Reeti 656 banana cultivation

Banana Cultivation

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BANANA




Scientific name: Musa Spp.

Family: Musaceae.

Type of Fruit: Berry

Edible Portion: Mesocarp and endocarp

Chromosome No.(2n): 22,33,44.

Origin: South- East Asia.

INTRODUCTION:
Banana is a large perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form trunk like pseudostem. Banana has its origin in
tropical region of South East Asia. Banana is a nutritious gold mine. They are high in vitamin B6, which
helps fight infection and is essential for the synthesis of heme, the iron containing part of haemoglobin.
They are also rich in potassium and are a great souce of fibre. In recent years, considering the adverse
impact of indiscriminate use of chemicals, new trend for organic production of banana is increasing in the
country. A new name, i.e. Green Foods for this has been coined.Banana and plantain (Musa spp.) are widely
grown in India with great Socio- economic significance, interwoven in the cultural heritage of the country.
Banana, an antique fruit crop of the world is known as 'Apple of Paradise' and botanically named as Musa
paradise. It is also known as 'Adam's fig'. There are 25-80 species in the genus Musa, depending on the

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taxonomist. Banana is the fourth important food crop in terms of gross value exceeded only by paddy, wheat
and milk products and forms an important crop for subsistance farming. Being a rich source of Vitamin C
and minerals, it makes healthy and salt-free diet. Owing to its multifaceted uses- from underground stem up
to the male flower- it is referred as Kalpataru (a plant of Virtues). India has the second largest diversity of
indegenous banana in the world. Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas comes from two wild
species Musa acuminata and Musa balbsiana. Musa species grow in a wide range of environments and have
varied human uses, ranging from the edible bananas and plantains of the tropics to cold-hardy fibre and
ornamental plants. Musa species attained a position of central importance within Pacific societies; the plant
is a source of food, beverages, cooked foods, silage, rope, garlands, clothing, smoking materials and
numerous ceremonial and religious uses.

Area, production and productivity of Banana :
Year Area

Production(000MT) Productivity(MT/HA)
2015-16 841

29135 34.64
2016-17 860

30477 35.43
2017-18 884

30808 34.85
SOURCE: National Horticulture Board Database.

Main Producing states: Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, , Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and
Madhya Pradesh.

Commercial varieties of International Importance:
1. Gross Michal 17. Pisang Masak Hijau
2. Cuban Red 18. Amrit sagar
3. Pome 19. Pisang Raja
4. Red Banana 20. Plantain
5. Gaint Cavendish
6. Williams
7. Ney Poovan
8. Green Red

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9. Orinoco
10. Red Decca
11. Burro
12. Apple, Silk or Mauzana
13. Chinese Cavendish
14.Americani
15.Kalamago
16.Robust
Commercial Varieties of National Importance:

States


Varieties


Andhra Pradesh
Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Rasthali,
Amritpal, karpoora, Monthan, Poovan.

Assam
Jahaji (Dwarf Cavendish),Honda, Chini
Champa, Bhimkol, Attikol, Jatikol, Diggowa.

Bihar
Dwarf Cavendish, Alpon, Chinia, Chinia,
Gauria, Malbhog, Kothia,

Gujarat
Harichal, Dwarf Cavendish, Lactan, Gandevi
selection.

Karnataka
Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Poovan, Hill
Banana, Monthan.

Kerala
Nendran (Plantain), Rasthali, Red Banana,
Monthan.

Maharashtra
Dwarf Cavendish, Basrai, Robusta, Safed
Velchi, Nendran.
\
Tamil Nadu
Virupakshi, Robusta, Red Banana, Poovan,
Matti, Nendran, Rasthali.
West Bengal and Orissa

Champa, Rasthali, Amrit Sagar, Gaint
Governor, Monthan, Lactan, Mortman.


Characteristics of some important Banana cultivars are given below:

1. AA Group
The cultivars of diploid accuminata group are mainly grown in backyards. It is the restricted to southern tip
of Kerala and Tamil Nadu and some to extent in north and south kanara districts of Karnataka.

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a) Kadali: It is cultivated in the south district of Kerala and Tamil Nadu and used mainly for worshipping. It
is a slender plant and produces bunch of 6-10 kg. The fruits are short, stout, dark green and turn
yellow when ripe. Taste is very sweet with excellent flavour.
b) Surya Kadali: It is a mutant of Kadali and differs very minor with respect to fruit quality and
flower characters. It is found in Malabar coast of Kerala. In Malaysia, this mutant is known as
Pisang mas.
c) Anai kombam : It is grown mainly in the cooler climates and hill slopes of Tamil Nadu, Orissa,
Kerala and north eastern parts of India. Fruits are long, slender and remain green even when ripe.
Fruit pulp is pale yellow, juicy and sweet. It resistance to nematodes and Fusarium wilt.
d) Sanna Chenkadali: A red type, is mostly found in the cooler climates of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
produces bunch of 8-13 kg .Fruit peel is red in colour and tasty. It is a useful male parent
contributing to resistance to leaf spot disease. However, it is highly susceptible to nematodes.
e) Matti: A medium- sized plant with yellowish green leaves. Produces bunch of 25-30 kg .Fruits are
slender, finger-like with prominent slender apex. It is resistant to leaf spot diseases. It is highly
female fertile and readily sets seeds .It is a leading backyard cultivar of kanyakumari in Tamil
Nadu.
2) AB group
Cultivation of this bispecific diploid group is restricted to Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
a) Ney Poovan : It is under commercial monoclonal cultivation in Kerala and Karnataka. It is
suitable intercrop in coconut and Arecanut garden. The plants are medium- sized with slender,
yellowish, pseudotem having reddish petiole margin. The fruits are small, flesh firm, sweet and highly
fragrant.It is tolerant to leaf spot but susceptible to Fusarium wilt and banana bract mosaic virus.
b) Kunnan: It is a backyard cultivar of Kerala and Karnataka. The plants are medium- sized and
slender. Fruits with firm pulp taste well. It is tolerant to leaf spot disease and Fusarium wilt but
highly susceptible to salt.
3) AAA group
The group has a number of subgroups of commercial importance.
Cavendish subgroup:
a) Dwarf Cavendish: It is the most important commercial cultivar of India. The plant is dwarf, fruit
large, curved, skin thick and greenish, flesh soft and sweet. The greenish colour of the fruit is
retained to some extent even after ripening, but fruits ripening during winter season develop yellow
colour.

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b) Giant Cavendish: There are not many true cultivars under cultivation except some mutants.
Tissue- cultured plants of Williams from giant Cavendish is very popular one to better field
adaptation and survival. Grande Naine is popular for export market.
c) Robusta: True Robusta is not under cultivation except some semi tall to dwarf mutants. Fruits
large, skin thick, greenish to dull yellow, sweet and delicious. The fruits have better keeping quality
than that of dwarf Cavendish. Average bunch weight is about 20 kg.
4) AAB group
1) Silk subgroup:
Rasthali : It is one of the most popular commercial choicest table cultivar of West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Bihar. The plant is tall and can easily be identified
by the yellowish green stem with brownish blotches, reddish margins of the petiole and leaf
sheath. The average bunch weight is about 12 kg. Fruits are medium sized and similar to that of
Poovan in appearance , skin thin, ivory- yellow in colour, flesh firm, sweet with a pleasant aroma. It
has the disadvantage of longer crop duration, severe susceptibility to Fusarium Wilt, easy dropping
of fruits from the bunch, susceptible to sun injury and formation of hard lumps in the pulp.
However, the fruits fetches higher market price.
2) Mysore subgroup
Poovan: The plant is tall, hardy and grows vigorously under ratooning system of cultivation. It is a
true cosmopolitan cultivar growing with equal vigour both in India and west indies. One of the
distinguishing characters of the plant is the rose pink colour on the outer side of midrib. The
average bunch weight is about 15 kg. The cultivar is suitable for leaf industry for their phyllocron
efficiency. It is resistant to panama wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy top disease. It is highly
susceptible to banana bract mosaic and banana streak virus.
5) ABB group
1) Monthan and Bluggoe subgroup: This is the most important commercial culinary cultivar of
India. The plant is tall, robust , light green, very hardy and grows under unirrigated conditions.
Average bunch weight is about 15 kg. The cultivar is immune to leaf spot and bunchy top disease
and has salt tolerance. However, it is highly susceptible to fusarium wilt race 2 belonging to vcg
group 0124- 0125.
2) Pisang Awak subgroup
Karpuravalli : It is the sweetest among the Indian varieties. Plant is tall, robust. Fruits are ash
coated, medium- sized and have a conspicuous beak. It has a good keeping quality. Fruits remain
edible even after skin turns to black. It is well-suited to marginal land. One of the main use is for
worship purposes. The variety is occasionally seeded. It is immune to leaf spot .

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3) Plantain sub group
Nendran:
This cultivar is known in all parts of the world as plantain. This is dual purpose cultivar of Kerala. It has
very good keeping quality. The average bunch weight is 15 kg.

Promising Hybrids:
A few hybrids have also been developed in banana. Of these H 1, H 2, Co 1, FHIA 1 and FHIA 3 are
promising.
1. H 1: A promising hybrid for subsistance cultivation, it has medium to high resistance to leaf- spot,
fusarium wilt and burrowing nematode. Medium-tall in height, its plants bear 14-16 kg bunch without
propping. Elongated fruits turn attractive golden-yellow on ripening. It has remarkable early- ratooning
ability completely 4 crop cycles in 3 years.
2. H 2: It is medium- statured banana, growing 2.13-2.44 m. Crop cycle is short with bunches coming to
harvest in 11-12 months. Fruits are slightly acidic with pleasant, sweet- sour aroma.
3. Co 1: It is promising pome hybrid. It retains the typical acid/ apple flavour of Virupakshi even when
grown on plains contrary to Virupakshi which develops aroma only when grown at higher altitudes.
4. FHIA 1 (Gold finger): The hybrid belongs to pome group with genomic constitution of AAAB . It is a
potential commercial banana. It is resistant to Sigatoka and Wilt, producing bunches weighing 18-20 kg
each.

ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL REQUIREMENT :

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Climate:
Banana is well- suited for cultivation from humid subtropical to semi-arid subtropics up to 2,000m above
mean sea level. In India, it is successfully grown from 8
0
N to 28
0
N latitudes with a temperature of 15
0
- 35
0

C and a rainfall of 500-2,000mm per year. It can be cultivated in a temperature range of 10°C and 40°C with
high humidity but growth is retarded at temperatures of 20°C and less and more than 35°C. The major
effects of unfavourable weather condtions are the breakage or uprooting of pseudostem by strom and
cyclones, reduction in plant growth and malformation of bunches due to low temperature ,etc. Forst is a
limiting factors for successful cultivation of banana. . Hot winds blowing in high speed during the summer
months shed and desiccate the leaves. Yields are higher when temperatures are above 24°C for a
considerable period. In cooler climate, the crop requires longer time to mature. Plants exposed to low
temperature and humidity during active growth stage show reduced growth and yields.
Mean annual temperature:
26–28°C (79–82°F) is optimum for shooting (vegetative growth of banana). 29–30°C (84–86°F) is optimum
for fruiting.
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month
35–37°C (95–99°F)
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month
–2–30°C (28–86°F)
Minimum temperature tolerated
The minimum temperature tolerated depends upon the species. At 16°C (60°F) banana plant growth slows;
at 10°C(50°F), growth stops.

Soil Requirement:
Banana can be grown in almost all types of soil provided adequate soil moisture is available. deep
(minimum-60cm), well drained, fraiable, loamy soil with adequate organic matter is ideal for its cultivation.
Alluvial and Volcanic soils are the best for banana cultivation (Durmanov,1974).
In sandy loam sol plants grow faster compared to vertisols or clay loam sol. It can also be taken in slightly
alkaline soils and such soil reduces wilt disease which is reported to be in acidic soils. Though soil pH of
6.5-7.5 is optimum, banana can be grown in soils having a pH up to 8.5 with suitable amendments. More
organic amendments are essential in sandy as well as heavy soils.
Commercial crops of banana in India are being raised in the heavy clay soil of the Cauveri delta and over
large tracts of the Gangetic delta in alluvial soils. Extensive sandy tracts of the basin area and large areas of

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black loam in Maharashtra are also famous for growing good crops of banana. The coastal sandy loams as
well as red lateritic soils of the hilly tracts of Kerala also yield good crop.

PROPAGATION
Banana and plantain are propagated principally by vegetative division and far more rarely by seeds (usually
only for banana breeding, ornamental types, and wild species). In addition, tissue culture has become
standard for commercial plantations in recent years, primarily because of the advantage of starting with
disease-free planting material .Edible bananas are almost always seedless (however, some, such as ‘Pisang
Awak’, produce many seeds when growing near a fertile pollen source).
Propagation by division:
Commercial bananas are seedless and propagated exclusively by vegetative means. Division by rhizomes
in banana is referred to as sucker production and collection. This is the most common method used to obtain
banana planting material. Sword suckers are preferred to water suckers for planting new fields because of
their superior vigour and eventual yield. Sword suckers have narrow, sword-shaped initial leaves and are
attached to a healthy, fruiting mother plant. Water suckers are those young plants that no longer have a
physical connection with a living mother plant. Water suckers do not have the sword-shaped initial leaves.
The sword suckers (with narrow leaves) can be obtained from healthy mother plants that are devoted (either
in full or in part) to the production of sword suckers. These sword suckers are not removed during the
normal process of thinning out banana clumps , but are reserved for collection and subsequent planting.
Suckers to be used for planting can be given extra light (by trimming overhanging leaves) and fertilizer
before removing them from the mother plant to enhance their viability. Suckers are ready for removal from
the mother plant when they reach a minimum of 15 cm (6 in) diameter and 50 cm(20 in) height above the
soil (Stover and Simmonds 1987).The sucker is removed (cut away and out) from the mother plant using a
sharp tool such as a narrow-bladed, straight sided shovel, making sure to obtain an appreciable amount of
corm with the sucker. Banana suckers intended for agroforestry should be allowed to develop longer on the
mother plant, reaching2–2.5 m (6.6–8 ft) in height with 6–7 leaves, and given extra nitrogen fertilizer in the
weeks before their collection and use as planting material. These plants are better able to compete in a
shaded agroforestry setting.

Propagation by seed:
The inedible, ornamental Musa species such as ‘Fuzzy Pink’or ‘Pink Velvet’ banana (M. velutina), or fibre
species such as the abaca ‘Manila Hemp’ (M. textilis), are two examples of Musa species that are commonly
grown from seed. Ease of germination depends on species, variety, and environment. Some germinate quite
readily; others are more challenging. Store seeds in a cool, dry place. Seeds do not require scarification,
although soaking them in water for24–48 hours before planting is recommended. Sow seeds in a light, well
drained medium, place in full sun, and keep moist. Seeds may take several weeks to germinate.

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Propogation of Banana in recent trends:
Tissue Culture: Now-a-days banana plants are also propagated through tissue culture. Varieties like
Shrimanti, Gross Michael and Grand Naine are commonly produced using tissue culture technique.
Normally disease free plantlets with 3 - 4 leaves are generally supplied in pots for raising secondary nursery.
Plants are initially kept in shade [50%] and as they harden, shade is reduced gradually. After 6 weeks, plants
do not require any shade. Normally two months of secondary nursery is good enough before the plants to be
planted in the field pits. Cronauer and Krikorian (1985) subsiquently isolated and cultured the terminal
floral apices of Dwarf Cavendish banana in the modified MS medium supplemented with BA(5mg/l) and
10% (v/v) coconut water . The determinate floral buds were transformed to multiplying vegetative shoot
system from which rooted plantlets were obtained using NAA(1mg/l) and charcoal (0.0255).
A new method of quick multiplication of banana was suggested by Hamilton(1965) . In this method, the
rhizomes were cleaned, planted in vermiculite and the apical meristem injured with a sterile knife or cork
borer. Adventitious shoots which arose from the resulting callus formation were removed and rooted. From
rhizomes up to 150 plants were obtained in 5 to 7 months . This is likely to become a very useful method
for quick multiplication of clonal selections, mutations and bud sports which should be tired widely. Gupta
(1986) attempted meristem -tip culture for rapid clonal multiplication of mosaic -free planting material. Heat
therapy and meristem tip culturing tip culturing were used in various cultivar of banana. Suckers were
subjected to heat therapy at 38
0
-40
0
C for 14 days prior to culture of the meristem tips( 1.5-2.0mm long
having 6-8 vertical incisions) on modified MS medium containing 1.0mg/l thamine HCL, 0.5mg/l nicotine
acid, 0.5mg/l pyridoxine HCl, 25mg/l ascorbic acid (filter sterilized), 0.7mg/ IBA and 0.7mg/l kinetan. This
culture medium above was effective in preventing the oxidation of phenolic compounds present in explants,
and in producing up to 13 rooted plantlets from a single meristem with in 10 to 12 weeks. Plants derived
from heat- treated meristem of infected plants were free from diseases, as determined by visual inspection,

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mechanical inoculation to Cucumis sativus .




PLANTING SYSTEM


Season of planting:

Banana can be planted throughout the year except in severe winter and during heavy rains when the soil is
very wet. Warm and humid season has been admitted as the best planting time for banana irrespective of the
variety. Rainy season in the northern hemisphere covering the period from July to September has been
identified as the best time (Bhan and Mazumdar, 1961 and Moreau, 1965). Similarly, February to December
being the rainy season in southern hemisphere has been ascertained to be the best planting time ( Robin and

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Champion, 1962), as the season ensures 30% rapid generation of roots.Spring planting is the rule in
subtropics. Holder and Gumbs( 1981) suggested that banana should be planted in the dry season after
rainfall or with pre- irrigation to faclitate better establishment.
Method of Planting:
Pit method : Pits of 0.5mx0.5mx0.5m are dug for planting the rhizomes. However this method is very
laborious and expensive. The only advantage is that no Earthing up is required as planting is done at the
required depth. This practice is not very popular at present.
Furrow method: This is a very common method in which furrows of 20-25c depth are opened by a tractor
or ridger at a distance of 1.5m and rhizomes are planted in the furrows. In this method earthling up needs to
be frequently done to cover the exposed rhizomes.

Planting depth :
Suckers or maiden rhizomes planted at a depth of 40-50cm always push upwards during growth. Ridging,
during the subsequent period, results in lateral flattening of rhizome and confinement of roots in the collar
region. But axil suckers ( opposite to the original), if allowed to carry on form the second cycle onwards, do
not expose or push upwards. This depth of planting in combination with furrows, facilities cultivation (Subra
and Guillemot, 1961).


Planting density:
The land should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and levelled properly. Pits of 0.6m
3
are dug sufficiently
ahead at points fixed for planting.
The advantage of high profit can be taken in Gaint Governor banana with higher(10,000/ha) plant
population without ratooning the crop (Chattopadhyay et.al,1985). In planting denstiy trial at different
location under All India coordinated Research Project on Banana showed that 1.0x1.2x2.0 m for Robusta
recorded higher yield while Jahaji of Assam needs 1.2x1.2 x2.0 m for Nendran it was 1.2 x1.5x2.0 m. In
banana cultivars Robusta and Dwarf Cavendish, a spacing of 1.5mx1.5m i.e.,4,444 plants/ha is
recommended by the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore as the optimum. . Double row
system of planting has also been found economical and is commercially adpoted in Maharashtra and
Gujarat. The plant to plant distance is 1.2 m, row distances 1.5m and between two row is 2.0 m.
In case of tissue culture plantlets a spacing of 1.65 x 1.65 m is adopted. Pits of size 45cm x 45cm x 45 cm
are dug at the recommended spacing. The pits with equal quantities of top soil, well decomposed FYM and
sand in 1:1:1 proportion. Polybags may be slit and removed and the plant be inserted into the centre of the
filled pit without disturbing the roots. The soil level must be maintained at the same level as in the polybag.


WATER MANAGEMENT
Irrigation:
Depending on water availability, banana is grown either as rainfed or irrigated or Wetland crop. Banana is a
gross feeder of moisture and grows luxuriantly under an isohyet of 125 cm distributed throughout the year.
A tropical banana plantation can consume 900 to 1800 mm water in ten months from planting to harvest
(Stover and Simmonds,1987). Most of the AAA and AAB clones are grown under irrigated conditions,
while ABB clones are raised as rainfed crop. Irrigation is done just after planting, if there is no rain. Banana

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requires irrigation throughout the year except during heavy rains. An irrigation of 100mm in three
consecutive operations per month in the drier season ( April- May) induced precocity and higher
yield(Moreau,1965). Flood irrigation is also seen to be practiced on banana field having sufficient water
supply. Water use efficiency is greater with drip irrigation compared to basin system of irrigation, .Drip
irrigation system not only economizes the water by 40-50%, early harvest is achieved with higher yield/unit
area. Irrigation should be given at fortnightly interval during winter. Water should not be allowed to stand in
the field.
Use of fertilizer through drip(fertigation) also helps achieve high productivity. Flood irrigation is followed
in garden land cultivation, where plenty of water is available. Temporary bunds are made around a block of
10-20 plants for convenience and irrigation is carried out block-wise.
Fertigation:
Application of fertilizer in irrigation water in either open or closed system is known as fertigation. Nitrogen
and Sulphur are the principle nutrients applied by fertigation. Phosphorous fertilizers is less common
because of formation of precipitates in high calcium and magnesium water. Application of sulphur in soluble
form, through sprinkler irrigation system is effective. Potassium and high soluble form of iron and zinc
have also been successfully applied by fertilization. Experiments have been shown that through drip system
100-200 percent increases in yield, 45-50 percent saving in irrigation water and 30 percent reduced
requirement of nitrogenous fertilizer are possible.
Intercultural operations:
1.Propping: Propping and supporting the bearing plants can be done by suitable propping material like
bamboo or wooden poles.
2.Mulching:: Mulching is desirable immediately after planting.Mulching controls weed growth, conserves
moisture, hastens growth and improves yield.
3.Desuckering:: All varieties of banana throw suckers from 2-3 months after planting.All these suckers
should not allow to grow as they compete with the mother plants for water and nutrients thereby reducing
the yield of main crop.Desuckering with sickle at 15-20 days interval right from the begining till flowering
is essential.Wrapping the bunches is essential to have blemish/ bruise free fruits with uniform size and
quality.For this, black coloured polythene may be used for covering the fruits.
4. Other operations:: Weeiding is done 3-4 times in a year.Trashibg is done by removing dried leaves.
Earthing up of the soil is required to be carried out two times annualy.

PHYSIOLOGY OF FLOWERING

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Many studies have been made of the anatomical and morphological changes that occur during
flower initiation in banana. These were summarized by Israeli and Blumenfeld (1985) and stover
and simmonds (1987). The transitional stage begins when the apical meristem rises into a dome
and shows intense mitotic activity. Flower bracts than appear instead of leaves, firstly female bracts
followed by male bracts. All bracts bear axillary, crescent-shaped meristematic cushions from which
the flowers differentiate. Male and female flowers are morphologically indistinguishable until the
inflorescence is about 120 mm long when it is 1.5 m from the base of the pseudostem. The
inflorescence is a complex spike consisting of a stout peduncle on which the flowers are arranged
in nodal clusters, each node comprising two rows of flowers set on transverse cushions, and
subtended by a bract which protects the young flowers. The flower clusters with their bracts are
borne spirally and do not completely encircle the peduncle. The basal (proximal) nodes bear female
flowers and there may be from five to eighteen of these nodes. The upper (distal) nodes contain
male flowers and these remain tightly enclosed in bracts which form a conical structure called the
‘bell’. In between the female and male nodes are some nodes containing flowers of an intermediate
structure. These are hermaphrodite flowers which have short ovaries and do not develop into edible
fruit.
The male flowers remain tightly packed in the bell together with their bracts for the entire bunch
life, although in commercial practice the bell is usually broken off to prevent further meristem
growth and elongation of the peduncle axis. The hermaphrodite flowers situated between the female
flowers and the male bell, usually abscise at their base, leaving a callus scar on the peduncle axis.

In commercial terminology the nodes containing double rows of female flowers are called
‘hands’. The individual fruits that develop from the female flowers are called ‘fingers.’ Thus, the
edible banana bunch consists of a series of hands of bananas developed from female flowers
which are attached to a thick peduncle. The number of hands per bunch and fingers per hand is
determined at flower initiation by the number of female flowers laid down on the transformed
meristem. In turn, the number of female flowers initiated in the pseudostem is controlled by a
variety of factors such as genome group, crop cycle, temperature, vigour of the plant and level of
management.


DEVELOPMENT OF FRUIT

The banana fruit, despite originating from an inferior ovary, can be botanically characterized as a berry
with a pericarp. The exocarp is composed of the epidermis and aerenchyma layer, the mesocarp forms the
pulp and the endocarp is limited to the inner epithelium adjacent to the ovarian cavity. In the wild, seeded
bananans, pollination is essential for fruit development, and the mature fruit contains a mass of hard black
seeds, surrounded by a sweetish pulp which develops from the ovary walls and septa. If ovaries of seeded

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bananas are protected against pollination they do not develop. Edible bananas on the other hand, are
vegetatively parthenocarpic in so far as they develop a mass of edible pulp without pollination. There are
three locules in the ovarian cavity and most of the pulp develops from the outer edge of the locules (inner
face of the peel where the vascular bundles are situated).Pulp parenchyma also develops from the placental
septa starch grains are deposited initially in the pulp cells which form in the vicinity of the vascular
bundles, and thereafter starch deposition moves centripetally and continues until fruit maturity. The ovules
shrivel early but may be recognised in the mature fruit as minute brown flecks embedded in the edible pulp
adjoining in the central fruit axis.

The seedless nature of the most banana fruits is due to specific female sterility genes and a lack of pollen
due to triploidy. Thus , while AAA Cavendish subgroup cultivars are highly female sterile , and cannot
normally be pollinated successfully, the AAA ‘Gross Michel’ cultivar gives one or two seeds per bunch if
pollinated with diploids .It is therefore not completely female sterile but is regarded as commercially sterile
in the absence of the pollen. The ABB cultivar ‘Pisang Awak’ on the other hand , has a rather high degree
of female fertility. It will yield edible , seedless fruits if un pollinated, but can bear ten or more seeds per
fruit in Malaysia if pollinated by one of the pollen bearing diploids growing wild or in gardens . In such a
cases, fruit of this cultivar becomes inedible.

Development of the female fruit falls into two phases, namely, that before inflorescence emergence and that
occurring after. The pre- emergence phase is dominated by peel growth; the pulp does start to develop until
fruit re-oriented upwards, after emergence .T he most rapid development of the inflorescence occurs during
the four to six weeks prior to emergence. The fruit increases in length rapidly , just before ,during and just
after inflorescence , suggesting that fruit development is not limited by the process of development. During
the first month after inflorescence emergence , the peel represents 80% of the fresh wt. After this, pulp
increase rapidly and pulp: peel ratio increases from 0.17 to 1.82 in 80 days. A fresh pulp :peel ratio of 1.0 is
achieved at 70 days after emergence. On a cellular level, there are three main stages of the growth(Ram et
al.,1962). Rapid cell division occurs from 6 weeks before emergence to 4 weeks after emergence. Rapid cell
expansion occurs from 4 to 12 weeks after emergence, and fruit maturation from 12 to 15 weeks after
emergence. In the tropics areas fruit ate ready for harvest between 85 to 10 days after inflorescence
emergence. In the cooler subtropics it takes upto210 days before harvest. The fruit shape and size of banana
should be representative of the cultivar , although there may be an environmental/genetic interaction which
determines the eventually size reached at maturity.


ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING BANANA PRODU CTION

1. Temperature: A temperature range of 25-35
0
C is ideal for better Banana production. The growth of
Banana is retarded at temperature of 20
0
C and more than 35
0
C (Viktorova, 1931). Bananas grown in cool
subtropics or semi- arid regions experience low winter temperature and excessive heat during summer,
which limit the production potential of the crop. The respiration rate is also remarkably reduced at 10
0
C and
plant become suspectible to chilling injury (Chang et al., 1990).Temperature has a profound influence on
nutrient absorption by Banana roots. A rise in day/night temperature from 17/10
0
C TO 33/26
0
C increases the
efficiency of absorption of N, P, K ,Ca, Mg, Na, Cl, B, Mn, Zn and Cu. A further increase in day/night
temperature of 37/30
0
C causes a reduction in uptake for all the elements except Na which continues to
increase (Turner and Lahav, 1983). Low temperature during winter also prevents the emergence of
pseudostem top. Under such conditions, leaf petioles with short internode often become rosette and compact

15. 15

at the top of the pseudostem. The phenomenon is called as 'Choke throat'. Very high temperature (40
0
C)
induces premature ripening of green fruits and also mixed ripening. High atmospheric temperature (40-
45
0
C) before, during and immediately after bunch emergence exceptionally reduce the shelf life of banana
fruit. Sunburn in leaves may also occur due to high summer heat. Occurence of frost for a few minutes at
0
0
C is quite sufficient for destruction of a banana plantation. For proper bunch development a banana plant
must produce at least 4 leaves after frost occurrence until shooting. However, in subtropical climate where
frost occurs occasionally banana can be grown with risk of lower production.

2. Light: The rate of emergence of new leaf increases as photoperiod increases from 10 to14 hours ( Allen
et al ., 1998 ). Photosynthetic rates of banana is drastically reduced in areas with overcast sky. In contrast,
excessive light is again harmful which induced bleaching of leaves. Exposed bunches, particularly in the
uppermost hand and bunch stalk are suspectible. Severe bleaching may cause yellowing of fruit peel which
later turns blackish. Shading of banana plantation delays shooting and reduces yield in subtropical
conditions. However, banana yield more under 50% shade in tropical warm humid condition than in full
light. Photosynthetic activity is, however, greatly reduced in the shaded leaf receiving less than 50%
intercepted light under ultra high density planting and the yield of individual plant is reduced.

3. Rainfall: Banana requires large amount of water for maintaining productivity (Popenoe, 1941 ). For
statisfactory growth and production banana needs 25mm water per week(Perseglove,1975). An average
annual rainfall of 200-250 cm evenly distributed throughout the year is considered adequate
(Robinson,1996). Prolonged drought conditions in banana plantation resulted in stunted growth, high
phyllochron value, choked bunches and short fingers (Kunhne and Green, 1970; Holder and Gumbs, 1983).
Despite ideal temperature condition and sufficient water availability, banana growing in the humid tropics is
considered with reduced photosynthesis due to overcast sky, less sunshine hours and reduced nutrient
availability.

4. Wind: Wind exerts profound infuence on growth and production of banana and it is considered as the
greatest scourage in banana plantation world (Green,1963). Wind velocity of more than 50km/h causes
serious damage to banana plantation. Pseudostems at pre flower initiation stage, are sometimes cut above
ground level to avoid severe damage. Photosynthetic efficiency is drastically reduced when laves turn into
strips of less than 10 cm width. Wind breaks are planted to protect the banana plantation.



ROLE OF BIO-REGULATORS

Under the present system of cultivation, yield of banana exhibits plateau in commercial plantation, and to
increase yield, exogenous application of growth-regulators plays significant role. Among several bio-
regulators tried at different locations, application of 2,4-D (10-20ppm) improved bunch weight. Bunch
covering with polythene in November increased yield by 25-30%. Azospirillum enhances height,
pseudostem girth, and leaf production and leaf area of Poovan banana. In Ekalli Bale, association of
mycorrhiza increases yield.

Venkatarayappa et al . (1978) recorded increased fruit weight and volume after spraying Potassium
hydrogen phosphate on bunches or on whole plant. Spraying of 2,4-D increased finger weight, pulp

16. 16

percentage, and soluble solids(Tomi et al., 1970; Satyanarayana, 1985). Application of GA3(50mg/l)
resulted in maximum yield (56.56 t/ha) and require less number of days(90days) for fruit maturity in Gaint
Governor banana (Chattopadhyay and Hasan,1996a).

CROPPING SYSTEM
Intercropping:
It is a common practice in Banana orchards to check weed growth, improve the soil health and to ensure
additional income to the farmer. Intercrops can be easily raised in banana plantation at the early stages of
growth. It is a subsistance farming or cash economy in banana cultivation. Radish, cauliflower, cabbage,
spinach, chilli, bringal, marigold, tuberose are grown as intercrops. Mixed cropping with Arecanut and
Coconut is a common practice in South India. Cucumber and amaranth can be cultivated profitably with
banana without affecting bunch weight. In India, banana cultivation can be seen as multi-stored plantation
such as with turmeric and ginger on ground floor, elephant foot as first floor, Dioscoria as second floor and
banana as third story crop. However, it is very much friable to take turmeric or ginger or onion in between
the rows of banana plantation enabling at least two dimensional cropping system in the state.



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:
The nutrient requirement of banana is very high which is mainly exploited from a very limited soil depth
due to shallow root system of the crop. Apply compost, FYM or green leaves at the rate of 10 kg/plant at the
time of planting .For the proper growth and development ,N is given in three split doses: third, fourth and
fifth month after planting. Application of 25%N in organic form and 75% in inorganic form along with
growing of green manure crops is much ideal. Phosphorous should be applied at planting time. Potash
should be given in two splits doses-one at planting and another at the time of initiation of flowers. In
general, banana requires 100-200g nitrogen, 100-150g phosphorous, and 200-300g potassium per plant per
year. Application of fertilizers should be completed within six month after planting.Fertilizers should be
placed 60-75 cm away from the pseudostem in shallow basins taken around the plant. Irrigation should be
given immediately after Manuring. A combination of VA mycorrhiza (250g) +Pseudomonas bacillus
(50g)+Azopirillum(50g)+Trichoderma harzianum(50g) with 75%of the recommended dose of fertilizer per
plant recorded higher bunch yield. The most economic bio fertilizer as per benefit cost ratio is phosphate
solubilizing bacteria (50g/plant) followed by vermicompost (2kg/plant). Recently, Fertigation studies in
banana revealed that application of N and K2O(full dose) through drip recorded the highest yield and
characters.
The recommended fertilizer dose for optimum yield is as follows.

17. 17

Varieties
Quantity of Fertilizers ( g/plant )
3rd month 4th month 5th month
Urea SSP MOP Urea SSP MOP Urea SSP MOP
Poovan, Rasthali &
Karpuravalli
140 155 130 230 155 320 90

175
D.Cavendish, Robusta
& Nendran
15 155 130 250 105 320 150

225
Other varieties 110 110 130 155 110 300 90

160

Time and Method of Application:
There are certain important considerations about fertilization in banana-
1. At the time of planting and beginning of regeneration of ratoon crop sufficient quantity of nutrients should
be present in soil.
2. Potash applied in first two months of plant growth has better effect on production vis
a vis applied at flowering.
3. When the plants are 2 to 3 months old, their capacity to absorb phosphorous is greater than other stages.
4. Initial periods of plant growth are critical for the later development.
5.Third and fifth months are ideal for fertilization and fertilizers should be given in two to three splits for
better results or the minerals should be abundantly available at the time of planting and at the initiation of
ratoons.
Based on observations and experience in India by various workers, it can be stated that among the
recommended fertilizers and manures, manure should be applied in preplant stage in pit or trench and half of
the fertilizers be given in third month and remaining in fifth month of plant growth. In any case fertilizer
application should be completed before six month of planting. Generally, application in vegetative stage
decides the bunch size, number of fingers and total yield, although nutrients are required throughout the
growth period of the banana plant. Recommended fertilizers should be applied all around plant and mixed in
the soil and efforts should be so managed that status of nutrients in plant leaves is above level throughout the
growth phase.

PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS:

1. Kottai vazhai:It is a serious malady in Poovan variety of banana, reducing the production by 10-
25%.The symptoms are distinctly conical and ill filled fruits with a prominent central core having many
underdeveloped seedy structures making the fruit inedible. The pseudostem exhibits streaks, striations and

18. 18

blotches on the surface. Bunches are held at an angle above the horizontal position. Pollen grains are
infertile, shrivelled, shrunken and broken while the pericarp is smaller and the locular cavity is bigger than
normal. The absence or the occurrence of auxin, Gibberellin and cell dividing factors at sub epidermal
levels affect the development of parthenocarpic fruits .Application of 2,4- D 25ppm and GA 100ppm after
the opening of last hand favours development of parthenocarpic fruit.

2. Yellow pulp: It is another disorder characterized by the abnormal and premature development of banana
fruits. Excess of Potassium in relation to Nitrogen and sulphur deficiency is the major reason for this
malady. Application of Sulphur reduces this disorder in Banana.
.
3. Neer Vazhai: Neer Vazhai is a serious malady of unknown etiology in banana, which is very serious in
Nendran and Poovan cultivars. The affected plant show poor growth, delayed shooting ,develop lanky
bunches with few hands and immature unfilled fingers. The affected fruits exude watery fluid and hence the
name 'Neer' meaning water and 'Vazhai' meaning banana. Application of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) has
been reported to improve finger filling and thus avoids the affects of this malady to some extent.
4. White leaf: White leaf disorder is a malady seen in banana plants. It is much related to the unbalanced
Nitrogen content in the soil and plants. The younger leaves show white discolouration.
5. Goose flesh: It is another disorder, seen in banana peel. Ripe fruits show a shrivelled appearance and the
peel turns to brown This is more common during dry winter season when atmospheric humidity falls to a
relatively low level.

6. Degrain: It is another physiological disorder seen in ripe fruits.It is the dropping of ripe banana fruits
from bunches due to rotting of pedicels.

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT:
Banana crop is a heavy feeder of nutrients. Its roots spread superfically and absorbs large amount of
nutrients. Proper management of nutrients in Banana leads to higher yield. It also stimulates proper shoot
and root growth in plants.
1.Nitrogen :
Deficiency symptoms: Leaves of all ages become pale green. Mid ribs, petioles and leaf sheaths turn
reddish pink and rosette in appearance. Plantations with poor root growth exhibit such symptoms. Bunch
weight and fruit quality is affected.
Management: Application of urea (300g/plant) followed by irrigation is recommended.
2. Phosphorus:
Deficiency symptoms: Plants show stunted growth with poor root development. Old leaves show saw tooth
marginal chlorosis, curling of leaves, breaking of petioles and bluish green colour of younger leaves.
Management: Application of DAP (50g/plant) followed by irrigation is recommended.
3. Potassium :

19. 19

Deficiency symptoms: The deficiency symptoms include orange yellow colour of old leaves, scorching
along the margins, reduction in total leaf area, curving of midribs etc. Choking of leaves delay flower
initiation leading to reduction in yield and quality.
Management: Spraying Potassium Sulphate (1%) solution on the leaves is recommended.
4. Calcium:
Deficiency symptoms: The deficiency symptoms include deformation or absence of leaf lamina (spike
leaf), marginal leaf necrosis and thickening of veins.
Management: Application of lime (50g/plant) followed by irrigation is recommended.
5. Magnesium:
Deficiency symptoms: Yellow discolouration is observed in the mid blade and midrib portion however the
margins of the leaf remain green. Purple mottling of the petioles, marginal necrosis and separation of leaf
sheaths from the pseudostem is also seen.
Management: Application of Magnesium Sulphate (25g/plant) followed by irrigation is recommended.
6. Sulphur:
Deficiency symptoms: The deficiency symptoms include yellow or white appearance of young leaves,
necrotic patches on the leaf margins, thickening of veins, stunted growth and small or choked bunches.
Management: Application of complex fertilizer (20:20:0:15) @ 20 g/plant followed by irrigation is
recommended.
7. Manganese:
Deficiency symptoms: Narrow green edge appears at the leaf margins of second or third youngest leaf,
which further spreads along the main veins towards the midrib. However, the interveinal areas remain green
giving comb tooth appearance.
Management: Spraying Manganese Sulphate (0.5%) on the leaves is recommended.
8. Zinc:
Deficiency symptoms: Symptoms appear mostly in limed soils or soils with high pH. Young leaves
become smaller in size and more lanceolate in shape. In the furling leaf high amount of anthocyanin
pigmentation appear on its underside. The unfurled leaf has alternating chlorotic and green bands. Fruit is
light green, twisted, short and thin.
Management: Spraying Zinc Sulphate (0.5%) on the leaves is recommended.

9. Iron:
Deficiency symptoms: The younger leaves turn yellow or white.
Management: Spraying Iron Sulphate (0.5%) along with Urea (1%) on the leaves is recommended.
10. Copper:
Deficiency symptoms: Both young and old leaves show symptoms of chlorosis and curve towards the
base, which gives an umbrella like appearance to the plant.
Management: Spraying Copper Sulphate (0.5%) on the leaves is recommended.
11. Boron :

20. 20

Deficiency symptoms: Deficiency symptoms include reduced leaf area, curling of leaves, lamina
deformation, appearance of white stripes perpendicular to the veins on the lamina of young leaves,
thickening of secondary veins and inhibition of root and flower formation.
Management: Application of Borax salt (25 g/plant) in the soil around the root zone of the plant is
recommended.


QUALITY IMPROVEMENT BY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

1. WEED CONTROL
Weeds are an important constraint for banana farmers, and weed control should be strictly applied from
planting time onwards .selected herbicides cn be used to control weeds only once the banana plants are
taller(1 to 1.5m) and the leaf canopy is raised. Herbicides generally registerd for use of banana are atrazine,
simazine ,diuron , paraquat and glyphospate. The correct chemical should be used according to the wees
species present , the age f the plantation, and strictly according to the manufacture instructions. As a
ppreemergence herbicide , ametryne can suppress general weed growth for three to four months. When the
plantation is about six months old, the contact herbicide paraquat can be aaplied to the weed cover and is
especially effectively on broad leaved annual weeds . quite often in established plantations, perennial grass
species build up and these are very competitive with banana. When the grass has flowered it should be spot
sprayed with a systematic herbicide like glyphosate.

2. DESUCKERING
During the life cycle, banana produces number of suckers from the underground stem. If all these suckers
are allowed to grow, they grow at the expense of the growth of the main plant and hence the growth of the
sucker should be discouraged. Removal of unwanted suckers is one of the most critical operations in banana
cultivation and is known as de suckering. Such suckers are removed either by cutting them off or the heart
may be destroyed without detaching the sucker from the parent plant. Removal of suckers with a portion of
corm at an interval of 5-6 weeks hastened shooting and increased the yield.

3.LEAF REMOVAL
Pruning of surplus leaves is a common operation in banana producton. Leaf removal helps to reduce the
disease from spreading through old leaves. The microclimate is changed by leaf pruning, especially light and
temperature. However if leaves are pruned before bunch initiation, flowering is delayed and cycle time
increased. A minimum of 12 leaves are required to be retained for maximum yield.

21. 21

4.BUNCH COVERING
Bagging( bunch covering ) is a cultural technique used by planters in the French West Indies, Latin
America, Africa, Australia etc. Particularly, where export bananas are grown. The main purposes are the
protection of bunches against cold, sun- scorching, against attack of thrips and scarring beetle. It also
improves certain visual qualities of the fruits. Bunch covering with dry leaves is a common practice in India
which however may be a source of inoculum for Postharvest disease.
5. PROPPING
The lodging of banana particularly at mature stages results in heavy loss. The falling of the pseudostem may
occur due to strong winds, rhizome rot, burrowing nematode or tall cultivar. Bunch support or bunch
propping is necessary to save the mature bunches.
Tall varieties and cultivars which produce heavy bunches needs propping. Bamboo or Casuarina poles
which have effective life of 3-4 years are commonly used for propping.
6. EARTHING UP
Earthing up is important which supports to the base of the plant and also gives chances for the formation of a
better root system. Earthing up should be done at the rainy season to provide drainage, and to avoid water
lodging at the base. During summer and winter, the plants should be in furrow and on ridges during rainy
season.

7.MATTOCKING
After the harvest of bunch, the plant stem should be cut in stages at least after 30 to 45 days to facilitate
moblisation of the nutrients from the mother plant to the developing ratoon plant. The pseudostem should
be cut leaving a stump of about 0.6m height.

8 .MULCHING
With plantains under subsistence cultivation systems, it has generally been reported that productivity
is increased, surface moisture preserved, and root deterioration reduced by organic mulching. In west
African plantain systems, Wilson (1987) emphasized the importance of organic mulching by quoting
cumulative yields of 45 t ha-1 in mulched plots compared with less than 10 t ha -1 in non-mulched
plots. Decomposition of organic matter is a major problem in older plantations but mulching can
help to replenish this important component. It is worth emphasizing strongly that mulching is an
extremely beneficial practice, likely to improve banana and plantain productivity especially where
irrigation water is in short supply. The various benefits can be listed as follows;

22. 22

: Retention of soil water in the upper root zone and reduction of surface evaporation.
: Increasing soil temperature in winter and decreasing it in summer.
: Suppression of weed growth.
: Reduction of soil erosion, surface water runoff and surface crusting.
: Reduction of soil compaction.
: Addition of organic matter.
: Increasing nutritional value (depending on type of mulch used).
There are three main types of mulch used in banana plantations, namely dead organic mulch
(banana leaf trash, sugarcane trash, coffee husks), polyethylene mulch and ‘living mulch’ (usually a
legume cover crop). Even under normal irrigation supply, yields can be improved by mulching. With
‘Robusta’ banana in India, Bhattacharyya and Madhava Rao (1985) found that irrigated yields were
113, 96, 86, and 77 t ha-1 respectively for black polyethylene, sugarcane trash, banana trash and no
mulching respectively. Although black polyethylene produced the yields, sugarcane trash gave the
highest cost/benefit ratio.
Sometimes a ‘living mulch’ or cover crop is used on hillside banana plantations primarily to
control soil erosion. Legume cover crops can also improve soil fertility and reduce weed
competition. However, they should not be used where water is in short supply, otherwise banana
yields will be further reduced. Cover crops use nutrients and water themselves and sometimes grow
poorly in the shade of a banana canopy.
MATURITY INDICES:
Some of the important indices for banana are-
1. The fruits are harvested when top leaves starts drying.
2. The colours of the fruit changes from deep green to light green.

Characteristics Value
Bunch weight (kg) 20 - 30

Number of hands 08 - 10

Fruit weight (g) 125 - 140

23. 23


Fruit length (cm ) 15 - 18

Fruit circumference (cm ) 12 - 14

Pulp weight (g) 60 - 70

Peel weight (g) 60 – 65

Pulp to peel ratio 0.95 - 1.20

Pulp thickness (cm ) 3.30 - 3.50

Peel colour Green

Pulp colour White/cream

Pulp firmness (kg) 1.30 - 1.60

Pulp pH 6.00 - 6.50

Titratable acidity (m Eq/100 g ) 2.20 - 2.50

Pulp dry matter content (% ) 24 - 26

Pulp moisture content (% ) 74 - 7640 - 0.45

24. 24

HARVESTING
The fruit is harvest when the ridges on the surface of the skin change from angular to round. i.e. after the
attainments of 3/4
th
full stage. The dwarf bananas are ready for harvest with in 11 to 14 months after
planting, while tall cultivars take about 14 to 16 months to harvest. A bunch usually takes 90 to 120 days to
mature after shooting, depending on climates and cultural practices. In India, the main banana seasons is
from September to April. The fruiting age of a plant, however varies according to the size of the sucker at
planting. In Malaysia, the optimum maturity for banana harvesting is between 12 and 15 weeks after flower
emergence when the peel colour changed from dark green to light green, the remaining styler ends were dry
and brittle and the fruits where less angular in shape .After harvesting the pseudostems should be cut leaving
a stump of about 0.6m long. This practice is called mattocking Experimental evidence showed that the
leftover stump with its stored food material continues to nourish the daughter sucker (follower) till it withers
and dries up.
YIELD:
Since banana cultivation is polyclonal and based on a number of varieties according to regional choice,
yields are quite varied. However, average productivity is approximately 20 tonnes/ha, a production of 40-50
tonnes/ha is common in the states like Maharashtra and Gujarat.
GRADING
In the export plantations of central America it is usual to measure the length of the middle finger on the
outer whorl of each hand, before putting fruits through the pack house processs. The minimum acceptable
length for the export market is 203 mm. If this finger makes the grade, the hand passes through astrigent
the washing and disinfectant process and the fruit are unmarketable and is discarded. In addition to
minimum finger length, the fruit must be totally blemish free .These are very standards and, in some pack
houses, the proportion of discarded fruit (Shrinkage) can reach 30% there may periods in which a fruit
shortage . Mechanical bruising and scarring damage on the skin of banana fruits that have been ripened.
The top fruit shows slight damage whereas the bottom two fruits show severe mechanical damage which
would be rejected on most markets. Mechanical scarring is the single most important fruit defect and can be
caused either by poor plantation management and harvesting producers during transport to the packing on
the export market will be permit a relaxation of standards to allow fruit shorter than 203 mm to be the
marketed. In subtropical growing areas such as in Australia and South Africa, a premium is also paid on the
local markets for few blemishes, is still regarded as being marketable, albeit at a much lower conversely,
much fruit rejected for export in central America would be regarded as first grade on local markets.
RIPENING TECHNIQUES:
Bananas are not usually allowed to ripen on the tree as it takes long time. Moreover, the fruit- peel splits,
fruit ripens unevenly and fails to develop good colour and aroma; hence the marketable quality deteriorates.
Therefore, banana needs to be ripened artificially Aziz and Abdele Wahab (1970) noted that 2,4-D is the
cheapest chemical for inducing artificial ripening, and 1000 ppm of 2,4-D for 30 seconds was optimum.

25. 25

CaC2 is used on a large scale in case of ripening mature green bananas. When Basrai Dwarf bananas were
exposed to ethrel at 1000-3000ppm and CaC2 (10-25ppm) in paper-lined basket, observed shortest ripening
time with highest exposure rates of both the chemicals. Ethrel application at above 500 ppm accelerated
ripening by 2 days, resulting in optimum eating quality by 4 days after treatment (Flores and Rivas,1986).
Smoke treatment is the commonest method to induce ripening in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Smoking is
done with straw, leaves and cow dung in a closed chamber with bunches arranged in a heap for 18-24 hrs in
summer and 48 hrs in winter. After taking the bunches from the chamber they are placed in a well-
ventilated room for development of colour. Smoke treatment causes ripening of the bunches within 3
days.


PACKING
First-grade bananas are packed into cardboard cartons as whole hands, clusters or singles and the packed
carton mass can vary from 12 kg (Canary Islands and Taiwan) to 13 kg (Australia) to 18 kg (Central
America) to 20 kg (South Africa).Cartons must be strong enough to with stand the forces of palletization and
well ventilated to maintain an even temperature during refrigerated shipment. Hands or clusters should be
packed in neat, regular pattern to reduce movement and chafing, which means that the cartons must be full
not overfull. Polyethylene film liners are commonly used in export fruits cartons to reduce moisture loss
during transport and to provide some protection from chafing damage. A large packhouse in Central
America, which may serve plantation of 200 ha, can pack 500x18 kg cartons per hour or 5000 cartons per
day, and packing may have to continue for three days per week
TRANSPORT
For local markets, pallets of boxes are loaded onto lorries for transport to ripening rooms. For export, the
Lorries take fruit to ships where the boxes are transferred to refrigerated holds. Refrigerated transport is
essential to prevent the green fruits from initiating ripening processes before arrival at the destination. A
temperature of 13to14c is required to prevent ripening without causing chilling damage. On arrival at their
destination, fruit boxes are rapidly transferred by road to ripening rooms and then to the wholesale.
distributing agents of the multinational banana companies in Europe, the USA or elsewhere.
STORAGE
Banana can be stored at a temperature slightly above 13c and a relative humidity of 85 to 95 percent for
about three weeks, and is ripened in a week or two at 16.5-21c. Banana fruit becomes blackened at lower
temperature and should not be placed in a refrigerator. Premature ripening is probably the biggest single
causes of loss during storage. Experiments indicate that premature ripening can be reduce, i.e. storage -life
can be prolonged by keeping the fruit in relatively high concentration of carbon dioxide and low
concentration of oxygen. Dipping of bananas at 200ppm TBZ has been approved and recommended as
postharvest treatment(Roppen et al., (1970). From a storage study, it was found that Dwarf cavendish
bananas can be storage at 14.4
o
C with 80-90% RH for 25 days. It was also observed that application of

26. 26

ethylene was the best method to hasten ripening without loss in fruit quality or flavour.. Dipping of fruits in
1.5 or 2.5 percent tal prolong solution delayed yellow colour development by 4 to 8 days and change PH and
total acidity when stored at 30 c or at 20-24c after treatment (Olorunda and Aworth, 1984). EI-Hamady et
al., (1985) suggested spraying the fruit with 1 percent calcium chloride solution before storing. Vir and
Sharma (1985)reported that dipping the fruit in triforine (2,500ppm) for 5 minutes gave good protection
against rot and enhanced storage- life.


AGRICULTURE EXPORT ZONE
India is a leading producer of banana and out of the total production Maharashtra's share is of 25%.The
main objective setting up AEZ was to encourage an integrated approach for improvement in quality,
production, enhancement, local sale and export, provide access to international market and remenerative
return to farmers. Even though there is hardly any export of bananas due to non-ideal post harvest practices
and transport procedures, lack of storage facilities, out dated banana handling practices, etc. This produce is
being wasted upto to 25 to 40% due to bad handling. Domestic marketing and transport system is also not
standardized. After taking all these facts into consideration the Directorate of Agriculture Marketing and the
Maharashtra State Agricultural Marketing Board have initiated the efforts for co-ordination and established
"Mahabanana" organisation on 1st January, 2002. The head of Mahabanana is located at Jalgaon. There are
many constaints in export of Banana from India. Considering area & production under banana, in our
country there us wide scope for exports. Due to this, MSAMB has proposed to establish two Modern
Packhouses in banana growing belt, which is Jalgaon and Hingoli respectively.

The Agri Export zones for Banana covers-
Maharashtra- Jalgaon, Ahmednagar, Dhule, Nanded, Parbhani.

Karnataka- Chamrajnagar, Mysore, Ramnagar, Bangalore Rural, Tumkur, Belgaon, Bagalkot.

Tamil Nadu - Coimbatore, Erode, Kanyakumari, Karur, Theni, Thiruvannamalai, Thoothukudi,
Thiruchirapalli, Vellore and Thanjavur.

Kerala- Nendrum.

27. 27
References:
1. Aziz; A.B.A and Abdele Wahab. F.K. (1970) Curr. Sci.,39:552.5.
2. Allen, R.N., Dettman, E.B., Johns, G.G. and Turner, D.W.(1988) Aust. J. Agric. Res.,
39:53.
3.Bhan, K.C. and Majumdar, P.K. (1961). Ind. Jr. Agric. Sci.; 31: 149-55.
4. Bhattacharyya, R.K and Madhava Rao, V.N.(1985) Scientia Hort., 25:263-269.
5. Chang, W.H., Hwang, Y.J. and Wei, T.C. (1990) Acta Horticulture, 275:621.
6. Chattopadhyay, P.K and Hassan, M.A. (1996a) Proc. Nat. Sem. On Plant Bioregulators in
Horticulture, 29 Feb-2 March, BCKV, Kalyani, pp.162-163.
7.Cronauer, S.S and Krikorian, A.D (1985) Amer. J. Bot., 72:1598-1601.
8. Chattopadhyay, P.K. and Jana, P.K, (1985) South Indian Hort. 33:6-9.
9. Durmanov, G.L. (1974) Ser. Sci. Inst. Nat, Et. Agron Cong No. 106, p.8.
m. On Plant Bio regulators in Horticulture, 29 Feb- 2 March, BCKV, Kalyani , pp.162-163.
10. El-Hammady, A.A.M., Mntasser, A.S. and Khalifa, A.S. (1985) Ann. Agric. Sci.,30:
1449-1469.
11. Gupta, P.P. (1986) Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult., 6: 33-39.
12. Green, G.C.(1963) The Banana Plant. Technical Note No.53, World Meterological
Organization, Geneva.
13. Holder, G.D. and Gumbs, F.A (1983) Trop. Agric, 60: 25-30.
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