the unevenness
of the track.

+ (10) It provides the lateral and longitudinal stability to the
track

* (11) It protects the sleepers from capillary moisture of
formation.

* (12) It provides a media for absorption of all impacts caused

by rolling stock.

|

36. Types of Ballast

* Keeping in vies the availability, workability, durability
and strength of the ballast different materials have been
used as ballast. The most important types of ballast
materials used in.

® (1) Broken stones (2) Gravels (3) Sand (4)Moorum (5)
Cinder (or ash) (6) Brick bats

© (7) Kankar (8) Ballast earth.

37. (1) Broken stone:

® Best material for railway track.

。 Due to high interlocking action it holds the track to the
correct alignment and gradient

® Granite, Quartzite, hard stones, lime stones are some of the

varieties of stones

© MASONS NEWS SERVICE

38. (2) Gravel:

° Obtained from river beds or pits
° Cheaper than broken stone

» Has excellent drainage property

ing before use
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39. (3) Ashes and Cinder:

e Residue obtained from coal used in locomotives is cinder
。 Has good drainage property
® Corrosive property

+ Should not be used where steel sleepers are used

41. 「 (4)Sand: à
* Best materials for ballast
* Good drainage property

© Gives silent track

+ Good for packing of cast iron pot sleepers

42. (5) Moorum:
+ Decomposed laterite rocks
® Red in colour

+ Under heavy loads crumbles to powder

Used in sidings and embankments

43. ( (7) Brick ballast:

e Over burnt bricks are broken in to small pieces, used as
ballast

e Fairly good enough drainage property

® Becomes powder under heavy traffic and tracks become
dusty.

44. Sleepers

» Wooden, cast iron, steel or RCC members which
are laid transverse to the track alignment to
Support the rails and to transfer the load from the
rails to the under line blast are called sleepers

> Rails have to withstand the heavy load from the
locomotive ,wagons & coaches
in the absence of sleepers the
track would just settle down

45. Purpose and Functions of Sleepers

« Two lines of rails are transversely connected & held
to correct gauge

s Load Transmitted to Rail is borne (carry/to turn)

s Load is then transmitted with diminished &
distributed unit load along the sleeper length to
ballast beneath

46. Functions of sleepers

» Hold rails to correct gauge & alignment
> Holding gauge in proper gauge & level
> Act as elastic medium

» Support the rails firmly & evenly

> Distribute the load transmitted from the rolling stock
over large of ballast

» Provides stability to permanent way
> To provide the general stability of permanent way

> To provide the insulation of track for the electric field
tracks of signaling

> To provide easy replacement of rails fastening

47. Requirements of ideal sleeper

O

> Proper maintenance of gauge

> Should have fitting that can be fitted ,remove it , lifted
¿packed & replace

> Long life
> Economical

> In respect of initial cost & subsequent maintenance
strong enough to withstand bending stress

» Should provide resistance against slide

» Should resist being pushed forward due to passage of
train

48. Types of Sleepers

49. RSA EI |

50. Advantages

s Low initial cost

+ Few & simple fastening

s Easy to handle

e Suitable for all types of ballast

s Can be used with every type of rail

» Less damage during accident

e Easy renewal of track

+ Timber used is available in all parts of Asia
e Absorb shocks & dampen vibrations

s More useful for yielding formations

51. Disadvantages
« Short life
se Liability of decaying
» Easily attacked by vermins (white ants) & weather
s Connections b/w a rail and sleepers are not strong
» Maintenance of gauge is difficult
e Higher maintenance cost
+ Susceptible to fire
s Low scrap value

52. Steel Sleeper

» Steel sleepers having long useful period steel
sleepers are in the form of inverted channels with

folded ends & having thickness 12 mm.
Requirements
・ Maintain perfect gauge.
¢ Should not get pushed easily out of position.
・ Contain high strength.
・ Provide sufficient bearing area of rail.

53. Steel Sleepers

v Advantages

e Very durable

s Easy to maintain gauge & lesser maintenance probs.
« Better lateral rigidity

s Lesser damage during handling & transport

e Easy to manufacture

» Not susceptible to vermin attack

s Not susceptible to fire attack

« Good scrap value.

54. Steel Sleepers

v Disadvantages

e Liable to corrosion

s Unsuitable for track circuiting areas

s Liable to become centre bound due to slopes at two
ends

s More fittings are required in number

s More ballast is required as compared to other types.

55. Cast Iron Sleepers

v Advantages

e Easy to manufacture

Lesser liable to crack at rail seats

» Useful life 50 to 60 years.

« Provide high lateral & longitudinal stability to track
Lesser liable to corrosion

Scrap value is high

s Low maint cost

57. Cast Iron Sleepers

v Disadvantages

« High initial cost

s Gauge maintenance is difficult as tie bars get bent up
» Broken easily if not handled carefully

s Need large number of fittings

s No elastic bed, so great damage in accidents

59. Concrete / RCC Sleepers
v Advantages

= Concrete sleepers being heavy give more elastic modulus,
strength & stability to track

s Great resistance to buckling of track

+ Best suited for modern maintenance methods for track as
they are flat at bottom

+ They are neither susceptible to be attacked by vermin,
corrosion nor are they inflammable

» Dueto longer life, rail and sleeper renewals can be matched

+ They could be easily manufactured locally with local
available materials

» More life

61. Concrete Sleepers

v Disadvantages

e Manufacturing process, transportation, handling &
laying is difficult & costly because they are heavy

s Excessive damage can be caused in derailment
s No scrap value

63. Plastic sleepers

« Made of old tires and recycled plastic

« Cost about 50% less and save on trees

s Practically impervious to the seasons, but otherwise
exhibit the same properties as their wooden
counterparts with respect to damping of impact
loads, lateral stability, and sound absorption.

64. mr re-stressed steepers—___
Advantages

« The P.S.S result in reduced rail pending stresses
s The P.S.S reduce the wear of rolling stocks.

s The P.S.S produce less vertical motion.

» Life 50 years.

65. Disadvantages

« Economical — high cost.

e Derailments - heavy damages caused.
s Maintenance — high cost.

» Rigidity — more.

» Scraped no value.

66. Sleeper Density

O

» Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per
unit track length for welded rail) specified as (n+x).

> Number of sleepers per rail varies from N+4 to N+6 for main
tracks, N-Length of the rail.

67. Example

O

Data:- Using a sleeper density of n+5, find out the
number of sleepers required for constructing a railway
track 900 m long. (BG)
Solution-

Length of each rail on BG track = 12.8 m
Therefore, Total nos of rail require will be

= 900/12.8

=70 rails

Sleeper Density = n+5
= 12.8+5
=17.8 say 18

68. O

Therefore, Nos of sleeper under each rail is= 18 nos.

Therefore, nos of sleepers required
= 70*18
= 1260 Sleepers.

69. Component: RAILS

* Rails are the steel girders which provides the hard &
smooth surface for movement of wheels of locomotive 8
Railway vehicles.

* A Rail is designated by weight per unit length which can
be found as per the Locomotive axle load. For

Weight of the rail in tonnes __ 1 India
Locomotive axle load in tonnes 510 u
a The Rail Sections of 60 kg/m & 52 kg/m are more
economical & have been adopted recently on B.G. tracks on
Indian Railways.

70. Functions of Rails

= Provide hard, smooth & unchanging surface for passage of
heavy moving loads with a minimum friction between the
steel rails & steel wheels.

* Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical
loads, lateral & braking forces & thermal stresses.

* The rail material used in such that it gives minimum wear to
avoid replacement charges & failures of rails due to wear.

* Rails transmit the loads to sleepers & consequently reduce
pressure on ballast & formation below.

71. Composition of Rail Steel E

For Ordinary Rails For Rails on Points & Crossings

Carbon 0.55 - 0.68% 0.5 - 0.6%
Manganese 0.65 - 0.90% 0.95 — 1.25%
Silicon 0.05 - 0.3% 0.05 — 0.20%
Sulphur < 0.05% < 0.06%
Phosphorus < 0.06% < 0.06%

High Medium
Carbon steel Carbon steel

72. Requirement of Rails

= Composition of steel should be proper.

* The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie
approximately at mid height so that maximum tensile &
compressive stresses are equal.

* The head must be sufficiently deep to protect it from wear.

* The web must be sufficiently thick to provide flexure rigidity.

* The foot should be sufficiently wide to resist overturning.

Head

Web

Foot

73. Types of Rail Sections

= Double headed rails- can be inverted & reused (used earlier)
= Bull headed rails- even after wear, can withstand stresses

= Flat footed rails- pressure will be less on the sleeper (most
commonly used in India)

74. Selection of Rails

sleepers

traffic
uge of

the track

train

75. Length of Rails

Governed by the factors

: : Facilities of
Manufacturing | Transportation lifting &

Cost is Facilities are

reasonable available handling are

available

cP On Indian Railways the Standard Lengths are 42 ft for B.G. & 39 ft for M.G.

76. Defects in Rails

Corrugated or
Roaring Rails

Buckling Defects

of Rails in Rails

»

Hogged
Rails

77. Corrugated or Roaring of Rails |

= Due to traction of the wheel of the train roaring Sound is
heard from the rail.

LP? Measure taken to Rectify-
Grinding the Rail Head.

78. Hogged Rails

= Due to repeated hitting (Battering) action of wheel over the
end of the rails, The Rails get bent down & get deflected at
the ends.

cP Measures taken to rectify
1)Cropping
2)Replacing
3)Welding
4)De-hogging

79. Kinks or shoulders in Rails |

* Due to Loose packing at joints & defect in gauge, the ends of
adjoining Rails moves slightly out of position.

LP Measures taken to rectify
1)Correcting the alignment at joints
2)Proper packing of joints

3)Proper maintenance of track AS

80. Buckling of Rails |

= On account of temperature variations, The track has gone
out of its original positions or alignment.

= This is due to prevention of expansion of rails in hot weather.

ip Measures taken to rectify
1)The fish bolt should not be tightened too hard
2)Proper lubrication should be done. y=
3)Expansion gap should be provided. =

baal

81. Rail Failures

TRANSVERSE CRUSHED
ISSURE HEAD

HORIZONTAL
RE

HORIZONTAL
CRACK

82. Wear on Rails

* Heavy axle load & the fast speed of the train results in wear
& tear of Rails.

= Types of wear of Rails

1)Wear on the head of the Rail
2)Wear at the ends of The Rails
3)Wear on the sides of the head

83. Wear on Head of Rail |

ㆍ Metal from the top of rails flows & forms burrs which later get
chipped off.

wp Causes:

1)Grinding action of dust particles FRE rail & wheel
2)Constant break application
3)Abrasion of rolling Rails
4)Fluctuation in gradient
5)Corrosion

6)Weak Track

84. Wear at the Ends of the Rails

1) Loose Fish Plate & bolt

= Due to blowing action of the wheel on the end of the rail as
the wheel jumps on the gap, the ends of the rail get
bettered or wear.

Much more in magnitude than the wear on the head of the
Rail

wp Causes:
1) Heavy Load & large joint Openings
2) Difference in Rail level at joints
3) Small wheels

85. Wear on the sides of the Head

= At curves, flange of outer wheel strikes inside the outer rail

= More than first two types of wears & most destructive in
nature.

Causes:
1)Slipping € skidding of wheels at curves
2)Trains run at lesser speed
3)Rigidity of wheel base

86. The typical cross-sections of a single
embankment, on straight and curvi
traction, have been shown in Figs. 3.2 t

3.4M(11')

(181)

6.1M(20')

Pemanent land i R
(17.1 + 4 x Embankment depth in meters)

87. Pemanent land
(21.6 + 3 x Depth of cutting + spoil bank) …

12.5M + Depth of cutting
12.5M

Spoil 。10.2M
bgnk 3.6M 4.3M

88. ON

Turn out

* A complete set of points and crossings along with a lead rail
is known as turnout

wi

89. Right Hand Turn out

* Ifa train from main track is diverted to the right of the main
route in the facing direction, then this diversion is known as
Right-hand turnouts

90. Left Hand Turn out

e Ifa train from main track is diverted to the left of the main
route in the facing direction, then this diversion is known as
Left-hand turnouts.

91. Points and Crossing

* Special arrangement on railway track for enabling trains to

divert from one track to another
r dd

92. Rail fastenings:

* A rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to railroad

ties.
* The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and track fasteners
are used to refer to parts or all of a rail fastening system.

* Various types of fastening have been used over the years.

93. Fish Plates:

94. Fish Plates:

e A fishplate, splice bar or joint bar is a metal bar that is
bolted to the ends of two rails to join them together in
a track

® The top and bottom edges are tapered inwards so the
device wedges itself between the top and bottom of the
rail when it is bolted into place.

° In rail transport modelling, a fishplate is often a small

copper or nickel silver plate that slips onto both rails to
provide the functions of maintaining alignment and

electrical continuity ssl
L
181 ~ mu /
= sD

95. Fish bolts:

96. Fish Bolts:

® Made up of medium or high carbon steel.

® Fish bolts have to undergo shear due to heavy

transverse stresses.
s Length depends on the type of fishplate used

* For 44.70Kg rail, a bolt of 2.5cm dia and 12.7cm
length is used

e These bolts get loose by the traffic variations and

require tightening from time to time

A —__—— 7

97. Spikes:
° A rail spike (also known as a cut
spike or crampon) is a large nail with an offset
head that is used to secure rails and base plates
to railroad ties in the track.

98. Spikes:

99. Chairs and Keys:

Chairs are required to hold bull headed rails and double headed rails in
position

Made of cast iron and help in distributing the load from the rails to thee
sleepers

It consists of two jaws and a rail seat. Leon
2.Chair
The web of the rail is held tightly against | 3.82 =a a
. . + _ le ㆍ 4. ooden key „u
the inner jaws of the chair and a key is ganer nw)
. A E 5. Outer jue of chair
driven between the rail and the outer jaw | 6.£ouná ope
7.# coden aleeper

of the chair
The chair are fixed with the sleepers by

means of spikes

The shapes of chairs depend upon the type

of rails used.

m
La) Chairw ith w ooden key

100. Chairs and Keys:

101. Keys:

© They are wedge-shaped wooden or metal pieces.
They keep the rail in proper position

e Wooden keys are cheaper but liable to be
attacked by vermin’s, the initial cost of metal key
is more but their life is ten to 15 times more than
wooden keys.

102. Bearing plates:

o Rectangular plates made up of mild

steel or cast iron

e Used below flat footed rails to
distribute the load on a larger area

® Prevents damage of the sleepers due to
rubbing action

* Holds the spike firmly to the sleepers

À

103. Bearing plates:

0)

1, Gauge face
2. Rail

3. Bearing plate
4. Sleeper

(3)

(a)

Fig. 5.21. Bearing plate.

104. Bearing plates:

105. Blocks:
e To hold the check rail at the required

distance, small blocks of steel are inserted in
between two rails

® These blocks may touch either the webs or

the fishing faces or both

106. Blocks:

107. Elastic fastenings:

108. Elastic fastenings:

109. Elastic fastenings:

110. Requirements of Elastic fastenings:

e It should have sufficient elasticity

e It should provide longitudinal and
lateral rigidity to the track

eIt should be able to use all types of
sleepers

e It should be durable

e It should be easy to insert and remove

Ne AA